STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY

ECONOMICS AND FINANCE"

Abstract on Russian language and speech culture

on the topic of:

Euphemisms in modern Russian speech

Performed: student 105 group B105

Solodyuk M.V.

Saint Petersburg

2010

Preliminary remarks

When addressing the topic of “euphemisms,” the researcher is forced to involve in the analysis not only the euphemistic expressions themselves, but also the socio-cultural and linguistic background against which the need for euphemisms arises. To complete the picture, it is necessary to mention such realities and such vocabulary that are usually beyond the attention of linguists. As a native speaker of a literary language and simply a person who follows certain cultural norms, this can cause internal rejection and protest in the researcher himself, however, as an impartial observer recording everything that happens in the language, he is obliged to study such “unpleasant” facts .

This remark serves as a warning to the reader about what kind of lexical material he will encounter when reading this article, and, at the same time, as an apology to him if he feels some moral discomfort when reading this material.

In modern Russian speech, two opposing trends are quite clearly manifested: towards the coarsening of speech and towards its euphemization. I will indicate only a few strokes that characterize the first trend, since a detailed analysis of it is not the scope of this essay.

At the lexical level, coarsening is expressed in an increase in the use of coarsely colloquial and slang words and expressions (for example, “bitch”, “bastard”, “bastard”, “scoundrel”, “get rid of it”, “hang noodles on one’s ears”, etc. ), and not only in the oral and everyday sphere, but also in some genres of written and public speech, in radio and television journalism (for example, the word usage of the famous television reporter A. Nevzorov). One of the manifestations of freedom of speech that came at the turn of the 80s and 90s was the lifting of the ban on the use of obscene language both in artistic and semi-fictional texts, and in various genres of everyday and public speech, including those intended for a mass addressee : swear words are not uncommon in modern films, television programs, newspaper and magazine articles. As Z. Kester-Thoma aptly put it, the “unprinted” word became “printed” (Kester-Thoma 1993, 26).

Also indicative is the decreasing influence of gender differences between speakers on the use of such vocabulary: rude expressions and words, including swear words (mainly in their expressive rather than nominative function), are used by both men and women. At the same time, social restrictions here are not very significant: such word usage, according to our observations, is typical not only for the working environment (where it has long been a constant attribute of speech communication), but also, for example, for acting, writing, and journalism. True, restrictions remain related to the type of addressee: obscene vocabulary is used more freely in an environment homogeneous in gender and age than in a heterogeneous one (that is, for example, women of the same age use obscenities more freely when communicating with each other than when communicating in mixed companies and even more so when addressing men). The age threshold for using swear words is also lowering: many teenagers and even 10-12 year old schoolchildren freely use swear words and expressions in both homogeneous and gender-diverse peer groups.

Changes are taking place in the normative status of a number of words and lexical groups. Thus, words denoting certain physiological functions previously had an extremely limited scope of use (compare the verbs “poop”, “write” - in children’s speech and when adults address a small child); now they can also appear in written texts intended for a mass addressee.

The normative status of some medical terms has also changed: a number of terms related to the sexual sphere and previously used in highly specialized texts or in a narrow professional environment (for example, “coitus”, “orgasm”, “clitoris”, “penis”) are now used quite freely in non-specialized speech - in a newspaper article, radio or television program, in everyday speech.

In addition to the lexical features of a number of genres of modern Russian speech, one can note some of its intonation properties, indicating the coarsening of habitual forms of communication. Thus, in certain socio-professional and age groups (for example, among sales workers, consumer services workers, hotel service workers, nurses, typists, among working youth, students of vocational schools, high school students) rough, from a traditional point of view, is the intonation of ordinary informative dialogue (both in “one’s own” environment and in conversations with outsiders). In general, if we use evaluative rather than strictly linguistic terms, today the level of aggressiveness in people’s speech behavior is extremely high. Starting from everyday conversations between housemates and skirmishes in store lines and ending with rallies in squares and debates in parliament, the sound of speech is characterized by such features as rigidity in assessing the behavior of the interlocutor, extreme negative expressiveness when discussing what the speaker, excited, does not agree with. often a hostile tone of speech, etc.

The genre of speech invective has become unusually intensified, using a variety of means of negatively assessing the behavior of the addressee’s personality - from expressive words and phrases that are within the limits of literary usage, to coarse colloquial vocabulary.

All these features of modern oral and, partly, book and written speech are a consequence of negative processes occurring in extra-linguistic reality; they are closely related to general destructive phenomena in the field of culture and morality.

Euphemization of speech

To a certain extent, the process of euphemization of speech, which is also very characteristic of its modern state, is opposite in nature, goals and results of the means used.

It seems that the following points are essential for the euphemization process:

1) the speaker’s assessment of the subject of speech as such, the direct designation of which can be qualified - in a given social environment or by a specific addressee - as rudeness, harshness, indecency, etc.; apparently, only certain objects, realities, spheres of human activity and human relations can evoke such an assessment - others are “neutral” from this point of view; therefore, not all speech is euphemized, but speech related to certain topics and areas of activity;

2) the speaker’s selection of such designations that not only soften certain seemingly rude words and expressions, but mask and veil the essence of the phenomenon; this is especially clearly seen in the example of semantically vague medical terms (“neoplasm” instead of the frightening “tumor”) or foreign language terms that are therefore not understandable to everyone (for example, “pediculosis” instead of “lice”), etc., as well as in the use words with “diffuse” semantics: known, definite, proper, special, etc.;

3) the dependence of the use of euphemism on the context and on the conditions of speech: the stricter the social control of the speech situation and the speaker’s self-control of his own speech, the more likely the appearance of euphemisms; and, on the contrary, in poorly controlled speech situations and with high automaticity of speech (communication in the family, with friends, etc.), “direct” designations, or dysphemisms, may be preferred to euphemisms;

4) social conditioning of the idea of ​​what can be a euphemism: what is regarded as a euphemism in one environment may receive different assessments in another.

Topics and areas of euphemization

The speaker's assessment of a particular subject of speech from the point of view of decency / indecency, rudeness / politeness is usually focused on certain topics and areas of activity of people (or relationships between them). Traditionally, these topics and areas are:

some physiological processes and conditions. Compare "Free your nose!" - instead of “Blow your nose!”; “empty the intestines”; “malaise” (about menstruation); “She is expecting a baby” - instead of “She is pregnant”, etc.;

certain parts of the body associated with the "bottom of the body". Objects of this kind are such that even their euphemistic designation in everyday speech is perceived by the majority as not quite decent - compare, for example, colloquial and slang designations for the male penis: “end”, “stick”, “device”, “sausage”, “banana” or female vagina: “hole”, “well”, “pelvis”, “loofah”, “piggy bank”; among physicians, as is known, Latin is used for these purposes;

relations between the sexes. Compare “to be in a close relationship, in an intimate relationship”, “physical intimacy” and the colloquial use of the verbs “meet”, “be friends”, “walk” (with someone);

illness and death. For example, “feel bad” instead of “sick”; “left us”, “he passed away” instead of “died”, etc. The topics of death and funeral, if these events are relevant (either coincide with the moment of speech, or are separated from it by a short period of time), are verbalized almost exclusively with the help of euphemisms. Compare: “demise” instead of “death”; lethal outcome as a medical euphemism replacing “too direct” death. The actions of institutions involved in organizing funerals are referred to in the official language as ritual services, which are vague and euphemistic in nature.

