General views and ideas
Main ideas of the work City of Sun
Management system in the City of the Sun
He was imprisoned for 27 years as a rebel and heretic. Wrote his main work in prison City of Sun. According to views: utopian socialist, dreamed of creating a world state of economic and political equality, which should eliminate all conflicts between people and establish peace and happiness on Earth.
City of Sun- an ideal state where there is no private property, where everyone works equally and has every opportunity to engage in the sciences and arts. A significant place in the life of the city is occupied by the problems of raising children, since the basis of the public good is concern for improving the “breed of people.”
Metaphysician(Supreme ruler)
| Power |
| Love |
Wisdom
directs the arts
educational institutions,
crafts, sciences
monitoring childbirth, caring for good offspring
Education system
Education system
Labor education
Education is completely social in nature and is the same for all citizens of the state. The family cedes the function of raising children who are raised by specialists. employees according to the approved schedule. Education should be organized so that children develop all their strengths and abilities. Thanks to proper upbringing, city residents are healthy and attractive.
Much attention is paid to mental development, which should be combined with physical, moral and aesthetic education, with the participation of children in labor, and with training in various professions.
All initial education of children is based on visibility: things and phenomena are depicted on the walls of the city “with the most excellent painting, in an amazingly harmonious sequence, reflecting all sciences...”
Girls and boys study together. From the second to the third year, children learn to speak and learn the alphabet (four elders watch over them). Then - training in gymnastics, running, discus throwing. Children are taken to workshops to identify their inclinations and are taught crafts. From 7 to 10 years old, the study of natural sciences is added, from 10 years old - mathematics, medicine, etc. Sci. Everyone is brought up in the spirit of religion and has the right to choose any confession.
All children participate in socially useful work. In workshops and in the fields, they gain practical skills, become familiar with tools, and work together with adults.
PEDAGOGY OF REFORMATION
In the 16th century In Western and Central Europe, a broad social movement of the Reformation unfolded, which took the form of a struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. The guiding principle of the Reformation was the principle of the “self” of man, bearing personal responsibility before God. Its supporters sought to move the human personality to the center of education, to introduce pupils to the national culture, language, literature, and encouraged secular education. The most prominent representatives: Thomas Munzer (1490-1525), John Calvin (1509-1564), Mathurin Cardier (1479-1564), William Tyndel (1484-1536), Martin Luther: 1483-1546), Philip Melanchthon (1497 -1560) etc.
End of work -
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With subsequent changes
Higher education institutions: universities (5 years); institutes (4-5 years)
Soviet school
according to the “Law on strengthening the connection between school and life and on the further development of the public education system in the USSR” (December 24, 1958) The main task of the Soviet school is to prepare
High school (4-5 years)
Factories-technical colleges, workshops at universities Main tasks: training highly qualified specialists brought up on the foundations of Marxist-Leninist teachings, fulfilling
Evening shift
general secondary school (3 years) Technical schools and other specialized secondary educational institutions (3-4 years) Vocational schools (1
Synthetic-anthropological movement
Conceptually universal, synthesizing in pedagogy all knowledge about man, which is contained in philosophy, art, science, religion.
Human nature: a multifactorial approach
Man as a biological phenomenon
The leaders of the natural sciences in Russia strove either for the total biologization of pedagogy (V.P. Vakhterov) or for its complete psychologization (A.P. Nechaev, N.E. Rumyantsev, G.I. Rossolimo, etc.).
