The Day of the Paris Commune is celebrated in honor of the victory of the first proletarian revolution in 1871, on March 18. Paris Commune was the name given to the revolutionary government formed during the events of 1871 in the capital of France.
Background to the events of 1871
France, 19th century... The workers, having overthrown the bourgeois monarchy, put forward revolutionary demands in February 1848. In June of the same year, the Parisian proletariat took up arms in their hands against the republic of “privileges and capital” for a “social republic.” This was the first attack on the bourgeois order, the first great civil war between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The heavy defeat in 1848 weakened the working class for a long time. Only in 1871 did he dare to speak out against the authorities again.
The Day of the Paris Commune (the events of 1848 served as its formation) is celebrated by many even now.
Emergence
After a truce was established between Prussia and France in the Franco-Prussian War, unrest began in Paris, which grew into a revolution. As a result, self-government was introduced, which lasted in 1871 from March 18 to May 28. The Paris Commune was led by representatives of socialists. It was proclaimed by the leaders of both movements as the first example of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
The emergence of the Paris Commune was a natural phenomenon in history. The reason was the deep social contradictions that existed within French society, which worsened very sharply after the country's defeat during the Franco-Prussian War, which lasted from 1870 to 1871. The government of Thiers was formed in February (his photo is presented below), a protege of the big bourgeoisie, which accepted the humiliating and difficult conditions of the peace treaty. The revolutionary forces responded by creating the Republican Federation of National Guards. It was headed by the central committee.
The first days of the revolution
On the night of March 18, the Thiers government attempted to disarm the proletarians and arrest representatives of the Central Committee of the National Guard. However, the plan failed. In panic, the government fled to Versailles from Paris. The National Guard was stationed in the town hall, printing house and barracks. Soared above the town hall. Thus, the Paris Commune was proclaimed as a result of an armed uprising and the overthrow of the bourgeois government. Elections to the Council of the Commune of the City of Paris took place on March 26. Two days later its first meeting was held, chaired by Proudhon Belais. The new municipality was officially renamed the Paris Commune on March 29.
Paris Commune Day
The date March 18, 1871 is special in the history of France. She is also known and remembered all over the world. It was then that the proletarian revolution took place. On March 18, the power of the bourgeoisie fell. It was the first day of the Paris Commune. 1848 events preceded, as we have already mentioned, this great date. By decision already at next year the day of March 18 became the holiday of the first successful attempt to seize the workers political power. It's Paris Commune Day. It was celebrated until 1917 in our country at illegal meetings of revolutionary organizations. For the first time, this revolutionary day began to be widely celebrated after the Central Committee of the Moscow Region declared its Paris Commune in March 1923.
What contributed to the emergence of the Paris Commune?
France found itself on the brink of a national catastrophe after the defeat at Sedan. Most of the country's territory was occupied by Prussian troops. They also occupied a short time some areas of the capital. The National Assembly, elected in 1871, on February 8, consisted of open and hidden monarchists. More than Bismarck, the big bourgeoisie feared armed workers. France, under the terms of the preliminary agreement, was obliged to pay a huge indemnity to Prussia. Its size was 5 billion francs in gold. Alsace and Lorraine were also ceded to Prussia.
National Guard
Workers and advanced intelligentsia came to the defense of the capital. In Paris in September 1870, the National Guard was formed - 215 battalions. At the same time, a political organization arose. Central Committee The National Guard actually became the embryo of people's power.
Difficult situation in winter in the capital
The poor inhabitants of Paris survived the siege of hunger and cold winter. In addition, the Prussians subjected the capital to shelling. The food supply was bad. According to some estimates, the Parisians ate forty thousand horses. They paid huge amounts of money for rats, cats and dogs. The daily food allowance was 50 grams of horse meat, as well as 300 grams of low-quality bread made from oats and rice. There were huge queues at the bakeries. A crisis had arisen, a situation had arisen in which revolution was inevitable.
The situation in Paris was becoming pre-revolutionary. A. Thiers then decided to disperse the National Guard by force of arms, the central committee to arrest it, sign a final peace with Bismarck, and then restore the monarchy. A national assembly was convened in Bordeaux, which then moved to Versailles.