These spheres of euphemism can be called personal; they concern the personal life and personality of the speaker, the addressee and third parties.

In addition, the phenomenon of euphemization is observed in various spheres of social life of a person and society. It is important to emphasize that in modern conditions, the most developed are the methods and means of euphemization that affect socially significant topics, areas of human activity, his relationships with other people, with society, with the authorities.

Euphemisms in social spheres of human activity

Let us consider this type of euphemism, characterizing the purposes of euphemism; areas of social life in which euphemistic language means are used more often than others; linguistic methods and techniques of euphemization; social differences between speakers in the creation and use of euphemisms.

Purposes of euphemization of speech

1. The main goal pursued by speakers when using euphemisms in social and interpersonal relationships is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts and failures, and not create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor.

In euphemisms of this kind, an object, action, property are called differently, in a more polite form - compared to other methods of nomination. Compare, for example, the words “impaired of hearing” instead of “deaf”, “blind” instead of “blind”, used as peculiar terms, as well as statements like “He is limping” about a severely limping person, “Yes, I’m sick for some reason - the temperature is about forty "etc. Abstract >> Culture and art speech In artistic style speeches there are three types of transmission speeches: straight speech, indirect speech and improperly straight speech... . Academic grammar modern Russian language calls accession...

Reflections on Russian word: let not a rotten word come out of your mouth

Article >> Linguistics, philology

Quite respectable. Such euphemisms V Russian language often appear... appear and penetrate into Russian speech and in Russian language slang criminal words, ... high style, not lost in modern Russian language heritage of interaction with...

Euphemisms

Dysphemisms

Euphemism (Greek ευφήμη - “prudence”) is a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions considered indecent or inappropriate. In politics, euphemisms are often used to soften certain words and expressions in order to mislead the public and falsify reality. For example, using the expression “more harsh interrogation methods” instead of the word “torture”, etc.

Euphemisms are used in spoken or printed texts to replace words considered rude or “obscene,” such as expletives and swear words. Sometimes “non-literary” words with less negative “load” than swearing and swearing are used as euphemisms - colloquial, slang, author’s words. The use of euphemisms significantly softens the negative “load” of swear words or swear words on the text, although in most cases it is possible to determine from the euphemism or the meaning of the text which word it replaces.

The phenomenon of euphemism is based on:

deeply archaic remnants of linguistic taboos (prohibitions to pronounce the direct names of such dangerous objects and phenomena, such as, for example, gods, diseases or the dead, since the act of naming, according to the prelogical thinking of primitive man, can cause the phenomenon itself) - these are euphemisms like: “unclean” instead “devil”, “deceased”, “deceased” instead of “dead”;

factors of social dialectology.

As the forms of human life become more refined, direct designations of known objects and phenomena (for example, some physiological acts and parts of the human body) begin to be considered odious and expelled from the language, especially from its literary reflection. Thus, for a noble patrician in the era of the heyday of the economic and political power of Rome, some phrases of an earlier era become unacceptable: lat. Noli dici morte Africani “castratam” esse rem publicam (Cicero, “De oratore”, II).

Medieval chivalry avoids in courtly poetry direct designations of the genital organs, which are defiantly preserved in their language by the emerging third estate (“The Romance of the Rose”). Language at the moment of stabilization of culture is usually distinguished by a special tendency towards euphemisms, for example, linguistic affectation in aristocratic salons of the 16th-17th centuries, the language of literature of the 19th century.

Not only are other forms of treatment used in communication, but also vices or offenses are spoken of in especially softened terms. Forms of satire and ironic antiphrase are often built on the “discovery” of such euphemisms.

Euphemisms of swear words[edit | edit wiki text]

According to Mokienko, a popular euphemism for the “first member” of the obscene triad is the phrase “three letters.” In addition to the obvious euphemistic variants of swear words (damn, damn burnt, damn fly, vigorous loaf, japonda beher, Japanese policeman), Mokienko points to the “underwater snake of the Russian swearing” in the harmless-looking euphemisms “green Christmas trees!” and “my mothers!”

Philological researchers working in this area themselves use euphemisms, usually with the aim of “expanding the circle of addressees” of their work. Mokienko points to a curious euphemistic pseudonym in English. Boris Sukitch Razvratnikov, under which the American Slavist V. Friedman (English) Russian published his works on obscene vocabulary. E. P. Senichkina in her dictionary of euphemisms, to preserve the scientific style, uses the term “instead of a direct designation” and, in isolated cases, replacing letters in “direct names” with asterisks; At the same time, lovers of “strawberry” are referred to V. Buy’s dictionary “Russian cherished idioms,” in which extraliterary euphemisms are described with “exhaustive completeness.”

A. Plutser-Sarno points out that, due to the relatively weak taboo of swearing and the high potential of word formation from swearing roots, the euphemism of a swear word can be perceived simply as a more sophisticated and expressive version of the original expression.

Professional euphemisms[edit | edit wiki text]

People whose professions involve risk have superstitious taboos on certain words. For example, pilots, paratroopers, and circus performers avoid using the word “last.” It is replaced by “extreme” (or “once again”; in the circus it is customary to say “final” or “encore”) - for example, “extreme flight”. They also try to avoid the word “death”, replacing it with “bony”, “no nose”, “this one with a scythe”. Miners say “yellow metal” instead of “gold.” Gold is also called in police reports, since the final conclusion about the nature and characteristics of the seized (found) is given by a special examination, and until its decision it is unlawful to recognize the yellow metal as gold. The term “person of Caucasian nationality” has a similar origin, which was used to designate persons of an unspecified ethnic group, whose identity was not established at the time of drawing up the protocol, and then migrated into everyday speech.

In documents and media reports, euphemisms are often used to change the emotional tone of the message. For example: “Negro” (American) → “African American”, “disabled” → “person with disabilities”, “persons with special needs”, “other people” (in some countries); prison → “place of deprivation of liberty”, “places not so remote.” In Soviet times, the words “rootless cosmopolitan” and “Zionist” often served as a substitute for the words “Jew” or “Jew.” Recently, the expression “reputable businessman” (“reputable entrepreneur”) is used by the press as a euphemism when the author wants to transparently hint at the involvement of a given person in criminal activity, but is afraid of claims and accusations of unsubstantiation.