Man as a product of the environment
Representatives: E. Durkheim, G. Spencer, M. Weber, P. A. Kropotkin, N.A. Rubakin, V.I. Charnolussky, N.V. Chekhov and others considered the nature of personality to be derived from the nature of society and its
Providentialist movement
Religiously oriented pedagogical thought: orthodox-confessional and unorthodox-mystical. The Church requires pedagogy to strictly comply with its dogmas. Mystical currents
Totalitarian trend
Thomas More 1478-1535 Pedagogical ideas: public education of all children, equal education for men and women, universal education in the native language, the need to combine mental and physical labor, the harm of severe asceticism, idleness and parasitism, the influence of labor education on moral beliefs. Loyalty to the state is fostered. Great importance is attached to physical education (gymnastics and military exercises, as in the Athenian system) and preparation for work. He designed a classless society that combines industrial labor and universal education. In his main work, “Utopia,” T. More described an ideal society and outlined his own views on education and training. The central place in his utopian theory is occupied by a harmoniously developed personality. The purpose of creating social institutions in such a society is to give everyone the opportunity to develop their spiritual powers and engage in “the study of sciences and arts.” Social and personal qualities in a person are especially emphasized: modesty, virtue, hard work, kindness. T. More built moral education on religious principles (priests should “instruct in morals”). A devout Catholic, he is, however, far from religious fanaticism. In Utopia, the humanist scientist asserted freedom of religion.
Tommaso Campanella 1568-1639 Representative of utopian socialism. The reasons for the people's misfortune, according to Campanella, are ignorance and lack of understanding of the need for a transition to a new, more perfect social order. Therefore, the thinker paid special attention to public education and upbringing.
From the moment of birth, children begin to learn and grow up in society. The main method for this is learning from the paintings that cover the walls of the city's houses. The idea, by the way, is fresh and interesting. And the city is decorated if a good artist comes along.
Starting from the age of 10, children begin to learn practically, not from pictures. At the same time, children take handicrafts and agriculture, along with general subjects.
In the remaining 4 hours of work, it was assumed that people would develop in soul and body. Either study science or exercise.
Absolute submission to society does not allow the manifestation and development of a person’s individuality, devalues the individual, and turns him into a means for the public good. Teaching and upbringing become egalitarian, and the teacher’s attitude towards the student turns into a hidden or obvious dictatorship. This utopia depicts a model of a society of economic and political equality. The treatise sets out pedagogical ideas, the pathos of which lies in the denial of bookishness, a return to nature, the rejection of narrow specialization, encyclopedicism and universalism of education
Young tanning salons are free from such vices as laziness, boasting, cunning, thievery, and trickery. In the city of the sun they care about improving the “breed of people”, as they are convinced that this is the basis of the public good. Science, history, traditions and customs are encouraged here. Solariums instill a love for art, for everything beautiful, for the natural beauty of a person. Thanks to proper upbringing, residents are distinguished by excellent health and visual attractiveness. The head of the state is the most educated, enlightened citizen.
Girls and boys study together. They are taught reading, writing, mathematics, history, geography and natural science, taught crafts, children do gymnastics, running, discus throwing, and games. Until the age of seven, children study their native language, do physical exercises, from 7 to 10 - they add the study of natural sciences, from the age of 10 - mathematics, medicine and other sciences. It was proposed to enliven learning through visualization: the city walls are painted with “excellent paintings, reflecting all the sciences in an amazingly harmonious sequence... Children, without difficulty and as if through play, become familiar with all the sciences visually before reaching the age of ten.” The principle of competition is widely used. Those who excel in science and crafts are highly respected. The textbook “Wisdom” is used as a textbook, where scientific knowledge is presented in a concise and accessible way.
Issues of education and training during the Reformation period. Jesuit education system.
In the 16th century In Western and Central Europe, a broad social movement of the Reformation unfolded, which took the form of a struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation formulated its understanding of the nature and ways of human education, which differed from the views of the humanists of the Renaissance. The Reformation proclaimed the principle of individuality, the “self” of a person bearing personal responsibility before God.
In order to spread their religious teachings, the leaders of the Reformation widely expanded the organization of educational institutions, putting forward the slogan of universal education for children of all classes. Training was carried out in the native language, which greatly facilitated the acquisition of knowledge. The declared compulsory primary school was a step forward in achieving universal literacy. At the same time, the level of knowledge it provided remained extremely low, since the bulk of educational time was devoted to religious education. The elementary school, which had previously been relatively autonomous from the church, now became directly dependent on it. If the elementary school solved the simplest problem - to teach to read and understand the Bible, then the secondary school faced a more serious task - with the help of a well-organized system of upbringing and education, to prepare intelligentsia and qualified officials ready to serve the interests of Protestant Germany.