The transition of the Versaillese division to the side of the rebels
Government troops in 1871, on the night of March 18, managed to capture almost all the artillery located on the heights of Montmartre. The people of Paris were alarmed. Soon almost the entire Versaillese division went over to the side of the rebels. This became one of the decisive events of the proletarian revolution. National Guard battalions, by order of the Central Committee, occupied the buildings of the ministry, police, barracks, and train station. A red banner hoisted over the city hall on the evening of March 19. This is how the Paris Commune arose (founded on March 18, 1871) - a proletarian state, as well as an organ of the dictatorship of workers. It lasted only 72 days. However, the history of Paris is unthinkable without the events that filled this time.
Appeal of the Central Committee of the National Guard to the people
On the same day, the Central Committee of the National Guard addressed an appeal to the people of France, in which it expressed the hope that the capital would serve as an example for the formation of a new republic. The state of siege was lifted, which was premature. It was said in the address to the guards that the Central Committee was resigning its powers because it did not want to take the place of those who had just been swept away by the storm of indignation of the people. The leaders of the uprising did not even declare themselves a provisional government. They did not dare to take away all the power.
Elections to the Commune
The Central Committee, instead of organizing a march on Versailles, began preparing elections to the commune. But at the same time, there was no active campaigning among the population for candidates from the workers. Thus, initiative and time were lost. The fear of accusing the authorities of usurpation had fatal consequences. In many departments of France, the uprising in the capital was supported, but due to the absence of a leading party, unity of action was not achieved.
On March 26, elections were held to the Commune Council, which was supreme body authorities. Only 25 places in it went to workers out of 86. The rest were taken by office workers and the intelligentsia. The apparatus of the Paris Commune was adapted as a form of power primarily to realize as fully as possible the revolutionary tasks posed by the course of events.
It was not only the members of the Commune Council who made decisions. They participated in their practical implementation. Thus, various institutions were eliminated, as well as the principle of separation of powers. The commune council elected 10 commissions from among its members responsible for various areas life of society.
Armed forces
The Paris Commune, as in the period, relied on the armed people. In most districts of the capital, after March 18, the police were replaced by the National Guard and its reserve battalions.
The decree of March 29, 1871 also abolished conscription and declared that citizens fit for service were included in the national guard.
Actions of the Versailles government
The enemies of the commune, lurking in Paris, used all means to disorganize the life of the capital, complicate the situation of the commune and thereby accelerate its death. For example, it was sabotage of utility workers and government agencies, which was organized by the Versailles government. On March 29, the Commune decided that its decrees and orders no longer have legal force and that employees who intend to ignore this decree are subject to immediate dismissal.
In the very first days after the events of March 18, the bourgeois press began to sharply oppose the established government. She began to defame the leaders of the Paris Commune and spread malicious lies against them. The Central Committee and then the commune took a number of measures against these actions. In total, about 30 Parisian magazines and newspapers were closed during the existence of the commune.
Resolution of April 2
The history of Paris in 1871 was marked by a number of dramatic events. On April 2, they decided to bring Thiers, as well as five other members of the Versailles government, to justice. They were accused of starting a civil war and organizing an attack on the capital. In response to the executions of prisoners, on April 5 the commune issued a decree on hostages. According to it, any person who was found to be an accomplice with the government located in Versailles was subject to arrest. The decree threatened the execution of three hostages for each Communard shot.
Several hundred people were arrested on the basis of this decree. Among them were Bonjean, a former senator, Darbois, an archbishop, Jecker, a major banker, as well as a group of gendarmes, priests and officials. The Versaillese were forced to stop the execution of prisoners for a while. However, when it became clear that the commune was in no hurry to execute the hostages, executions of captured federates resumed. The government leaders clearly lacked understanding of the need for repression against class enemies. Lenin, analyzing the reasons for the failure of the Paris Commune, noted that it did not energetically enough use armed forces to suppress resistance.
Despite the fact that on May 28 the revolution was defeated, and today many people around the world celebrate the Day of the Paris Commune. This is the proletariat in the struggle for power. Every Frenchman knows that March 18 is the Day of the Paris Commune. This date went down in history as the accomplishment of the world's first proletarian revolution.
paris commune politics social
The Paris Commune was defeated due to many objective and subjective reasons.
The main objective reason for it was the insufficient level of development of capitalism in France at that time. The consequence of this was the insufficient preparedness and hardening of its working class, its lack of political party, armed with the doctrine of class struggle, proletarian revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat.