The names of low-prestige jobs also receive euphemisms: courier → “forwarder”, secretary → “office manager”, “assistant”, cleaner → “cleaning manager”, “professional cleaning operator”, cleaner → “technician”, janitor → “caretaker” " This renaming, which leads to a large number of positions with the title “manager”, is characterized by a joke: “janitor - manager for external ecology” and “housekeeper - logistics manager”, “security guard - manager for emergency situations”.

To get around the taboo on the direct use of the name of the devil, euphemisms such as “clown”, “horned”, “evil”, “unclean”, etc. were previously used.

In Judaism, it is considered unacceptable to pronounce the name of God in vain (that is, in vain, without reason), and it is especially considered unacceptable to pronounce God’s own name. Therefore, when reading the Hebrew Bible, in places where the proper name of God is mentioned (Hebrew: יהוה‏‎‎‎), “Adonai” - “Lord” is pronounced (for more details on pronunciation, see the Tetragrammaton and the Hebrew language).

It is characteristic that new designations for “obscene” objects and phenomena over time lose the character of euphemisms, begin to be perceived as a direct indication of an “obscene” object, and in turn become “obscene.” One of the favorite techniques of “rude comedy” is built on this property of euphemisms - playing with so-called “transparent” euphemisms (for example, Chapter IX of “Gargantua” by Rabelais).

A similar situation occurred with the chain “negro” → “black” → “Afro-American” (American Negro) or “lame” → “crippled” → “handicapped” → “disabled” → “differently abled” (disabled).

This process is gradual; Only occasionally, due to serious social upheavals, does a word quickly transform from neutral to taboo. For example, because of the German “death camps,” the word “concentration camp” (a camp in which civilian prisoners of war are kept) received a negative connotation.

However, the same situation exists with dysphemisms: dysphemism may lose its taboo over time, for example, fr. tête, Italian. testa - head< лат. testa - горшок при нейтральном caput.

L.P. Krysin

EUPHEMISM IN MODERN RUSSIAN SPEECH

(Russian Studies. - Berlin, 1994, No. 1-2. - P. 28-49)

Euphemization of speech

To a certain extent, the process of euphemization of speech, which is also very characteristic of its modern state, is opposite in nature, goals and results of the means used.

It seems that the following points are essential for the euphemization process:

1) the speaker’s assessment of the subject of speech as such, the direct designation of which can be qualified - in a given social environment or by a specific addressee - as rudeness, harshness, indecency, etc.; apparently, only certain objects, realities, spheres of human activity and human relations can cause such an assessment - others are “neutral” from this point of view; therefore, not all speech is subject to euphemism, but speech related to certain topics and areas of activity (see below about this);

2) the speaker’s selection of such designations that not only soften certain seemingly rude words and expressions, but mask and veil the essence of the phenomenon; this is especially clearly seen in the example of semantically vague medical terms such as neoplasm instead of a frightening tumor or foreign - therefore not understandable - terms like pediculosis instead of lice, etc., as well as in the use of words with “diffuse” semantics: known, definite, proper, special and so on. (see below about this);

3) the dependence of the use of euphemism on the context and on the conditions of speech: the stricter the social control of the speech situation and the speaker’s self-control of his own speech, the more likely the appearance of euphemisms; and, on the contrary, in poorly controlled speech situations and with high automaticity of speech (see communication in the family, with friends, etc.), “direct” designations, or dysphemisms, may be preferred to euphemisms (for the concept of social control in the processes of verbal communication, see Krysin, 1989, 139);

4) social conditioning of the idea of ​​​​what can be a euphemism: what is regarded as a euphemism in one environment may receive different assessments in another (see below).

Topics and areas of euphemization

The speaker's assessment of a particular subject of speech from the point of view of decency / indecency, rudeness / politeness is usually focused on certain topics and areas of activity of people (or relationships between them). Traditionally, these topics and areas are:

Some physiological processes and conditions; Wed free your nose! – blow your nose instead!; empty the intestines; malaise (about menstruation); She is expecting a child (instead of: She is pregnant), etc.;

Certain parts of the body associated with the “bottom of the body”; objects of this kind are such that their indirect, euphemistic designation in everyday speech is perceived by the majority as not quite decent - cf., for example, colloquial and slang designations for the male penis: end, stick, instrument, apparatus, device, sausage, balda, wafer, banana, etc. or female vagina: hole, well, pelvis, rag, washcloth, piggy bank, etc. (see Baldaev et al., 1992, 314) ; among physicians, as is known, Latin is used for these purposes;

Relations between the sexes; Wed: to be in a close, intimate relationship, in an intimate relationship, physical intimacy; colloquial use of verbs to meet, be friends, walk (with someone); We had nothing with him - I mean physical intimacy, etc.;

Illness and death: malaise, feeling unwell instead of being sick, being sick; She is completely bad about the hopelessly ill man, he left us, he was gone instead of died; demise instead of death; lethal outcome as a medical euphemism that replaces “too direct” death, etc. The topics of death and funeral, if these events are relevant (either coincide with the moment of speech, or are separated from it by a short period of time), are verbalized almost exclusively with the help of euphemisms. Wed. pass away and become obsolete. and simple. end, deceased, X is gone, no longer with us; bury (but not bury!); The actions of institutions involved in organizing funerals are referred to in the official language as ritual services, which are vague and euphemistic in nature. Wed. also in the speech of doctors: to lose a patient, that is, to allow the patient to die, not to cope with the disease; children leave (meaning ‘die’).

These spheres of euphemism can be called personal; they concern the personal life and personality of the speaker, the addressee and third parties.

In addition, the phenomenon of euphemization is observed in various spheres of social life of a person and society. It is important to emphasize that in modern conditions, the most developed are the methods and means of euphemization that affect socially significant topics, areas of human activity, his relationships with other people, with society, with the authorities.

Euphemisms in social spheres of human activity

Let us consider this type of euphemism, characterizing (1) the goals of euphemism; (2) areas of social life in which euphemistic language means are used more often than others; (3) linguistic methods and techniques of euphemization; (4) social differences between speakers in the creation and use of euphemisms.

Purposes of euphemization of speech

1. The main goal pursued by speakers when using euphemisms in social and interpersonal relationships is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts and failures, and not create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor.

In euphemisms of this kind, an object, action, property are called differently, in a more polite form - compared to other methods of nomination. Compare, for example, the words hard of hearing instead of deaf, blind instead of blind, used as peculiar terms, as well as statements such as She can’t hear, He’s limping about a very limping person, Yes, I’m sick for some reason - the temperature is under forty, etc.

The clerical stamp well-deserved rest (rest) in combination to leave (to spend) on a well-deserved rest (rest) is felt by speakers as a more polite expression than the word pension, especially if it is used in the presence of the person in question (apparently because that the word pension may evoke in the addressee undesirable associations with social inferiority).