J. Calvin – the main ideologist of the French Reformation - stood especially far from the humanistic views of the Renaissance. He preached “secular asceticism,” putting humility and submission to God at the forefront. He translated the Bible into French, which was the most important tool for education and training. Calvin's followers in England, the Puritans, did similar work. Thus, the ideologist of the Anglican Reformation W. Tindel translated the Bible into English.
"Father" of the Reformation in Germany Martin Luther recognized the importance and even the necessity of humanistic education in the spirit of the Renaissance. He was the initiator of the establishment of Protestant schools by secular authorities (epistle of 1524). As Luther believed, the powers that be in the world and the church need scientific training and knowledge of classical ancient languages and literature. It followed from this that only a part of society was worthy of a full education: future priests, teachers, judges, etc.
The rest of the population had to acquire a basic education. In his treatise “On the Desirability of Sending Children to School” (1530), Luther reserved for the authorities the right to force parents to send their children to school for one or two hours every day.
The Catechism in German was declared the main teaching aid for the public school. Luther himself translated the Catechism.
Jesuit education system during the counter-reformation. The struggle for the unity of faith increased interest in school as an apparatus for educating the masses not only in the Protestant Reformation movement, but also in the Catholic one that replaced it.
Since the late 50s. XVI century The Counter-Reformation emerged as a force opposing Lutheranism. The Catholic reaction was directed not only against reformation religious movements, but also against secular humanistic culture. The founder of the Jesuit order, a well-educated Spanish religious figure, former officer Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), he believed that success in the cause he championed could be achieved through comprehensive educational activities. The Counter-Reformation began to create public free primary schools in European countries. And in order to attract the ruling classes, she launched active activities in the direction of secondary and higher schools. Target Jesuit education- preparation for blind service to the church, unquestioning submission to the authority of the Pope and the highest ranks of the Catholic Church. Jesuit schools were divided into lower - colleges (with a 7-year term of study) and higher - seminaries (with a 6-year term of study). In order to instill a sense of competition in children, the Jesuits developed a system of rewarding those who excelled in academic pursuits and behavior (special places in the class, honorary titles, etc.). Misdeeds by students entailed shameful punishments (a cap with donkey ears, nicknames, benches of shame, etc.). For offenses against religion, corporal punishment was also allowed, the perpetrators of which, however, were secular persons (“correctors”). The main attention in Jesuit schools was paid to the study of the Latin language. In the two senior classes of the college, a special subject “erudition” was introduced, which included fragmentary information on geography, history, archeology, and natural history. Later (18th century) the need to expand real education led to the introduction of systematic courses in history, geography, native language and other subjects into the curriculum of Jesuit schools. Jesuit colleges cared about the health of students. Here the students practiced gymnastics, horse riding, swimming, and fencing. The school premises were spacious, clean and well lit. Students were protected from overload. Classes lasted no more than five hours daily. The school year was short - 180 days - and was interrupted by frequent vacations, holidays, and excursions. Teachers preferred gentle treatment of students, entrusting corporal punishment to fellow offenders and special “correctors.” However, unhealthy rivalry, mutual surveillance and denunciation flourished in colleges.
Campanella was captured as a political criminal and heretic. He spent 27 years in Neapolitan prisons. In captivity, he wrote numerous works on philosophy, theology, astrology, astronomy, medicine, physics, mathematics, politics, including the famous utopia “City of the Sun” (1623). The City of the Sun was written a hundred years after Thomas More's Utopia. Campanella was familiar with More's work, so his influence on City of the Sun is clearly visible.
Campanella draws an ideal, from his point of view, society, where everyone works and there are no “idle scoundrels and parasites.”
