Aspiration mechanism

Due to the more energetic supply of air, some of the English consonants, called voiceless plosives, are pronounced with additional aspiration (aspiration).

Aspiration is understood as a light exhalation that occurs after pronouncing an explosive voiceless consonant before the beginning of the vibration of the ligaments to produce the next vowel sound.

This phenomenon is explained by the peculiarities of the air supply mechanism. At the beginning of exhalation, the air pressure on the vocal cords is large enough, as a result of which immediate closure of the vocal cords and the production of voice is impossible, thus a pause (rupture) occurs, filled with a portion of air remaining after the implementation of the bow.

Types of syllables. Long and short vowels sound

In English, as in Russian, there are open and closed syllables. Closed is a syllable ending with a consonant sound: "so", "shaft". A syllable ending with the vowel sound "pa", "ro" is called open.

In English, syllables ending in a vowel e, which cannot be read, are conventionally ranked among open syllables. This "mute" letter only shows that the syllable should be conventionally considered open. This circumstance is important to remember because the reading of English vowels depends on the type of syllable they enter. In closed syllables, vowels usually depict a short sound, and in open ones - a long one. Long sounds match the name of a given letter in the alphabet.

The longitude of sounds is much more important in English than in Russian. In Russian, we can say drink in multiples! Or stretch out pi-and-t! This will change only the shade of the statement, but not the meaning of the word drink. In English, the length of a sound changes the meaning of the word itself.

For example, the word bin, which sounds approximately like the Russian syllable [BIN] (with a very short u), means a bunker, and the word bean [BI-IN] (with a lingering vowel) means bob.

Therefore, the longitude of the sound must be carefully monitored. In phonetic transcription, signs denoting long (lingering) sounds are accompanied by a colon [:].

As already noted, the main feature of Arabic vowels, in comparison with Russian ones, is that they differ in terms of length and shortness of sound. The length and brevity of vowels in Arabic have a meaningful meaning.

There are 6 vowel phonemes in Arabic. Of these, three are short: [a], [and], [y], which are indicated by vowels, and three are long: [a], [and], [y].

Arabic short phonemes [a], [and], [y] are similar to the corresponding Russian phonemes. As for the long phonemes, they, qualitatively coinciding with the short ones, differ from the latter in a longer duration (approximately 2 times).

The so-called weak letters are used to denote long vowels:

ا ، و ، ي

Long vowel [a]

The main means of conveying a long [a] is the combination of the letter "alif" (ا) with the vowel "fatah" above the previous letter: ـــَ ا .. For example:

قَالَ

Such an outline of the long vowel [a] is called "alif mamduda", that is, elongated "alif".

Another means of conveying a long [a] in writing is the combination of the letter ى with the vowel "fatha" above the previous letter. Such an outline of the long [a] is called "alif maksura", that is, shortened "alif". For example:

رَمَى

It should be borne in mind that if the combination ا with fatah is used to convey [a] in all syllables of a word, then the combination ى with fatah can only be used in the final syllable of the word.

The lengthening of the long vowel [a] after the hamza (أَ + ا) is transmitted in the letter “alif” with a wavy dash on top: (آ). For example:

آدَمُ ، آمَنَ ، آزَرُ

Long vowel [and]

The long [and] is conveyed by combining the letter "ya" (ي) with the vocal "kasra" under the previous letter: ـــِ ي .. For example:

قِيلَ

Long vowel [y]

Long [y] is conveyed by combining the letter "wow" (و) with the vocal "damma" above the previous letter: ـــُ و .. For example:

قُوبِلَ

It should be noted that, along with the aforementioned combination of letters and vowels, the condition for the formation of long vowels by weak letters ا ، و ، ي is the absence of vowels above them. Otherwise, they will be used as consonants. For example:

ظَبْيُ ، فَوْزُ ، بَيْتُ ، بَيْدَ ، سَوْفَ ، فَوْقَ

In some words of the Arabic language, when transmitting a long [a], "alif" is omitted. Instead of the missed "alifa", a vertical fatah is used. For example: instead of ذَالِكَ it is written ذٰلِكَ , instead of إِلٰهُ - إِلاَهُ.

When the letter "lam" (ل) is combined with "caliph" (ا), the following ligature is formed:

⁃ self-written: لا

⁃ when connected to the right: ـلا

In our lessons, in the absence of a vowel above or below "alif", it serves to convey a long vowel [a]. If there is vocalization, it is a stand for the hamza.