Wed. cases of more individual euphemisms of this kind:

Sit down, please, sit down - those are the guests on the balcony! (Chairman at the Congress of People's Deputies, April 1992) - here the word form sit is regarded by the speaker as not being polite enough;

This dress will... uh... grow you up (the speaker avoided the word ages);

You have become some kind of... - An adult - that’s what they say now, not to say: old. – (Laughter) Yes, yes (Recordings of oral speech, 90s).

2. More specific - in the social sense - is another purpose of euphemization: veiling, camouflage of the essence of the matter. The euphemistic means used for this purpose are very diverse and, it seems, are characteristic precisely of our linguistic reality. The reason for this is the general deceitfulness of the system and the ideological apparatus that serves it, and the fear of publicity for unseemly or inhumane activities. It is not for nothing that camouflage names are most common when describing what needs to be hidden: the life of a camp or prison, the work of defense enterprises, and in the recent past - the hidden activities of the top of the Communist Party and the state apparatus, the work of the Cheka - OGPU - NKVD - MGB - KGB, which received a stable euphemistic name of the competent authorities.

For example, a camp or prison in administrative and business jargon is called an institution (Many new people have entered this institution. - Television, August 27, 1991, interview with employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs); the combination “a separate room” denotes a punishment cell in a camp (see in L. Razgon’s story “Uninvented”); the word overseer has recently been replaced by the more vague and less odious controller; instead of the word agent or pejorative informer, they say informant or well-wisher (cf. in the speech of the former guard of I.V. Stalin - Rybin: Agent is inconvenient to say, well, well-wisher, you can say, well-wisher. - Television, 12.9.1991); Wed also: A huge territory was given for maintenance (as the intelligence officers called their work in KGB jargon) (Komsomolskaya Pravda, July 29, 1991).

Also very indicative as “camouflage” are the numerous names with the first part of the special: special contingent (about prisoners or exiles), special department (as well as a special department in military units, in civilian units - the first department, which is also a euphemistic designation for the detective and censorship service) , special distribution, special sector, special task, special clinic, special storage - as an abbreviated name for the department of special storage of books in the library, that is, books not issued to readers without special permission, etc. (See about this Krysin, 1990).

Special action and simply action in this jargon mean 'execution, execution of a death sentence', and the phrase capital punishment (from capital punishment), euphemistically denoting a sentence to death, became an official legal term (which in common parlance and argotically used was drawn to tower and tower).

This also includes the veiling use of the verbs neutralize and neutralize in contexts like: It was necessary to neutralize the guards (= 'interrupt, destroy'), After the sentry was neutralized... (= killed or put in a state where he cannot act), physical elimination - instead of murder (a provocative article appeared in "Evening Moscow" about the allegedly impending physical elimination of the president. - Television, April 20, 1993) and some. etc.

In military language, designations have long been used with the help of which the true meaning of transmitted messages is hidden from the enemy: farm in the meaning of “military unit”, cucumbers in the meaning of “shells”, etc. This tradition was also adopted when describing the activities of defense and any other “closed” enterprises: box in the meaning ‘factory, institute’ (I work in a box; They were distributed in boxes - about graduates of the institute) - from the combination mailbox number such and such; object - in the meaning of 'military facility' or 'industrial facility of a defense nature' (see numerous examples of the use of the word object in this sense in A.D. Sakharov's "Memoirs"), product - about a bomb, missile and similar military products: Arriving at the test site (for nuclear testing), we learned about a very difficult situation that had suddenly arisen. The test was planned in a ground version. At the time of the explosion, the product had to be on a special tower built in the center of the test field (A.D. Sakharov. Memoirs); product: The product was the filling for atomic bombs (Television, 10/18/1991).

Camouflaging euphemisms are those that in the recent past were used to designate the actions and properties of representatives of the party and Soviet apparatus (at any level). Life inside the party elite, inside the power structures, had to be hidden from the uninitiated, and therefore reports about certain events in these areas were replete with very vague phrases such as: for official use - about secret documents, an organizational issue was considered (this meant that some a party or Soviet leader was removed from the governing body, demoted, etc.), organizational conclusions were made (designating repressive measures applied to some functionary or an employee in general), to behave immodestly (about a party grabber, a corrupt official, etc.) .P.); Wed also half-joking - but this does not change its euphemistic essence - lover of life in relation to some official, drunkard or libertine. In some ways, this usage continues to this day, cf.: The immodesty of the head of the administration was noted, who used his official position for personal gain [that is, took bribes, traded in state property, etc.] (Radio, 15.3.1993) .

Camouflaging words and phrases are very common outside the specific environment that is associated with a repressive system, the military-industrial complex, or relations within party and government structures. They are resorted to in cases where the direct designation of an object, action, property, in the opinion of the speaker, can cause an undesirable social effect, a negative reaction from the mass addressee, condemnation, etc.

Such, for example, are the phrases liberalization of prices, price liberation, price regulation, free prices in the language of the modern press, in the speech practice of economists, government officials, etc. In their literal meanings, these combinations can be applied to any prices and any processes occurring with prices : lowering, raising, maintaining the same level, putting them in order, as follows from the meaning of the words liberation, liberalization, free, ordering. However, in reality, they mean rising prices, higher prices than before, but they mean, so to speak, not directly, but by veiling a phenomenon that is unpleasant for most people.

Wed: The consequences of the reform are revealed in the form of hyperinflation initiated from above and an unprecedented increase in prices for food and industrial essential goods, for some reason affectionately called here by the euphonious name “liberalization” (“Moskovsky Komsomolets”, 2.2.1992, interview with economist L.I. . Piyasheva); Under the euphonious name of price regulation, prices for a number of everyday goods have been increased (Radio, 10/16/1991); The decree, which is coquettishly called “On the regulation of prices for certain types of energy products,” in fact significantly increases the price of all petroleum products and most other types of fuel (Television, 20.9.1992).

The authorities are trying to soften the blows inflicted on the population by economic reforms. Thus, in the early 80s, coupons for sugar, soap and other essential goods that had become scarce (in trade terminology, such goods are euphemistically called goods of high demand) were provided with the hypocritical inscription “Invitation”. Government actions aimed at raising prices, increasing taxes, etc., the government itself calls unpopular measures a very amorphous in meaning and essentially euphemistic phrase.

The desire to hide the meaning of phenomena is also visible in such designations as internationalist warriors (about Soviet soldiers in Afghanistan in 1979-1990), friendly assistance to the fraternal Afghan people, a limited contingent of troops on the territory of the same Afghanistan (cf. the use of more direct nominations aggression , occupation, occupiers - in radio broadcasts of the BBC, Voice of America, Radio Liberty).