During his 27 years in prison, Campanella certainly thought long and hard about inequality and the best form of government. How to make society more fair? Having comprehended the reality around him, he came to the conclusion: the existing system is unfair. For people to live better, it must be replaced by another, more perfect system, where all people are equal.
In terms of genre, “City of the Sun” is also not new: a traveler’s story about an ideal country he visited.
In the City of the Sun, whose inhabitants Campanella calls solariums, private property has been abolished; labor is a general duty and the main human need. All solariums “take part in military affairs, agriculture and cattle breeding... And those who know more arts and crafts enjoy greater honor; Those who are most capable of it are assigned to engage in one skill or another. The hardest crafts...are considered the most commendable among them, and no one shies away from doing them...Women engage in less difficult crafts.” Tanning salons have a 4-hour working day. In the time remaining from work, people should develop in soul and body. Either study science or exercise. The city of the Sun is dominated by a spiritual aristocracy. Campanella writes: “The supreme ruler and them-priest, called in their language “Sun,” in ours we would call Metaphysician. He is the head of everyone, both in the mortal and in the spiritual, and on all issues and disputes he makes the final decision.” The most educated person becomes the supreme ruler. This can be a person who has reached the age of 35. This position is irreplaceable until a person is found who turns out to be wiser than his predecessor. Under the Supreme Ruler there are three co-rulers: Pon, Sin, Mor or Power, Wisdom, Love. Officials are replaced by the will of the people. But the four highest are irremovable, “unless, by consultation among themselves, they transfer their dignity to another, whom they confidently consider to be the wisest, most intelligent and most impeccable. They are indeed so intelligent and honest that they willingly yield to the wisest and learn from him, but such a transfer of power rarely happens.”
The distribution of everything that is produced in the city of the Sun is carried out by officials, and no one can appropriate anything for themselves. Tanning salons have all the same houses, bedrooms, beds and all the necessary items. Every six months, the bosses assign “...who will sleep in which circle and who will sleep in the first bedroom and who will sleep in the second: each of them is indicated by letters on the ceiling.”
Solariums do not have internal trade. Goods are exchanged with merchants from other countries.
Friar Campanella writes that solariums “look at procreation as a religious matter, aimed at the benefit of the state and not of individuals.” The state itself selects couples for the reproduction of the population; “stately and beautiful women are united only with stately and strong men; the fat ones with the thin ones, and the thin ones with the fat ones, so that they balance each other well and profitably.”
The main cause of evil according to Campanella is property, which gives rise to selfishness. To achieve his selfish goals and wealth, a person begins to rob the state or becomes a traitor or a hypocrite when he lacks power and nobility. Campanella writes: “But when we renounce selfishness, we have only love for the community...” In Campanella’s ideal community, property and family are abolished, children are raised entirely by the state.
Believing that the cause of public misfortune is ignorance, Campanella paid great attention to public education and upbringing. From the moment of birth, children begin to learn and grow up in society. They learn the alphabet and get acquainted with history and languages through pictures. From the age of seven they study natural sciences and other subjects, at the same time they are taught crafts and agriculture. Children raised in this way are similar in abilities and disposition, which is why there is great harmony in the state, “supported by constant mutual love and help to each other.”
Campanella entrusted the implementation of his program to the European sovereigns, the Spanish, then the French king and the Pope, striving to achieve the spiritual unity of humanity within the framework of Catholicism reformed in accordance with his ideals.
Main work - A golden book, as useful as it is funny, about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia.
Utopian socialist; opposed private property, the abolition of which, in his opinion, would lead to universal equality.
Right to study
Language of instruction and range of academic subjects
Physical education
Moral education
Labor education
Brainwork
Self-education
Universal, equal public education and primary education. Not only children, but also adults learn.
Teaching is underway in native language.Basic school subjects: reading, writing, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, dialectics, natural science, theoretical agriculture. Visualization and excursions are widely used in teaching.
Borrowing from the Athenian system. Developing a strong and beautiful body through gymnastics and military exercises.