Although the industrial revolution in France had already ended, most of The French proletariat was still employed in medium and small enterprises.
The insufficient concentration of production retarded the growth of class consciousness of the workers, making it difficult to liberate them from the influence of petty bourgeois ideas and ideas, the bearers of which were radicals, right-wing Proudhonists and neo-Jacobins.
The advanced layers of the Parisian workers followed the revolutionary socialists (collectivists), but they did not represent a single, cohesive group, but belonged to several different movements - left Proudhonists, Bakuninists, Blanquists, neo-Babouvists and Marxists (there were only a few of the latter among the leaders of the Commune).
The heterogeneity of the political composition of the Paris Commune, the presence of significant theoretical and practical disagreements among its members, prevented the leadership from developing a unified revolutionary tactic.
The leaders of the Commune missed favorable moment for the attack on Versailles, did not take control of the huge funds of the French Bank, and underestimated the need for a merciless fight against the subversive actions of counter-revolutionary elements inside Paris. Communards did not fully use cash material resources and human reserves to strengthen the defenses of the revolutionary capital and achieve victory in civil war, imposed on Paris by the Versaillese.
Not all the leaders of the Paris Commune correctly assessed the question of the allies of the proletariat in the revolution. The Commune as a whole failed to achieve the establishment of strong ties with the working masses of the provinces, in particular with the peasantry. She did not pay enough attention to exposing the lies and slander spread by the bourgeois press.
However, the presence of German occupation troops in many areas of the country, including in the vicinity of Paris, had a decisive influence on the fate of the proletarian revolution of 1871.
The support provided to the French counter-revolutionary bourgeoisie by foreign occupiers did not allow the movement in support of the Paris Commune, which began in many provincial cities, to develop, and prevented the implementation of a fighting alliance between the Parisian workers and the revolutionary elements of the entire nation. The absence of such an alliance was one of the main reasons for the defeat of the Commune.
The Paris Commune of 1871 was an uprising of a population driven to despair by hunger and poverty as a result of the Franco-Prussian War. The Paris Commune completed the cycle of democratic uprisings that periodically broke out in France during the 19th century. Its leaders were figures who believed that, through heroic efforts, a kingdom of freedom and justice could be established on earth. They considered themselves continuers of the revolutionaries' cause late XVIII V.
The impetus for the uprising of the Parisians was dissatisfaction with the policies of the government of A. Thiers.
The conclusion of peace with Germany aroused the indignation of the Parisians, who also suspected A. Thiers of seeking to restore the monarchy.
While significant amount Democrats saw protection from reaction and restoration of the monarchy in the decentralization of power. Parisians demanded the restoration of self-government in the capital. The National Guard, the most organized force in the capital, acted as defenders of the interests of Parisians. On February 24, 1871 it was formed Republican Federation National Guard headed by the Central Committee. In fact, the National Guard became the center of opposition to the government. Her armed uprising was provoked by the government itself.
After the blockade of Paris was lifted, payments to National Guard soldiers were stopped. In a city whose economy has not yet revived, thousands of people were left without a livelihood. When the National Assembly canceled the deferment on debt payments, 150 thousand debt obligations were presented just days before payment.
On March 18, 1871, by order of the government, troops attempted to capture the artillery of the People's Guard, which was concentrated on the Montmartre hill. their movement was stopped by women who were lining up in bread stores in the morning, and the soldiers retreated without a fight. However, it so happened that generals Leconte and Thomas fell into the hands of the guards and were shot.
Therefore, A. Thiers gave the order for the evacuation of government offices to Versailles. The only authoritative force in Paris remained the Central Committee (Central Committee) of the National Guard, which assumed power in the capital and scheduled elections for March 26, 1871 in the Paris Commune (as the self-government body of Paris was traditionally called in France). Attempts to reconcile the government and the Central Committee of the National Guard were unsuccessful. The government made it clear that it considered the Parisian opposition to be criminals to whom the guns should speak.
Citizens of various professions became members of the commune - doctors, journalists, workers, officials. IN politically they belonged to the Proudhonists, neo-Jacobins and Blanquists. Some of them belonged to sections of the International Workers' Association (First International). Political differences made the work of the commune more difficult, threatening its unity and even its existence.