In connection with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the intensification of hostility between some of its formerly “brotherly” peoples, reports of bloody events in certain regions of the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Baltic States, Moldova, etc. are also often presented in a “veiling”, softening tone , for which euphemisms like: tension remains (Tension remains in Nagorno-Karabakh... there are killed and wounded. - Radio, 1991), suffer (Over forty people were injured in the battles, eight of them were killed. - Television, 1991), go to the extreme measures (In this situation, it would be undesirable to take extreme measures and send troops there. - Television, 1991), unpredictable consequences (This step by the Azerbaijani government may have unpredictable consequences: observers agree that military action in Nagorno-Karabakh cannot be avoided. – Radio, 1990), etc.

The tension in relations between different peoples and national groups gives rise to a fear among people speaking publicly (journalists, commentators, deputies, political figures, etc.) of using inaccurate words or awkward expressions to increase this tension and unwittingly contribute to inter-ethnic discord. From here is a step towards a false interpretation of the meaning of some units as too direct, rude, and these units themselves as capable of causing moral damage to the addressee or those in question.

Thus, recently, instead of a one-word designation of representatives of the people of the Caucasus, Central Asia and some other regions, descriptive phrases have begun to be used in the press, on radio and television: persons of Armenian nationality (instead of Armenians), a person of Uzbek nationality (instead of Uzbek) and even persons of Caucasian nationality (although there is no such nationality as Caucasian). In some cases, this kind of descriptive language seeks to hide a narrower meaning, a more specific object, the direct naming of which does not seem entirely convenient to the speaker, because it reveals his true views, intentions or goals. Thus, representatives of nationalist-minded literary circles sometimes mean Jewish writers by the phrase Russian-speaking writers; participants in the summer (1992) rallies near the building of the Ostankino television center initially put forward a demand, which was written on posters - “Down with non-Russian television!”, but soon moved on to clearer slogans: “Jewish television for Israel!”, “Down with Zionism on the air!” and etc.

3. The third goal pursued by speakers when using euphemisms is the desire to convey something to the addressee in such a way that it is understandable only to him. Of course, this kind of encrypted message is relative, and very soon it becomes imaginary if such messages are not contained in private correspondence, but are published and thereby made available for interpretation to everyone reading or listening.

From this point of view, various kinds of advertisements published in the press or posted, so to speak, spontaneously at bus stops, near metro stations, on fences and poles, etc., are very typical. “I am exchanging a three-room apartment for a four-room apartment under a solid agreement” - here, behind the words “solid agreement” there is hidden a promise to pay well for the difference in the area of ​​​​the exchanged apartments. Wed. also more characteristic: “I am exchanging a one-room apartment for a two-room apartment under a very good agreement” and even “I am exchanging Lugansk for Moscow for a very good agreement,” where in the type of management one can see the management model of the predicate that is replaced by a euphemism: cf. pay, payment for something.

In the area that is associated with the exchange and receipt of housing, there are many other euphemisms. Anyone who has closely encountered this painful area is well aware that, for example, a promising family is a family in which the parents are in the so-called reproductive age, that is, simply put, a family in which children can be born. And a promising apartment is something almost opposite in meaning and even ominously inhuman in essence: an apartment in which an elderly (and, therefore, unpromising in the sense just discussed) person lives and which, therefore, will soon be vacated.

Another type of announcement is associated with veiling, concealing the essence of the message being given - relating to relations between men and women. Wed. the following examples: A young woman will provide services to a wealthy man; A slender, smart, young woman is looking for a personal sponsor; I want to punish a naughty lady; A 20-year-old young man is looking for a mentor (advertisement in the newspaper “Private Life”, 1992). The highlighted words and phrases are obvious euphemisms: they are used not in their dictionary meanings, but in those that the addresser wants to express; At the same time, however, these euphemisms do not fulfill their camouflaging purpose well, since their “secret” meaning is read quite easily (it is clear what kind of services we are talking about, for what purpose the search for a personal sponsor is being conducted, what exactly should a young man of 20 years old be taught his mentor and what caused the desire to punish the naughty lady). Wed. also a specific understanding of the word complexes in such an advertisement: Girls without complexes are needed for a highly paid job (meaning potential prostitutes), as well as a very specific understanding of the word habits (more precisely, the phrase bad habits) in a job advertisement: The company requires drivers and forwarders . We ask people with bad habits and over 35 years of age not to apply (persons with bad habits mean those who like to drink).

Areas of social life in which euphemisms are used

1. The traditional area in which euphemistic means of expression are actively used is diplomacy. It is quite obvious that the communicative tasks that diplomats and politicians have to deal with cannot be solved using only direct nominations, without circumlocutions, hints, omissions, camouflage, that is, without everything that euphemisms are supposed to express. .

Words and phrases that are often flashing now on the pages of the press and on the air (some of them have already been mentioned) such as taking extreme measures, unpredictable consequences, confrontation (in relation to situations where there is a war, although perhaps local), certain circles, corresponding authorities, peacekeeping actions, the principle of reciprocity (cf.: The right “an eye for an eye”, in the language of diplomacy called the principle of reciprocity ... - Television, 12.5.1993), etc. - were born precisely in diplomatic speech.

2. Repressive actions of the authorities: detain instead of arrest (cf. in an interview with the head of the Main Department of Internal Affairs of Moscow: - Tell me, were any of the participants in this action arrested? - We detained several people, they will be charged with deliberately disturbing public order and malicious hooliganism (Television, May 1, 1993), capital punishment instead of the death penalty, apply sanctions - this phrase is used in a very vague sense: it can mean criminal prosecution, imprisonment, economic or military blockade of regions and entire states (cf. Blockade - and all Lithuanians use this very word, rejecting the euphemisms proposed by the USSR government - did not embitter or embitter the inhabitants of the republic. Rather, they talk about “sanctions” with bewilderment and resentment... - “Democratic Russia”, 1990, No. 3; applied by the UN against Iraq turn out to be ineffective - Television, July 1992).

Also included here are designations of measures of party and administrative influence on people that are characteristic of the recent past: warn, put on notice, indicate - as a rule, without filling in the valence of the content: The Bureau warned Ivanov (put on sight, indicated); correct (cf. has become a common joke: If I’m wrong, my older comrades will correct me), etc.

3. State and military secrets and secrets, which include the production of weapons, certain types of equipment, the social and numerical composition of institutions (not only military), the profile of their work, and much more. Wed. the above examples of the use of the words object, product, product, box, etc., as well as the following examples: the development of unusual types of weapons (meaning bacteriological weapons), unconventional forms of war (meaning forms of war aimed at the complete destruction of enemy manpower with the preservation of his military equipment).