Exercise number 1

Read the following words, paying attention to the pronunciation of the long vowel [y]:

حُوتْ ، نُونْ ، مُوزْ ، رُومْ ، فُولْ

يَقُولُ ، يَقُومُ ، يَطُوفُ ، يَمُوجُ ، يَصُومُ

يَزُورُ ، يَمُولُ ، يَذُودُ ، يَسُوسُ ، يَدُوسُ

يَدْخُلُونَ ، يَعْلَمُونَ ، يَعْمَلُونَ ، يَشْهَدُونَ

Exercise number 2

Read the following words, paying attention to the pronunciation of the long vowel [and]:

مِيلْ ، نِيلْ ، فِيلْ ، حِينْ ، سِينْ

كَرِيمْ ، عَلِيمْ ، سَمِيعْ ، عَزِيزْ ، حَفِيظْ

يَطِيرُ ، يَسِيلُ ، يَكِيلُ ، يَلْوِي ، يَكِيدُ

تَعْلِيمْ ، تَدْرِيسْ ، تَبْرِيكْ ، تَعْظِيمْ

Exercise number 3

Read the following words, paying attention to the pronunciation of the long vowel [a]:

حَالْ ، مَالْ ، بَالْ ، نَارْ ، غَارْ

كَلاَمْ ، سَلاَمْ ، حَلاَلْ ، حَرَامْ ، حِسَابْ

نِظَامْ ، غُلاَمْ ، غُبَارْ ، يُقَالُ ، يُدَارُ

مَتَى ، فَتَى ، حَمَى ، رَوَى ، بَلَى

Exercise number 4

Read the words vertically, paying attention to the difference between a long vowel and a hamza:

لَامَ ، فَالَ ، رَامَ ، رَاسَ

لَأَمَ ، فَأَلَ ، رَأَمَ ، رَأَسَ

In English, as in Russian, there are open and closed syllables.

Closed consonant: trust│, bond│, cash│, dis│gust│.

Open called a syllable ending vowel: by│, A│be│, ba│by│... In English, syllables ending in a vowel are also conventionally considered open syllables e, which is not readable. This "mute" letter only shows that the syllable is needed conditionally think open... For example, na│me│... This circumstance is important to remember, since the reading of English vowels depends on the type of syllable they enter. V closed syllables vowels usually depict short sound and in open – long or diphthong... Long sounds can be longitude or coincide with the name of a given letter in the alphabet.

The longitude of sounds has in english much more meaning than in Russian. In Russian, we can say briefly Sheeps! or stretch O-sheep !. This will change only the shade of the statement, but not the meaning of the word itself. sheeps. In English, the length of a sound changes the meaning of the word itself.

For example, the word sheep with a long vowel [J], means sheep, sheep, and the word ship with a very short [I] means ship... Therefore, the longitude of the sound must be carefully monitored.

The basic rule of pronunciation of English consonants is that they are not softened (pronounced firmly in front of all vowels) and are not stunned or voiced at the end of a word: for example, in Russian we speak /pillar/, but we write pillar, we say /rock/, but we write horn... This cannot be done in English, since replacing a voiced sound with a dull sound and vice versa changes the meaning of the statement: for example, if instead of led you say let, then instead of led it will turn out allowed.

THE SOUNDS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR PRONUNCIATION

Vowel sounds. Monophthongs.

[J] Close to lingering and: or ui.

[I] Close to a short vowel and in the word needle.

[e] Close to sound NS in words this is, chain.

[x] The sound is long and tense, in between a and NS... The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth and pushes the lower jaw downward. This English sound is a bit like I am in words five, meat.

[R] Reminds of a long sound ah: ha-a-lka.

[P] / [O] Reminds of a short sound O in the word that.

[L] Reminiscent of a drawn out oh in the word go-ol.

[W] / A long sound that is somewhat similar to the Russian sound /NS:/... Pull the Russian sound / s: /, then without changing the position of the lips, lower the back of the tongue, you will get the correct English sound .

[q] Short, indistinct, unstressed sound. In Russian, it is heard in unstressed syllables in words hut, five rooms.

[A] Looks like a Russian percussion a v give, closer in pronunciation to the Russian unstressed sound a in the word k a mouse. In English, it is a stressed vowel.

[u] Close to sound at in the word here.