Children are taught morality and virtue, which will serve as a stronghold for the state.
The basis of education is agriculture, which is studied theoretically in schools and practically in the fields: connecting learning with productive work. In addition to farming, everyone is required to learn at least one trade while still a child.
It is taught to adults in their free time and to improve their knowledge. Science is carried out by the most gifted, freed from physical labor.
There are a large number of libraries and museums where people engage in self-education. Those who gain deep knowledge in this way become scientists.
MICHEL DE MONTAIN (1533-1592)
“Montaigne was the first to clearly express the idea of freedom of education”
L.N. Tolstoy
Brief
Biography.
Basic
Proceedings
Pedagogical views
Born on February 28 into a rich, enlightened merchant family. He received an excellent education and traveled a lot.
IN 1580-1588
wrote his main work.
Was an advisor
Parliament of Bordeaux, then mayor of Bordeaux.
Montaigne was distinguished by philosophical skepticism.
Experiments- a three-volume work, which included the philosopher’s reflections on various areas of human existence;
Travel diary.
Purpose of Education- “knowing oneself, as well as what can teach one to die well and live well”, developing one’s own beliefs. “When properly used, knowledge is the noblest and most powerful achievement of men.” He stood up for science which “studies not books, but things”, for education useful in life.
He sharply criticized the scholastic education system. Speaker against scholasticism and its updated versions: “What is the use of people whose memory is quite complete, but their judgments are completely empty?” He saw the main defect of the school that existed in his time in ignoring the task of developing the student’s thought, the dominance of verbalism, senseless scolding, literalism, memorizing words instead of studying the essence of things: "Know by heart- does not yet mean knowing.”
Believed What education must first of all develop the mind students, to instill in children the habit of independent thought and a critical attitude towards any views and authorities. People and animals are children of the same mother Nature. Necessary vaccinate children caring attitude towards all living things. Cognition is carried out through feelings, The role of experience is important. the main task education and upbringing - acquisition of moral qualities.
Great value gave education of civic feelings. First of all, we must try to awaken in the child the desire to be a loyal, selflessly devoted and selflessly brave servant of his Fatherland.
The main enemy is narrow-mindedness. We need to “communicate with the world,” meet other people, including commoners, and travel to foreign lands.
Theoretical Education Program includes physics, geometry, history, in the latter you need to learn to judge phenomena and dates.
Much attention must be paid physical education and games.
Speaks out against cruelty medieval school. “The school should have a child-friendly spirit.” Moral qualities of a teacher much more important when he works with children, than the mind.
He put forward the principle of freedom of conscience and religious tolerance. He was indignant at the imposition of religious views by force. In his opinion, people use religion to satisfy their basest passions. He sought to separate philosophy from theology. Believed What education would “harm the natural charms of a woman.”
TOMMASO CAMPANELLA (1568-1639)
General views and ideas
Main ideas of the work City of Sun
Management system in the City of the Sun
He was imprisoned for 27 years as a rebel and heretic. Wrote his main work in prison City of Sun. According to views: utopian socialist, dreamed of creating a world state of economic and political equality, which should eliminate all conflicts between people and establish peace and happiness on Earth.
City of Sun- an ideal state where there is no private property, where everyone works equally and has every opportunity to engage in the sciences and arts. A significant place in the life of the city is occupied by the problems of raising children, since the basis of the public good is concern for improving the “breed of people.”
Metaphysician(Supreme ruler)
| Power |
| Love |
Wisdom
directs the arts
educational institutions,
crafts, sciences
monitoring childbirth, caring for good offspring
Education system
Education system
Labor education
Education is completely social in nature and is the same for all citizens of the state. The family cedes the function of raising children who are raised by specialists. employees according to the approved schedule. Education should be organized so that children develop all their strengths and abilities. Thanks to proper upbringing, city residents are healthy and attractive.
Much attention is paid to mental development, which should be combined with physical, moral and aesthetic education, with the participation of children in labor, and with training in various professions.