4. Activities of the army, intelligence, police, criminal investigation and some other government bodies, whose actions should not be “in plain sight.” Here words and phrases with a fairly general meaning are used, while they are applied in relation to specific actions and phenomena: task, operation (go on a task, complete a task, carry out an operation to detain a criminal), object in the sense of 'the person behind whom secret surveillance is being conducted' (cf.: He clarified where the “object” was located, that is, Solzhenitsyn... At that moment I saw the “object” with a friend leaving the door of the store. - Top Secret, 1992, No. 4), action, special action (cf.: At a meeting with KGB resident Wadia Haddag outlined a promising program of sabotage and terrorist activities of the PFLP... The main goal of special actions of the PFLP is to increase the effectiveness of the struggle of the Palestinian resistance movement against Israel, Zionism and American imperialism, to carry out actions against American and Israeli personnel... - From the resolutions of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee; "Moscow News", 14.2.1992), a closed institution, jargon-professional, to have access (without specifying the object: to secret documentation, to secret work), restricted from traveling - about a person associated with secret work and therefore unable to travel abroad (later extended to politically unreliable persons).

6. Sphere of distribution and service: goods in high demand, scarce goods, deficit (Scarcity thrown away); in everyday speech and in common parlance, there are common expressions to organize, to arrange something in the sense of ‘assist in the acquisition of some product’: Build me a refrigerator for one and a half prices; Can you organize a kitchen set?

6. Relations between various national and social groups, the status of these groups: non-indigenous population - can be used in relation to Russians living in the Baltic states or other former republics of the USSR; ethnic cleansing - the extermination in a particular region (city, republic) of persons who do not belong to the dominant nation in that region; was first used in relation to the situation in Yugoslavia, where Serbs destroy Muslims, Croats destroy Serbs on the territory of Croatia, and then began to be used in relation to situations in the former USSR (cf. In Gorno-Badakhshan they remember well that, having taken control of Dushanbe, some government soldiers engaged in ethnic cleansing, with the Pamiris being killed first - Nezavisimaya Gazeta, July 5, 1993); guest performers from the Caucasus region - about criminal groups in Moscow and St. Petersburg, consisting of “persons of Caucasian nationality”; high-risk groups - about drug addicts, homosexuals, prostitutes, who have a higher (than other social groups) likelihood of contracting AIDS.

7. Some types of professions, the euphemistic designation of which is intended to increase the prestige of these professions or to hide the negative impression of the occupation designated by the “direct” name: milking machine operator, slaughterhouse operator, sewage treatment operator (cf. the former sewer operator, who has ceased to fulfill his euphemistic function ), controller instead of warden, executor - about a person who carries out death sentences (cf. executioner), etc. Foreign language designations play a significant role in this group of euphemisms, cf.: Oleg’s profession is much more romantic and vital: he is a dog mating instructor . Oleg, however, is offended when he is called a “knitter” (from the professional meaning of the verb knit – “to knit (animals)”), but has nothing against the cinematic sexopathologist (“Moskovsky Komsomolets”, 8.2.1992) - for more details on this, see in the next section.

Linguistic methods and means of euphemization

1. Defining words with “diffuse” semantics: some, known, definite, corresponding, proper and certain. etc. Wed: I have something to do with this - it can be said somewhat ironically in a situation where the speaker is directly involved in P (for example, he is the author of the book in question, participated in the development of this project, etc.); Without consulting us, he (the president) supports the government, which through its actions has led the country to certain results (= bad, negative) (Radio, 8.4.1992, speech by a deputy of the Supreme Council); It has become completely clear that – let’s use the terminology introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev – “certain destructive forces” are doing everything possible to... (Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 29.8.1991); The world champion did not manage his pieces in the best way under time pressure (that is, poorly) (Television, 28.2.1992).

2. Nominations with a fairly general meaning, used to name very specific objects and concepts: action, product, object, product, institution (see examples above), material in the meaning of 'compromising information about someone' (material has been received on you) , signal in the meaning of 'reporting something unfavorable to higher authorities' (At one time we did not listen to signals from the field), etc. Even pronouns (that is, words with the most general meaning) can be used as designations for specific objects and actions. : (Dialogue between mother and 16-year-old daughter) - Did you have anything with Tolya? - Well, what are you talking about, mom, - there was nothing (recording of oral speech); Suzanne's friend's name is Gino. Suzanna shows Ilona what Gino's “it” is, and Ilona says: “Who knows, this would have entered me!” ("Private Life", 1991, No. 1).

3. Foreign words and terms used as designations that are more suitable for veiling the essence of the phenomenon than the original vocabulary: liberalization (of prices), cancer (instead of cancer), pediculosis (instead of lice), celadon (instead of the offensive word womanizer), destructive ' destructive' (destructive forces), confrontation 'confrontation' (sometimes with the use of weapons).

4. Abbreviations, especially characteristic of the repressive sphere and areas related to the concealment of state and military secrets: VM = capital punishment (punishment), DSP = for official use, SS = top secret (mark on documents; in professional usage such a mark was called " two Semyons"), prisoner (from prisoner canal-army - the abbreviation arose during the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal), PKT = cell-type room (in fact, simply a cell), etc.

5. Some words denoting the incompleteness of an action or a weak degree of a property, used not in their usual meaning, but as a softening euphemism: He does not hear (about a deaf person), He limps (about a lame person), suspend (activities of an organization, party membership, etc.) .p.) – can mean not only a temporary, but also a complete cessation of action or activity.

6. Some verb forms with the prefix pod-: drive up, approach, give a ride and some. others, which are perceived by some speakers (mainly speakers of vernacular) as more polite, softening the direct attitude towards the addressee and therefore are used by them as euphemistic replacements for “direct” designations to come, come, bring, take (in literary language, as is known, verbs with prefixes under-, under- are not synonymous). Wed: – Can I come to you to discuss this today? I'll be there around six o'clock. Will you be at your place? Give me a ride to the metro, please (recordings of oral speech). Wed. also a euphemism to suggest in contexts like: – Can you tell me how to get to Voentorg?).

“Dictionary of euphemisms of the Russian language” Elena Pavlovna Senichkina.

Dysphemism (Greek δυσφήμη - “ignorance”) is a rude or obscene designation of an initially neutral concept in order to give it a negative semantic load or simply to enhance the expressiveness of speech, for example: die instead of die, muzzle instead of face.

Dysphemisms can take root in a language as neutral names, cf., for example, French. tête, Italian. testa ‘head’< лат. testa ‘горшок’ при нейтральном caput.

The term dysphemism is sometimes used as a synonym for cacofemism. However, their use should not be reduced to rudeness and lack of culture. Dysphemisms are widely used in traditional cultures (East Asian, etc.) in order to avoid the evil eye: in relation to one’s own children, women, valuable objects. Often, dysphemisms blur the line between superstition and polite self-deprecation.

replacing a name that is natural in a certain context with a more rude, familiar, vulgar one, for example, “yesterday our director swore at his secretary”? “yesterday our director barked at the secretary like a dog”, “we are not interested in your proposal”? “we didn’t give a damn about proposals like yours,” “why are you upset?” "Why the snot."