The Commune declared its intentions to carry out profound changes for which more than one generation of French revolutionaries fought: regular army replaced the armed people; democratization of the state apparatus was carried out, which provided for the election and variability of officials; The division of power into legislative, executive and judicial was eliminated.
It was also introduced new organization labor. Workers' control was established at enterprises. Some enterprises were transferred to worker cooperatives. Free compulsory secular education was introduced.
Reforms aimed at meeting the needs of the population were urgent, namely: eliminating rent arrears; free return of items worth up to 20 francs pawned at the pawnshop; introducing a three-year deferment for commercial loans; abolition of night work in bakeries.
But the main concern of the commune remained the war with Versailles. Without provincial support, the Communards had to rely solely on their own strength.
The first clashes between the defenders of the commune and its enemies in April did not reveal a winner.
A turning point occurred in May. The government of A. Thiers, having received help from the German command of weapons and soldiers, went on the offensive, and on May 21, 1871, Versailles troops broke into Paris. The fighting continued until May 28, 1871. The last fort defended by the Communards capitulated on May 30, 1871. The 72-day power of the Paris Commune ended in a bloody massacre.
Under the influence of the French army in the French-Prussian war of 1870-1871, revolutionary changes began in Paris st-p-le-niya. On September 4, 1870, after the news about the captivity of Na-po-le-o-on III, it was announced about the restoration innovations in France re-pub-li-ki (see Third re-pub-li-ka) and for-mi-ro-va-but “government-vi-tel-st-vo national ob-ro-ny.” By September 19, 1870, Paris was surrounded by Prussian troops. There was not enough raw materials in the city, so the “black market” flourished. Ka-pi-tu-lyant-skaya po-li-ti-ka pra-vi-tel-st-va you-zy-va-la voz-mu-sche-nie pa-ri-zhan. On October 31, 1870 and January 22, 1871, they unsuccessfully undertook a rebellion with the goal of overthrowing the government. On January 28, 1871, there was a key between France and Prussia. The for-mi-ro-van-noe in February the new government of A. Thiers adopted difficult conditions for France, under-pi-sav February 26th Versailles pre-li-minar-ny do-go-vor about the world, which led to a far-about-about-st-re -new information about the city. The leading role in the subsequent development of the co-occurrence was played by the National Guard (NG) - the civilian militia -che-niya, with-n-mav-she-go active participation in the defense of Pa-ri-zha (60 thousand people, 227 artillery pieces; by May - 170 thousand people ). To fight the ka-pi-tu-lyant-skaya po-li-ti-coy government on March 15, 1871, the Republic was created. NG federation led by the Central Committee of NG. Attempts by the pra-vi-tel-st-va Thiers to ra-zo-ru-live NG and arrest members of the Central Committee, which was presented on the night of March 18 , pro-va-li-la. Thiers and his ka-bi-net were in Versailles (hence the name “Versalles”), above Ra-tu-sha Pa-ri-zha was under-nya That's a red sign. The Central Committee of the NG became the temporary body of power in Paris, which took over a number of positions in the city, establishing there are generous measures to support the poor layers of the village and prepare elections to the Council of Communities - body of the city self-government. In the 20th of March, under the influence of the uprising in Paris, the revolutionary com-mu-mu a number of other cities in France (Lio-ne, Mar-se-le, Tu-lu-ze and others; about 2-3 days, Mar-sel-skaya kom-mu-na - 10 days).
According to the results of the elections on March 26, in which 229 thousand out of 485 thousand for-re-gi-st-ri-ro-van took part -nyh from-bi-ra-te-leys (many of the residents of the so-sto-stan-kvar-ta-lovs of Pa-ri-zha had re-married by this time in Ver- sal), there was a sfor-mi-ro-va-na Paris commune, consisting of 86 people (official-tsi-al-but pro-voz-gla-she-on March 28; from the 2nd half of the ap-re-la - 81 people). Among them: E.M. Vai-yan, J. Val-les, O.J.M. Ver-mo-rel, L.Sh. De-lec-luz, L.O. Blan-ki (elected for-very-but, stayed in prison). In re-zul-ta-te you-go-da from the Paris Commune a number of kon-ser-va-to-ditch and side-ron-ni-kov L. Gam-bet-you on-tre-bo-va - the process of final elections was held (held on April 16). They elected 16 new members (including G. Courbet, C. Longge, E. Pothier). Active participation in the struggle for the Paris Commune and in its activities with P.L. Lav-rov, Ya. Dom-brov-sky, Zh.B. Clément, E.J. Da-lu and others.