All initial education of children is based on visibility: things and phenomena are depicted on the walls of the city “with the most excellent painting, in an amazingly harmonious sequence, reflecting all sciences...”
Girls and boys study together. From the second to the third year, children learn to speak and learn the alphabet (four elders watch over them). Then - training in gymnastics, running, discus throwing. Children are taken to workshops to identify their inclinations and are taught crafts. From 7 to 10 years old, the study of natural sciences is added, from 10 years old - mathematics, medicine, etc. Sci. Everyone is brought up in the spirit of religion and has the right to choose any confession.
All children participate in socially useful work. In workshops and in the fields, they gain practical skills, become familiar with tools, and work together with adults.
PEDAGOGY OF REFORMATION
In the 16th century In Western and Central Europe, a broad social movement of the Reformation unfolded, which took the form of a struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. The guiding principle of the Reformation was the principle of the “self” of man, bearing personal responsibility before God. Its supporters sought to move the human personality to the center of education, to introduce pupils to the national culture, language, literature, and encouraged secular education. The most prominent representatives: Thomas Munzer (1490-1525), John Calvin (1509-1564), Mathurin Cardier (1479-1564), William Tyndel (1484-1536), Martin Luther: 1483-1546), Philip Melanchthon (1497 -1560) etc.
MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)
| Main stages of life and work | Purpose, methods and means of education | Organization and content of education |
| Head of the burgher Reformation in Germany, founder of German Protestantism (Lutheranism). He was educated at the University of Erfurt. He was a monk of the Augustinian monastery. From 1512 he was a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg. Works | To the Christian nobility of the German nation; | Creation of urban free primary schools for all children. He advocated the opening of new advanced schools for preachers, lawyers, doctors and the restructuring of the work of universities in the spirit of his teaching. Education should be equal for both boys and girls. (A woman must be trained to become a good mother, to give a proper education to her children.) Carrying out religious education by reading the “Holy Scripture” in her native language. |
Considered compulsory subjects native language, history, mathematics, singing.
He considered knowledge of ancient languages to be the basis of education.
He called for taking care of the physical development of children.
He was critical of the study of scholastic philosophy.
PEDAGOGY OF COUNTER-REFORMATION JESUIT EDUCATION
An educational system developed by teachers of the Catholic Jesuit order (Society of Jesus, founded in 1534 by I. Loyola).
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Plan
1. Biography
1. 2. Creativity
3. “City of the Sun” 4. Philosophy
Conclusion
Bibliography
Biography
On Campanella's side were Cardinal Richelieu and King Louis XIII - they considered Campanella a great astrologer and scientist. Campanella predicted to Louis XIII the birth of a son whose life would be happy and long. And indeed, after 22 years of barren marriage, Anne of Austria gave birth to the future Louis XIV, the “Sun King”.
Campanella was released in 1626 and acquitted in 1629. Campanella spent the end of his life in France, where he received a pension from Cardinal Richelieu.
Campanella was not sufficiently appreciated as a representative of modern philosophy, because his ideas, for various reasons, were distasteful to people of various directions. Some were frightened by his teaching about the participation of everything that exists in God, which could seem downright pantheistic; others were repulsed by his communism, others were disgusted by his religious beliefs and theocratic ideals. In addition to his philosophical significance, Campanella was the “vanguard fighter” of contemporary positive science and firmly defended Galileo, which Descartes did not dare to do after him.
Campanella predicted his death date - June 1, 1639, during a solar eclipse, and died on May 21, 1639 in a Jacobin monastery in Paris, 10 days before the predicted day.
2. Creation
Most of Campanella's works were written by him in prison and subsequently published through the efforts of his student, Adami. Campanella sets out his political and economic views in “Civitas solis”, “Questiones sull" optima republica” and “Philosophia realis”. Their distinctive feature is a mixture of a fantastic element with a common sense, real idea of life. “Civitas solis” depicts in the form of a novel the ideal country is the city of the Sun.