[H] Close to sound ooh, pronounced lingeringly: y-angle.

Vowel sounds. Diphthongs.

Close to Russian ah in the word Baikal.

Close to Russian her in the word neck.

Close to Russian Oh in the word tight.

Close to Russian ay in the word kauchuk.

Close to Russian OU in the word clown or - close to Russian eu.

Close to Russian ua with donation for and.

Close to Russian ya with emphasis on at.

The combination is pronounced like ea with emphasis on NS.

Consonant sounds

Corresponds to Russian

[p] how NS aspirated, that is, with a loud exhalation before the stressed vowel, for example, NS arch. Transmitted by the letter Pp.

[b] how b in the word b erg. Transmitted by the letter Bb.

[m] how m in the word m ore; when pronouncing an English consonant [m] the lips close together more tightly than when pronouncing the corresponding Russian sound. Transmitted by the letter Mm.

[k] how To aspirated, that is, exhaling loudly, especially before a stressed vowel and at the end of a word sounds more distinct, for example, To art. *

[g] how G in the word G odd, but less tense. *

[f] how f in the word f aprica, but more tense than in Russian. Transmitted by the letter Ff.

[v] how v in the word v Oh yeah. Transmitted by the letter Vv.

[s] how with in the word with hell, but more intense than in Russian. *

[z] how s in the word s avuch. Transmitted by the letter Zz.

[t] how T in the word T ok, aspirated, that is, with a loud exhalation before the stressed vowel; the tip of the tongue is raised and pressed against the alveoli * Reported by the letter Tt.

[d] how d in the word d ohm; the tip of the tongue is raised and pressed against the alveoli. Transmitted by the letter Dd.

[n] how n in the word n ogs; the tip of the tongue is raised and pressed against the alveoli. Transmitted by the letter Nn.

[l] something like l in the word Forest; always pronounced somewhat softer than hard Russian l but harder than soft eh; the tip of the tongue is raised and pressed against the alveoli. Transmitted by the letter Ll.

[S] how NS in the word NS there is.*

[Z] how f in the word f there is*

[C] how h in the word h ek; the sound is pronounced by touching the tip of the tongue to the alveoli, with one pronunciation effort. *

[G] how j in combination “same whose would "/ zhe j " would/; the sound is pronounced by touching the tip of the tongue to the alveoli, with one pronunciation effort. *

[r] p without vibration as in a word zhr ebiy; the tip of the tongue is located behind the alveolar bulge, forming a gap with it. The tongue is tense, and its tip is motionless. Transmitted by the letter Rr.

[h] strong exhalation, reminiscent of sound NS. It is conveyed by the letter Hh.

[j] reminds weak Russian th before vowels: e if. *

long NS in the word yu mouth. *

e in the word e hut. *

e in the word e kat. *

I am in the word I am gel.*

* See Annex 1.

The following consonants do not even have an approximate correspondence in Russian:

[w] When pronouncing this sonorous sound, the lips are rounded and significantly pushed forward. A jet of exhaled air is forced through the gap formed between the lips. The lips are parted vigorously.

[N] In order to learn how to pronounce this nasal sound correctly, it is necessary to inhale through the nose. mouth wide open, while neither the tip of the tongue, nor its front and middle parts should touch the palate. The back of the tongue closes with the soft palate, in approximately the same way as when pronouncing Russian / g /. Breathe out the air from your lungs through your nose.

[T] There is no such sound in Russian. The sound is deaf, when pronouncing it, the tongue is spread out and relaxed, the tip of the tongue forms a narrow flat slit with the entire cutting edge of the upper teeth, loosely pressing against it. A stream of air is forced into this gap. The tip of the tongue should not protrude too far beyond the upper teeth or press too tightly against the teeth (otherwise it will turn out / t /). The teeth should be exposed, especially the lower ones, so that the lower lip does not touch the upper teeth and does not come close to them (otherwise it will turn out / f /). The sound resembles a lisping Russian / s /.

[D] There is no such sound in Russian. The sound is sonorous, when pronounced, the tongue is spread and relaxed, the tip of the tongue forms a narrow flat slit with the entire cutting edge of the upper teeth, loosely pressing against it. A stream of air passes into this slot. The tip of the tongue should not protrude too far beyond the upper teeth or press too tightly against the teeth (otherwise / d / will turn out). The teeth should be exposed, especially the lower ones, so that the lower lip does not touch the upper teeth and does not come close to them (otherwise it will turn out / in /). The sound resembles a lisping Russian / s /.