In the or-ga-ni-za-tsi-on-nom from-no-she-niy, the Paris Commune consisted (from March 29) of 9 special commissions (military; pro-vol-st-ven-naya; -external services; information) and the Executive Commission for the general management (incl. la 9 de-le-ga-tov - ru-ko-vo-di-te-ley of individual commissions). The executive commission was replaced on May 1 by the Public Spa Committee, consisting of 5 people with a full shi-ro-ki -mo-chiya-mi in relation to individual commissions.
The programmatic do-ku-men-tom of the Paris Commune is considered “Dec-la-ra-tion to the French nation”, published on April 20 re-la. The idea is that Pa-Rizh “wants to impose his will or his headship on the rest of the nation” ", The Paris Commune declared its goal to create a republican federation of communes in France. Their cities gave us personal freedoms, freedoms of wealth and labor, you are right -new-ni-kov of all ka-te-go-ries, the possibility of one hundred-yang-no-th participation in the affairs of the com-mu-ny (including in the provision of che-nii city defense). The Paris Commune promoted a series of profound reforms, some of which were revolutionary in nature. The hundred-year-old army was for-me-not-on NG (dec-ret of March 29), Church from-de-le-na from the state-su-dar-st -va (April 2), introduction of election and rotation of civil servants, including judges (April 13), in use both -sha-niya li-kvi-di-ro-vat with-vi-le-gia and benefit-you the maximum size of their sting-lo-va-nya us-ta-nov-len in the size for -work-pay-you-with-co-qua-li-fi-ci-rovanny ra-bo-th (6 thousand francs per year; December 1st April). Along with solving those problems of life, pa-ri-zhan (partial an-nu-li-ro-va-nie for-dol- the woman pays for the rent and pays the rent for it, pays the com-merch on an installment basis, without payment. return of deposited items in the amount of up to 20 francs (December 29, April 17, May 6)), P.C. pri-nya-la a number of measures in the area of so-ci-al-no-eco-no-miche-li-ti-ki. A ban on arbitrary fines was introduced and you are from the workers' wages (April 27), repealed night work in pe-kar-nyah (April 20), introduction-de-but equal sting-lo-va-nye teach-te-lyam - men-chi-us and women-schi-us (May 20 ), us-ta-nov-le-ny pensions of the widows and children of the killed nationals. Guardsmen (April 8, 10). Decree of April 16th pre-du-smat-ri-val per-re-da-chu abandoned households of za-vo-dov co-pe-ra-tiv-nym as- so-tsia-tsi-yam ra-bo-chih (completely not real-li-zo-van). A number of reforms have been carried out in the sphere of culture (pere-da-cha te-at-rov in the hands of as-so-tsia-tions of art-ti-stov, service thirsty and working people), education (creation of secular and free schools), implementation of return to the time of the French revolution of the 18th century. The demolition of the Van-Dome Column on May 16 (decree of April 12) became a symbol of the scrap from mi-li-ta-riz-ma and wars of conquest.
In the Paris Commune, various political groups were represented, united around two main factions: “sick shin-st-va" (ne-oya-ko-bin-tsy, blan-ki-sty) and "men-shin-st-va" (mainly pru-do-ni-sty). Raz-no-gla-siya between-zh-mi-mi-sa-sa-sa-sa-as-a-pro-sa about the functions of the Paris Commune (city council Pa-ri-zha or revolutionary government throughout France), as well as specific actions on the organization of governance, the fight against pro-pa -gun-doy and explosive activity of Ver-sal-tsev and others. “Men-shin-st-vo” from-opened you-stu-pi-lo against “bol-shin-st-va” on May 15, published-to-vav de-la-ra-tion with condemnation of the actions of the Public Spa Committee as an “or-ga-on of the dictatorial power, usur-ing go-to-native su-ve-re-ni-tet”, which caused serious damage to the auto-ri-te-tu of the Paris Commune.