3. "City of Sun»
The population of this city-state leads a “philosophical life in communism,” that is, they have everything in common, not excluding their wives. With the destruction of property, many vices are destroyed in the city of the Sun, all pride disappears and love for the community develops. The people are governed by a supreme high priest, who is called the Metaphysician and is chosen from among the wisest and most learned citizens. To assist him, a triumvirate of Power, Wisdom and Love was established - a council of three leaders of the entire political and social life of the country subordinate to the Metaphysician. Power is in charge of matters of war and peace, Wisdom guides science and education, Love takes care of education, agriculture, food, as well as the arrangement of marriages in which “the best children would be born.” Campanella finds it strange that people care so much about the offspring of horses and dogs, without thinking at all about the “human offspring,” and considers a strict choice of marriage partners necessary for the perfection of the generation. In the city of the Sun, this is in charge of the priests, who precisely determine who is obliged to temporarily unite with whom in marriage to produce children, and overweight women are united with thin men, etc.
Those women who are infertile become common wives. Equally despotically, but in accordance with the abilities of each, work is distributed among the inhabitants; It is considered commendable to participate in many different works. Remuneration for work is determined by the bosses, and no one can be deprived of what is necessary. The length of the working day is determined at 4 hours and can be further reduced with further technical improvements that Campanella foresaw in the future: for example, he predicted the appearance of ships that would move without sails or oars, using an internal mechanism. The religion of the inhabitants of the city of the Sun is, in all likelihood, the religion of Campanella himself: deism, religious metaphysics, mystical contemplation; all rituals and forms have been eliminated. Campanella wanted to see the whole world like the city of the Sun and predicted a “world state” in the future. It seemed to him that Spain and the Spanish king were called to this world political domination, side by side with which the world domination of the Pope should be strengthened.
4. Philosophy
Campanella's worldview amazingly combines all three main directions of the new philosophy - empirical, rationalistic and mystical, which appeared separately in his younger contemporaries Bacon, Descartes and Jacob Boehme. (Bacon was born somewhat earlier than Campanella, but Campanella’s first philosophical work (“Lectiones physicae, logicae et animasticae”) was published in 1588, and Bacon’s first work only in 1605).
Like Bacon, Campanella sets out to “restore the sciences” (instauratio scientiarum, cf. Bacon’s Instauratio magna), that is, the creation of a new universal science on the ruins of medieval scholasticism. He recognizes external experience, internal meaning and revelation as the sources of true philosophy. The starting point of knowledge is sensation. The brain traces of sensations stored by memory and reproduced by the imagination provide material to the understanding, which puts them in order according to logical rules and draws general conclusions from particular data through induction, thus creating experience - the basis of any “worldly” science (cf. Bacon) .
However, knowledge based on sensations in itself is insufficient and unreliable: Campanella utopian socialism worldview
* not enough because we do not recognize in it objects as they really are, but only their appearance for us, that is, the way they act on our feelings (cf. Kant);
* unreliable because sensations in themselves do not represent any criterion of truth, even in the sense of sensory-phenomenal reality: in dreams and in mad delirium we have vivid sensations and ideas that are accepted as reality and then rejected as deception; limiting ourselves to sensations alone, we can never be sure whether we are in a dream or in delirium (cf. Descartes).
But if our sensations and all sensory experience based on them do not testify to the actual existence of the objects given in it, which may be dreams or hallucinations, then even in this case (that is, even as a delusion), it testifies to the real existence of the deluded one. Deceptive sensations and false thoughts nevertheless prove the existence of a sentient and a thinking person (cf. Descartes' cogito - ergo sum). Thus, directly in our own soul or in the inner feeling we find reliable knowledge about real being, based on which we, by analogy, conclude about the existence of other beings (cf. Schopenhauer).
The inner feeling, testifying to our existence, at the same time reveals to us the basic definitions or methods of all being. We feel:
1) as strength or power;
2) as thought, or knowledge;
3) as will, or love.