The use of D. often indicates psychological problems in the speaker, uncertainty in position, envy, dissatisfaction with one’s social status, sexual success, etc. D. is an indicator of internal conflicts in the psyche.

0

Course work

Euphemisms: methods of education and translation

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….3

1 Euphemism as a phenomenon of language and speech……..………………………..……………..5

1.1 The concept of euphemism……………………………………………..…………5

1.2 Euphemia and principles of communication…………………..………………….9

1.3 Methods of forming euphemisms……………….……………………….13

2Political correctness as one of the motives for using euphemisms………………………………………………………………………………………16

2.1 The concept of political correctness……….…………………………….19

2.2 Media and euphemism……………………………………………………….…23

List of sources used…………………………………….………27

Introduction

Today, there is no doubt that the language system is constantly changing. And the well-being of many people often depends on the ability to organically transform their thoughts into words. That is why it is important to understand not only the meanings of new words, but also to be able to correctly use existing ones.

Nomination, that is, “giving a name” to a particular thing, can be direct or indirect. The use of direct nomination usually does not cause any special problems. But when it comes to indirect nomination, that is, naming the same object in other words that present it in a different light, difficulties arise in a number of cases. This course work examines one of the methods of secondary nomination - euphemization.

When studying euphemisms, a linguist must consider and analyze not only the euphemistic expressions themselves, but also the socio-cultural background against which the need for this method of nomination arises.

It should be taken into account that, unlike ordinary vocabulary, euphemisms are extremely sensitive to public assessments of certain phenomena, both “decent” and “indecent.” Connected with this is the historical variability of the status of euphemism: what seems to be a successful euphemistic name to one generation may be regarded in subsequent generations as undoubted and unacceptable rudeness, again requiring a euphemistic replacement.

Relevance. This work is devoted to the phenomenon of euphemism in modern German. Within the framework of lexicology, interest in euphemism is associated with the manifestation of the dynamism of lexical meaning, the problems of the nominative activity of a linguistic personality, and the processes of updating the vocabulary of a language. The relevance of this course work is determined by the fact that, despite the variety of aspects in which euphemism is studied, many issues remain controversial: reliable criteria for identifying euphemism have not been developed, and there is no generally accepted definition of it. The minimum number of special studies devoted to the problem of euphemism in the modern German language in Russian German studies determined the choice of the topic of this work.

Object of study This work are euphemisms of the German language.

Item research - features of their formation and use in speech.

Target The work consists of studying euphemisms of the German language and their functions in speech.

The object, subject and purpose of the study made it possible to determine the next circle tasks:

Consider euphemisms as a way of secondary nomination

Expand the euphemism of the German language in the language of politics.

Research methods: generalization and comparison as general scientific methods used in the analysis of theoretical literature. The work consists of an introduction, 6 paragraphs, a conclusion and a bibliography.

Practical significance- is that the results and
research material can be used in lecture courses and
special courses in lexicology, phraseology, for writing term papers, as well as in the practice of studying the German language.

1 Euphemism as a phenomenon of language and speech

• Concept of euphemism

The word "euphemism" comes from the Greek eu - "Fine", phemi- “I say” and has been used since the times of the ancient Greeks to denote a stylistic trope that serves to verbally soften a rude or obscene expression.

The problems of euphemism have been repeatedly considered in the works of domestic and foreign linguists based on various languages: [Caney 1960; Widlak 1967; Katsev 1989; Krysin 1996; Pavlova 1996; Gumirova 1997; Moskvin 1998; Borgoyakov 1998; Kudryashova 2000] and others.

In the past, domestic linguists did not pay due attention to the problems of euphemism, due to the conviction that was established in Soviet times about “the exposure of euphemisms and the preference for direct expressions characteristic of the socialist era” [Larin 1977: 114]. Euphemisms are not included in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, and there are no special dictionaries for this genre.

This gap is now beginning to be filled. There has been great interest in the problem of euphemism in recent years. Dissertation works appear [Pavlova 1996; Rodchenko 2000; Tyurina 1998] and other publications on this issue [see, for example, Bolotnova 1998; Evseeva 2000; Kikvidze 1997; Kochetkova 1998; Kuzhim 1997; Mankovskaya 1997; Pavlova 2000; Sheigal 1997; Dubov, 1994].

The study of euphemism is currently an urgent linguistic problem, because the processes of formation of euphemisms as words or expressions that replace a rude, indecent, unpleasant word in the language occur extremely intensively, as evidenced by the widespread use of euphemistic units in the works of art of modern authors, the activation lexicographic work in the field of euphemism.

There are quite a few definitions of the concept “euphemism” in the linguistic literature. They reflect the various functions of this phenomenon. A number of definitions are based on the function of euphemism as a softening of the rude and unpleasant. These definitions describe a euphemism as “a mild, vague, or peri-phrastic expression to replace rough precision or unpleasant truth”; as “a method by which an unpleasant, offensive or fearful word is replaced by an indirect or milder term” [Ch. Caney I960];as: “a word or phrase that is used to replace an unpleasant word or expression with a relatively more acceptable one” [I. R. Galperin 1981].

Other scientists, along with the function of mitigation, note the importance of social motives, defining euphemisms as expressions that “are designed to minimize the unpleasant impression on the listener or possible unpleasant consequences for the speaker if the latter wants to make a favorable impression” [Partridge 1964]; or as “indirect substitutes for the names of terrible, shameful or odious, brought to life by moral or religious motives, contributing to the softening effect” [Katsev 1989]; and also with the aim of “avoiding communicative conflicts and failures, not creating a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor” [L. Krysin 1996]; or as “used instead of a thematically stigmatic or socially incorrect antecedent, instead of words or expressions that seem to the speaker to be prohibited, indecent, unacceptable from the point of view of accepted moral norms in society, or even simply rude and tactless” [E. Tyurina 1998]:.

In addition to the above, there are also definitions based on the recognition of the function of masking reality behind euphemisms: “euphemism is that form of words that (for various reasons) expresses an idea in a softened or veiled or more respectful form. Moreover, this softening is sometimes only apparent” [Lawrence 1973]; “euphemization is the use of a non-offensive or pleasant term instead of a direct, offensive one, while masking the truth” [Niman, Silver 1990].

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that euphemism performs three functions:

1. Mitigation of what is unpleasant for the speaker, that is, a taboo on the open use of some direct denotations of denotation, for example, in the past, considered dangerous and often associated with some kind of mystical forces. In East Slavic cultures such words were Almighty, Creator, evil spirits, evil one, demon, in German - Schö pfer, der Schwarze, der Bö se, der Versucher.
2. Softening what is rude and unpleasant for the interlocutor, based on social motives, in particular the rules of etiquette. For example, in many cultures it is not permissible to use certain words against people that refer to direct physical or mental negative characteristics, for example, in the German language such words are forbidden dick, dumm, kleinwüchsig, Ü bergewicht, and sometimes even behindert, which is already a euphemism.
3. Masking reality. This function of euphemization operates when the addresser tries to hide the true essence of the denoted, veil it and, thereby, soften the addressee’s reaction to his statement. All these properties of euphemisms are widely used by politicians and public figures of all countries and cultures in their speech. Yes in German Vertreibung, und Ermordung- are replaced by Umsiedlung, Evakuierung.