* Alveoli - an arch-shaped or horseshoe-shaped tubercle at the base of the upper teeth.

ENGLISH ALPHABET

In the press	Letter name	In the press	Letter name
A a		N n
B b		O o
C c		P p
D d		Q q
E e		R r
F f		S s
G g		T t
H h		U u
I i		V v
J j		W w	["dÙblju:]
K k		X x
L l		Y y
M m		Z z

RULES FOR READING VOICE LETTERS

The reading of vowels depends on a number of factors:

1.from the type of syllable in which it stands (open, closed, etc.);

2. on whether it is percussive or unstressed;

3. from its position among other letters, i.e. how many and which letters follow or precede it.

Accent longitude and brevity

Differences in the duration of vowels can be due to their position in stressed or unstressed syllables in those languages ​​in which duration is one of the components of stress. Such differences are characteristic of the vocalism of languages, in which duration can be both relevant and irrelevant for the phoneme system. So, for example, in English and Russian languages, a quantitative feature (duration) is one of the important components of stress, therefore a stressed vowel is always longer than an unstressed one, while in Russian the strongest reduction in the duration of vowels is noted in the second pre-stressed syllable. For Russian speakers who perceive long vowels as stressed, Czech words with a second long syllable like motýl"Butterfly" sounds like the stress on the second syllable, although in reality the stress in the Czech language always falls on the first syllable. In languages ​​with the opposition of long and short vowels, as, for example, in ancient Greek, the sign of duration, not being a component of stress, can influence the formation of its varieties.

In the languages ​​of the world

In Slavic languages

Long and short vowels were characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language.

In the process of the formation of independent Slavic languages ​​based on Proto-Slavic dialects, in most of them the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity was lost with the exception of Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Croatian languages. In these languages, five pairs of long and short vowels are opposed: / ā /, /ē /, /ī /, /ō /, /ū / - /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. In writing, long vowels are denoted mainly by the accent diacritic mark: in Czech - á , é , í (ý ), ó , ú (in a number of positions in a word like ů ); in Slovak - í , é , á , ó , ú ; in Serbo-Croatian, long vowels are not displayed in writing.

In other Slavic languages, short vowels were formed in place of the long ones. For example, in the Polish language, the opposition of vowel phonemes in longitude-shortness by the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century was transformed as a result of the reduction of long vowels and a change in their timbre into the opposition of pure and narrowed (former long) short vowels. Subsequently, the narrowed vowels gradually coincided with the rest of the (clean) short vowels. Letter ó , which denoted the corresponding narrowed vowel, which arose in the place of the old longitude, has been preserved in the Polish alphabet to the present day.

In Romance languages

The opposition of long and short vowels is characteristic of the proto-language of the Romance group - Latin. In modern Romance languages, this opposition is noted only in Friulian and in some northern Italian dialects. As a relic, it persists in French dialects, as well as in Belgian and Canadian French. In all other Romance languages, the quantitative oppositions of vowels are not phonologized. So, in Italian, the longitude and shortness of vowels is due to the nature of the syllable (long allophones are pronounced in open syllables, shorter allophones in closed syllables), in French, longitude is assigned to certain phonemes (for example, / ɑ / - always long) or determined by positional compatibility (realized in position before consonants / r/, /v/, /z/, /ʒ /) .

In the Uralic languages

In Turkic languages

Most modern Turkic languages ​​have eight short phonemes: / a/, /e/, /O/, /ө /, /at/, /ү /, /NS/, /and/. The corresponding long vowels have been lost in almost all Turkic languages, with the exception of Yakut, Turkmen and Khalaj. Long vowel relics are found in the Chulym-Turkic and Uyghur languages, in the dialects of the Karakalpak and Uzbek languages, as well as in some other Turkic languages ​​and dialects.

see also

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Notes (edit)