These three positive definitions of being are, to varying degrees, characteristic of everything that exists, and they exhaust the entire internal content of being. However, both in ourselves and in the beings of the external world, being is connected with non-existence, or nothingness, since each given being is this and is not another, is here and is not there, is now and is not after or before. This negative point also extends to the internal content, or quality, of all being in its three main forms; for we not only have strength, but also weakness, we not only know, but we are also ignorant, we not only love, but also hate. But if in experience we see only a confusion of being with non-existence, then our mind has a negative attitude towards such a confusion and affirms the idea of a completely positive being, or an absolute being, in which power is only omnipotence, knowledge is only omniscience, or wisdom, will - only perfect love. This idea of the Divine, which we could not extract either from external or internal experience, is an inspiration, or revelation, of the Divine itself (cf. Descartes).
From the idea of God the further content of philosophy is then derived. All things, insofar as they have positive being in the form of power, knowledge and love, come directly from the Godhead in his three respective determinations; the negative side of everything that exists, or an admixture of non-existence in the form of weakness, ignorance and malice, is allowed by the Divine as a condition for the fullest manifestation of its positive qualities. In relation to the chaotic multiplicity of mixed being, these three qualities manifest themselves in the world as three creative influences (influxus):
1) as an absolute necessity (necessitas), to which everything is equally subordinated;
2) as the highest fate, or fate (fatum), by which all things and events are connected in a certain way;
3) as universal harmony, by which everything is consistent, or brought to internal unity.
With their external phenomenal separateness, all things in their inner essence, or metaphysically, participate in the unity of God, and through it they are in inextricable secret communication with each other. This “sympathetic” connection of things, or natural magic, presupposes at the basis of all creation a single world soul - God’s universal instrument in the creation and management of the world. For Campanella, space, heat, attraction and repulsion served as intermediary natural philosophical categories between the world soul and the given world of phenomena. In the natural world, metaphysical communication of creatures with God and among themselves manifests itself unconsciously or instinctively; a person in religion consciously and freely strives for union with the Divine. This upward movement of man corresponds to the descent of the Divine towards him, completed by the incarnation of divine Wisdom in Christ.
The application of a religious-mystical point of view to humanity as a social whole led Campanella in his youth to his theocratic communism (see above).
Campanella was not sufficiently appreciated as a representative of the philosophy of the New Age, because his ideas were distasteful from different sides to people of very different directions. Some were frightened by his teaching about the participation of everything that exists in God, which could seem downright pantheistic; others were repulsed by his communism, others were disgusted by his religious beliefs and theocratic ideals. In addition to his philosophical significance, Campanella was the “vanguard fighter” of contemporary positive science and firmly defended Galileo, which Descartes did not dare to do after him.
Conclusion
Thus, having examined the work “City of the Sun” by Campanella, we come to some conclusions.
Engels attributes the “City of the Sun” to utopian communism. But still, this is not very accurate, and therefore, researchers generally consider More and Campanella to be the founders of utopian socialism.
“City of the Sun” bore the stamp of time, and if some humanist prejudices do not allow this work to be classified as “straightforward communist theories,” nevertheless, Campanella’s merits in the dissemination of communist teachings are great. But while paying tribute to this remarkable thinker, who saw the destruction of private property and the humanistic-philosophical transformation of society as the only deliverance from the cruelties of his time, one should not exaggerate the historical significance of the utopia he created. Of course, both More and Campanella were forerunners of scientific socialism. But they cannot be combined with the utopians of the 19th century - Saint-Simon and Owen - under the common heading of “utopian socialism”.
“The City of the Sun” represents a utopian-socialist teaching in the history of humanism, and this allows us to consider it as an integral part of Renaissance culture and see in the great Calabrian one of the great sons of the Renaissance.
Listliterature
1. http://lib.ru/INOOLD/KAMPANELLA/suntown.txt
2. http://state.rin.ru/cgi-bin/main.pl?id=32&r=18
3. http://fantlab.ru/work73802
4. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of the Sun
5. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanella,_Tommaso
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