According to the different types of co-sta-va of the Paris Commune, its os-lab-le-niu ability to solve in the sphere fi-nan-so-howl and military po-li-ti-ki. Under the influence of pru-do-ni-sts, the Paris Commune did not undertake any actions to establish new control over the French bank-com (the volume of valuables stored in it amounted to 3 billion francs), which continued to create credit Sal-vi-tel-st-vo (in the amount of 267 million francs as opposed to 15 million francs given to the Paris Commune). Having military superiority over government troops, in the 2nd half of March the Paris Commune abandoned its position -Niya, the march to Versailles, which was taken on April 3-4, was poorly prepared. Military de le-gat (minister) of the Paris Commune G.P. Klu-ze-re failed to provide effective leadership with armed forces, to supply the system -tion and rotation of parts. L. Ros-se-lyu and De-lek-lu-zu, who replaced him, failed to correct the situation. Government troops, on the other hand, were strengthened by soldiers released early from German captivity, weapons and bo-e-pri-pa-sov, re-given by the Germans. Paris was actually cut off from the rest of France and taken under siege. At the end of the ap-re-la - at the end of May, the Ver-Sal-tsev army under the command of Mar-sha-la P. Mak-Ma-go-na is getting closer to di-la to the city: April 26 pa-la village Mu-li-no, May 9 - Fort Is-si. In case of neglect of the leadership of the Paris Commune in Paris, the agent is active in Versailles. After the com-mu-na-ditch from the ka-pi-tu-la-tion, before the wife of Thier on May 8, the government troops pro-dol -lived at the station and on May 21 entered Paris. During the period of the so-called bloodshed (May 21-28), both sides showed cruelty. In response to the actions of the Versailles troops, as a result of which, according to various sources, from 6 to 30 thousand people died, who -mu-na-ry brought into effect the Decree on lies, adopted on April 5 and called upon seriously -no-gla-sia inside the leadership of the Paris Commune. According to him, over 45 people were executed (including the Archbishop of Paris). In re-zul-ta-te bo-ev, it is known that public buildings (Tu-il-ri Palace, Ra-tu-sha, Palace right-to-su-dia and others), cultural prices, a number of Parisian art-historical houses burned down. The total number of imprisoned prisoners, those sent to prison, those imprisoned in prison, those who need to be emigrated from France there are up to 100 thousand people.
In the Mar-xi-st-is-t-rio-graphy, the Paris Commune is seen as a co-existence of the whole world-but-historical meaning -nia, as the first pro-le-tar-re-re-vo-lu-tion, the first experience of the wild-ta-tu-ry pro-le-ta-ria-ta, opening a new stage in the world-wide history of class struggle, which ended with the October Revolution of 1917. Representatives of other historical sciences, noting the significance of the Paris Commune, do not consider it to be nym so-by-ti-em in is-to-ria. They point out that the results of the activities of the Paris Commune are not the same. Having decided on a whole series of progressive reforms in various spheres of public life, it had neither the time nor the resources for their realities. The Paris Commune left a deep trace in the history of France and Europe. The ruling circles of European countries, inspired by the Paris Commune, sought to prevent its re-occurrence. For these purposes, they went further to the op-re-de-la-nye us-tup-ki working in social-ci-al-noy and eco-no-no mystical sphere.
Historical sources:
Procès-verbaux de la Commune de 1871 / Éd. G. Bourgin, G. Henriot. P., 1924-1945. Vol. 1-2. P., 2002;
Pro-to-ko-ly for the Parisian commune of 1871. M., 1959-1960. T. 1-2;
First In-ter-na-tsio-nal and Parisian com-mu-na. Do-ku-men-you and ma-te-ria-ly. M., 1972;
Mo-lok A.I. Chre-sto-ma-tiya according to the history of the Parisian commune. M., 1976.
Additional literature:
Ker-zhen-tsev P.M. Is-to-ria of the Parisian commune. 1871. 2nd ed. M., 1959; Parisian commune of 1871. M., 1961. T. 1-2; Lukin N.M. Favorite labor M., 1962. T. 2; Parisian commune of 1871. M., 1964; Knizhnik I.S. Russian figures of the First In-ter-na-tsio-na-la and the Paris Commune. M.; L., 1964; Soria G. Grande histoire de la Commune. P., 1970-1971. Vol. 1-5; Itenberg B.S. Russia and the Parisian commune. M., 1971; History of the Paris Commune of 1871. M., 1971; Marx K., Engels F., Lenin V.I. About the Parisian company. M., 1971;