1. Bondarko L.V. // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. V.N. Yartseva. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2.
2. Vinogradov V.A. // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. V.N. Yartseva. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2.
3. (English). The International Phonetic Assosiation. (Retrieved March 22, 2014)
4. Schenker A. M. Proto-Slavonic // The Slavonic Languages ​​/ Comrie B., Corbett G. - London, New York: Routledge, 1993. - P. 72. - ISBN 0-415-04755-2.
5. Short D. Czech // The Slavonic Languages ​​/ Comrie B., Corbett G. - London, New York: Routledge, 1993. - P. 456. - ISBN 0-415-04755-2.
6. Short D. Slovak // The Slavonic Languages ​​/ Comrie B., Corbett G. - London, New York: Routledge, 1993. - P. 534. - ISBN 0-415-04755-2.
7. Krechmer A.G., Neveklovsky G.// Languages ​​of the world. Slavic languages. - M .: Academia, 2005 .-- S. 11. - ISBN 5-87444-216-2.
8. Priestly T. M. S. Slovene // The Slavonic Languages ​​/ Comrie B., Corbett G. - London, New York: Routledge, 1993. - P. 389-390. - ISBN 0-415-04755-2.
9. Tikhomirova T.S. Languages ​​of the world. Slavic languages. - M .: Academia, 2005 .-- S. 6-7. - ISBN 5-87444-216-2. (Retrieved March 22, 2014)
10. Walczak B. Zarys dziejów języka polskiego. - II. - Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 1999 .-- S. 79-87. - ISBN 83-229-1867-4.
11. Tikhomirova T.S.// Languages ​​of the world. Slavic languages. - M .: Academia, 2005 .-- S. 7-8. - ISBN 5-87444-216-2. (Retrieved March 22, 2014)
12. Alisova T.B., Chelysheva I.I. Romance languages ​​// Languages ​​of the world. Romance languages. - M .: Academia, 2001 .-- S. 31 .-- ISBN 5-87444-016-X.
13. Haidu P. Uralic languages ​​// Languages ​​of the world. Uralic languages. - M .: Nauka, 1993 .-- S. 9-10. - ISBN 5-02-011069-8.
14. Pall V.I. // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. V.N. Yartseva. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2.
15. E.R. Tenishev Altai languages ​​// Languages ​​of the world. Turkic languages. - Bishkek: Publishing House Kyrgyzstan, 1997. - S. 8-9. - ISBN 5-655-01214-6.
16. Gadzhieva N.Z. Turkic languages ​​// Languages ​​of the world. Turkic languages. - Bishkek: Publishing House Kyrgyzstan, 1997 .-- P. 24 .-- ISBN 5-655-01214-6.

Excerpt characterizing Long and short vowels

- Yes, I never called them, - said the princess. “You probably didn’t tell them that way. I just told you to give them the bread.
The drone sighed without answering.
“If you tell them to, they’ll leave,” he said.
- No, no, I'll go to them, - said Princess Mary
Despite Dunyasha's and the nanny's dissuasion, Princess Marya went out onto the porch. Drone, Dunyasha, the nanny and Mikhail Ivanovich followed her. “They probably think that I am offering them bread so that they remain in their places, and I myself will leave, leaving them to the mercy of the French,” thought Princess Mary. - I will promise them a month in an apartment near Moscow; I am sure that Andre would have done even more in my place, ”she thought, walking in the twilight to the crowd standing on the pasture near the barn.
The crowd stirred, crowding, and the hats were quickly removed. Princess Marya, lowering her eyes and tangling her legs in her dress, came close to them. So many different old and young eyes were fixed on her and there were so many different faces that Princess Marya did not see a single face and, feeling the need to speak suddenly with everyone, did not know what to do. But again the knowledge that she was the representative of her father and brother gave her strength, and she boldly began her speech.
“I’m very glad that you came,” Princess Marya began, without looking up and feeling how quickly and strongly her heart was beating. - Dronushka told me that you were ruined by the war. This is our common grief, and I will spare nothing to help you. I myself am going, because it is already dangerous here and the enemy is close ... because ... I give you everything, my friends, and I ask you to take everything, all our bread, so that you have no need. And if you were told that I am giving you bread so that you stay here, then that is not true. On the contrary, I ask you to leave with all your property to our Moscow region, and there I take it upon myself and promise you that you will not need it. You will be given both houses and bread. The princess stopped. There were only sighs in the crowd.
“I’m not doing it on my own,” the princess continued, “I’m doing it in the name of my late father, who was a good master for you, and for my brother and his son.
She stopped again. No one broke her silence.
- Our common grief, and we will divide everything in half. All that is mine is yours, ”she said, looking around the faces in front of her.
All eyes looked at her with the same expression, the meaning of which she could not understand. Whether it was curiosity, devotion, gratitude, or fear and disbelief, the expression on all faces was the same.
“Many are satisfied with your grace, only we don’t have to take the master’s bread,” said a voice from behind.
- But why? - said the princess.
No one answered, and Princess Marya, looking around the crowd, noticed that now all the eyes with which she met immediately dropped.
- Why don't you want? She asked again.
Nobody answered.
Princess Marya felt heavy from this silence; she tried to catch someone's gaze.
- Why don't you speak? - the princess turned to the old old man, who, leaning on a stick, stood in front of her. - Tell me if you think you need anything else. I'll do anything, ”she said, catching his gaze. But he, as if angry at this, lowered his head completely and said:
- Why agree, we do not need bread.
- Well, shall we give it up? Do not agree. Disagree ... We do not agree. We feel sorry for you, but our consent is not. Go on your own, alone ... - was heard in the crowd from different directions. And again the same expression appeared on all the faces of this crowd, and now it was probably no longer an expression of curiosity and gratitude, but an expression of embittered determination.
“You don’t understand, you’re right,” Princess Marya said with a sad smile. - Why don't you want to go? I promise to lodge you, feed you. And here the enemy will ruin you ...
But her voice was drowned out by the voices of the crowd.
- There is no our consent, let it ruin! We do not take your bread, there is no consent of ours!
Princess Marya tried to catch again someone's glance from the crowd, but not a single glance was fixed on her; the eyes were obviously avoiding her. She felt strange and embarrassed.
- See, she taught deftly, follow her to the fortress! Bust your houses and go into bondage. How! I’ll give the bread, they say! - heard voices in the crowd.
Princess Marya, bowing her head, left the circle and went into the house. After repeating to Drona the order that there should be horses tomorrow for departure, she went to her room and was left alone with her thoughts.

For a long time that night, Princess Marya sat by the open window in her room, listening to the sounds of the peasants' dialect coming from the village, but she did not think about them. She felt that no matter how much she thought about them, she could not understand them. She thought all about one thing - about her grief, which now, after a break produced by worries about the present, had already become past for her. She could now remember, she could cry and she could pray. As the sun went down, the wind died down. The night was calm and crisp. At twelve o'clock the voices began to subside, a rooster crowed, a full moon began to emerge from behind the lindens, a fresh, white mist of dew rose, and silence reigned over the village and over the house.
One after another, she saw pictures of a close past - illness and the last moments of her father. And with sad joy she now dwelt on these images, driving away from herself with horror only one last representation of his death, which - she felt - she was unable to contemplate even in her imagination at this quiet and mysterious hour of the night. And these pictures appeared to her with such clarity and with such details that they seemed to her now reality, now past, now future.
Then she vividly imagined the moment when he received a blow and was dragged from the garden in the Bald Mountains under the arms and he muttered something with his impotent tongue, twitched his gray eyebrows and looked uneasily and timidly at her.
“Even then he wanted to tell me what he told me on the day of his death,” she thought. "He always thought what he told me." And now she recalled with all the details that night in Bald Hills on the eve of the blow that struck him, when Princess Marya, anticipating trouble, stayed with him against his will. She did not sleep, and at night she tiptoed downstairs and, going up to the door to the flower room in which her father slept that night, she listened to his voice. He said something to Tikhon in an exhausted, tired voice. He evidently wanted to talk. “And why didn't he call me? Why didn't he let me be here in Tikhon's place? - thought then and now Princess Marya. - He will never tell anyone now all that was in his soul. This minute will never return for him and for me, when he would say everything that he wanted to express, and I, and not Tikhon, would listen and understand him. Why didn't I enter the room then? She thought. “Maybe he would then have told me what he said on the day of his death. Even then, in a conversation with Tikhon, he asked twice about me. He wanted to see me, and I was standing there, outside the door. He was sad, hard to talk to Tikhon, who did not understand him. I remember how he started talking to him about Liza as alive - he forgot that she was dead, and Tikhon reminded him that she was no longer there, and he shouted: "Fool." It was hard for him. I heard from behind the door how he, groaning, lay down on the bed and shouted loudly: "My God! Why didn't I come up then?" What would he do to me? What would I have lost? Or maybe then he would have consoled himself, he would have said this word to me. " And Princess Marya spoke out loud that kind word that he had spoken to her on the day of his death. “Du she n ka! - Princess Marya repeated this word and sobbed with tears relieving her soul. She now saw his face before her. And not the face that she knew from the time she remembered herself, and which she always saw from afar; and that face - timid and weak, which on the last day, bending down to his mouth to hear what he was saying, for the first time examined it up close with all its wrinkles and details.
"Darling," she repeated.
“What was he thinking when he said that word? What is he thinking now? - suddenly a question came to her, and in response to this she saw him in front of her with the expression on his face that he had in the coffin on his face tied with a white kerchief. And the horror that gripped her when she touched him and made sure that it was not only him, but something mysterious and repulsive, seized her now. She wanted to think about something else, wanted to pray and could do nothing. She gazed at the moonlight and shadows with large open eyes, waited every second to see his dead face and felt that the silence that stood over the house and in the house was shackling her.
- Dunyasha! She whispered. - Dunyasha! - She cried out in a wild voice and, breaking free from the silence, ran to the girl's, towards the nanny and girls running towards her.

On August 17, Rostov and Ilyin, accompanied by Lavrushka and the messenger hussar who had just returned from captivity, from their camp at Yankovo, fifteen miles from Bogucharov, went for a ride - to try a new horse bought by Ilyin and find out if there was any hay in the villages.
Bogucharovo was for the last three days between two enemy armies, so the Russian rearguard could just as easily enter there as the French vanguard, and therefore Rostov, as a caring squadron commander, first wanted the French to use the provisions that remained in Bogucharovo.
Rostov and Ilyin were in the most cheerful frame of mind. On their way to Bogucharovo, to the prince's estate with an estate, where they hoped to find a large courtyard and pretty girls, they sometimes asked Lavrushka about Napoleon and laughed at his stories, then they drove off, trying Ilyin's horse.
Rostov neither knew nor thought that this village to which he was traveling was the estate of that very Bolkonsky, who was his sister's fiancé.
Rostov and Ilyin were let out for the last time to drive the horses into a drag in front of Bogucharov, and Rostov, who overtook Ilyin, was the first to jump into the street of the village of Bogucharov.
“You took it ahead,” said Ilyin, flushed.
- Yes, everything forward, and ahead in the meadow, and here, - answered Rostov, stroking his soaked bottom with his hand.
“And I’m in French, your Excellency,” Lavrushka said from behind, calling his harness nag French, “I would have surpassed it, but I just didn’t want to shame.
They walked up to the barn, which was surrounded by a large crowd of peasants.

If the bulk of the tongue is advanced forward to the front teeth (the front part of the tongue touches the lower teeth) and its middle part is curved up, then the vowels formed in this position of the tongue are the front ones (monophthongs, [e], [æ] and the first elements of diphthongs, ).

Back vowels

Monophthongs,, [o] and the first element of the diphthong are formed in such a position of the tongue, when its main mass of the tongue is pulled back, and the back part is curved upwards.

Back-advanced vowels

When articulating monophthongs [u], and the first element, the bulk of the tongue is slightly advanced in comparison with the position in the posterior part of the oral cavity.

Central vowels

Center / mixed vowels (, [ә], [a] and the first element of the diphthong [әu]) are pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the center of the mouth. At the same time, both the middle and rear parts are evenly raised.

High vowels

, [i], [u], and the first elements of diphthongs, are pronounced in such a position of the tongue, when its bulk rises high in the oral cavity.

Middle vowels

[e],, [ә], and the first elements of diphthongs, [әu], are pronounced when the bulk of the tongue is in the middle of the mouth and the middle and back of the tongue are evenly raised.

Low vowels

[a], [æ], [o] and the first elements of diphthongs,, are pronounced if the bulk of the tongue is located low in the mouth.

Tense vowels

Monophthongs can be pronounced with some muscle tension, as in sounds, or without tension, as in [i], [a]. The vowels,,,, are characterized as tense, the rest - as relaxed... Diphthongs are considered semi-stressed, since by the end of their articulation, the tension usually subsides. Diphthongoids are characterized by a slight increase in tension towards the end of the vowel pronunciation, since the sliding section of the diphthongoid is not at the end of the vowel sound, as in diphthongs, but at the beginning.

Long / short vowels

Traditionally, vowels are divided into long and short. However, the basis for distinguishing vowels is qualitative characteristics, since the actual duration of the sounding of historically long vowels can vary. Longitudinal positional-conditioned vowel variants depend on the type of syllable, the type of the syllable-ending consonant, the accent structure of the word, and its intonation design.

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