In our opinion, the essence of the concept of euphemism is most fully expressed by the definition formulated by N.S. Arapova. A euphemism, in her opinion, is a stylistically neutral word or expression used instead of a synonymous linguistic unit that seems indecent, rude or tactless to the speaker; euphemisms often veil and mask the essence of a phenomenon; For example: die instead of die, tell a lie instead of lie, price liberalization instead of price increase, product (about the atomic bomb) [Arapova N.S 1990:25].

1.2 Euphemia and principles of communication

Euphemistic replacement is associated with the fulfillment or deliberate non-compliance with the so-called requirements for speech. A list of such requirements (advantages to be strived for and disadvantages to be avoided) was formed back in antiquity. The main qualities of speech were recognized as “correctness, unambiguousness, logic, clarity, accuracy, euphony, beauty, variety, clarity, brevity, relevance, credibility” [Moskvin 2001].

A major role in the formulation and systematization of the rules of communication belongs to the famous specialists in the theory of speech acts P. Grice and J. Leach. They formulated the postulates and principles of verbal communication.

The basic principle, called by Grice the “principle of cooperation,” is the requirement to make contributions to the speech message consistent with the accepted purpose and direction of the conversation. This principle is subject to four categories of postulates: 1) the category of quantity (the statement must provide complete information), 2) the category of quality (the information must not be false), 3) the category of attitude, which is associated with the only postulate of relevance (the statement must relate to the essence of the matter ), 4) category of method (the statement must be brief and unambiguous) [Grice 1985: 222-223].

An equally important principle that regulates relationships in verbal communication is the principle of politeness, formulated by J. Leach.

This principle is specified in six postulates [cit. according to Arutyunova 1985: 27]:

• postulate of tact (respect the interests of others);
• the postulate of generosity (keep a minimum of conveniences for yourself);
• postulate of approval (minimize the number of negative assessments);

4th postulate of modesty (blame yourself as much as possible and praise yourself as little as possible);

5 postulate of agreement (strive for maximum agreement between yourself and others);

6th postulate of sympathy (show maximum sympathy for people).

Failure to comply with these requirements, when speakers violate the rules of communication, leads to incomprehensibility, illogicality, ambiguity and other shortcomings of speech. The reasons for this may be reprehensible communicative goals (deception, slander, slander, insults, etc.), excessive politeness, fear of sanctions for truthful but negative information, etc. At the same time, failure to comply with speech requirements may be communication -actively justified, if only in this way the goal of communication can be achieved.

Euphemization refers to communicatively justified violations of speech requirements. If some of Grice's postulates are not observed - the postulates of the quality category ("Don't say what you think is false"), the postulates of the method category ("Avoid unclear expressions", "Avoid ambiguity") [Grice 1985: 222-223], nevertheless, its global principle of cooperation is observed - to make a contribution to speech communication that is consistent with the accepted goal of the conversation.

The ambiguity that arises during euphemization is intentional and serves the ultimate communicative goal - to soften the direct meaning of a harsh or rude statement that is unpleasant for the interlocutor.

Thus, the phenomenon of euphemism refers to linguistic universals, is an integral component of the communication process and serves as one of the main means of conflict-free and successful communication.

The communicative parameters of the euphemization process also include its motives. Euphemization motives are the reasons for replacing some words and expressions with others, defined and classified, however, differently by different linguists.

Some authors, for example, identify a large number of groups of motives, others, for example, [Katsev 1989; Kapu 1960; Neaman, Silver 1990] divide the entire set of motives into two or three large groups, uniting them according to more general characteristics.

The classification of E. Partridge can be considered the most complete and comprehensive. However, its significant drawback is some vagueness in the formulation of euphemization motives and insufficient clarity of the criteria for their identification. E. Partridge identifies the following motives for euphemization:

The desire to adapt to the corresponding general mood,
general atmosphere of time, place, company.

The desire to increase the value of what one has (a form of hyperbole). .

The desire to show respect to the one you are addressing, to produce
impression, to do something pleasant or simply not to offend the interlocutor.

The need to downplay or soften a painful memory or
tragic news.

The existence of social and moral taboos.

The existence of superstitions and religious taboos.

Based on the previous classifications, a more complete classification can be presented:

1 Social motives for euphemization.

1.1 The need to show respect to various social groups. This motive explains:

Names related to race, age, gender and
other features;

Names of concepts related to poverty;

Names of mental and physical disabilities of a person,

1.2 The desire to increase the significance of certain realities of the social sphere:

Names of some professions, institutions, etc.;

2 Moral and ethical motives for euphemization.

2.1The desire not to violate certain moral and ethical prohibitions established by society. This motive is due to

Names of human vices;

Names related to the field of physiology;

Names associated with the concepts of death;

Names related to the field of family and marriage;

Names related to the sexual sphere;

Names of animals and animal meat;

Strong curse words;

3 Euphemization motives associated with religion and superstitions:

Names of supernatural forces;

4 Communicative motives of euphemism.

• The desire to show respect to the interlocutor, to make an impression.

Some titles related to the field of politics;

4.2 The desire to disguise the unpleasant truth.

Names related to the military sphere;

Titles related to the field of politics;

Titles related to the criminal sphere;

Some titles related to business and commerce;

Names associated with special educational institutions.

This classification of euphemization motives identifies four aspects: social, moral and ethical, religious, communicative, thus, all subject-conceptual spheres of modern taboos are somehow ordered within these aspects.

The phenomenon of euphemism is one of the linguistic universals and serves as one of the main means of conflict-free and successful communication.

• 3 Ways to form euphemisms

Among the various ways of forming euphemisms, the most common are the following:

Metaphorical transfer

The use of metaphorical transfer is the most productive way of forming euphemistic vocabulary. A metaphor, creating a vivid image, brightens up the unpleasant or rough aspects of the main, nominative meaning of the word. Thanks to metaphor, it is possible to create such a remarkable image that the main meaning generally becomes secondary. Drette Zähne

Metonymic transfer

Metonymization of meanings as a method of forming euphemisms is based on associative connections between a denotation in the sphere of taboo (antecedent) and a harmless denotation. Metonymy is not a common means of euphemizing German vocabulary. This is due to the fact that metonymy cannot veil the unpleasant aspects of phenomena and objects as much as metaphor or expansion of semantic meaning can, for example der/die Schwarze

Borrowing

The euphemistic function of borrowings has long been known to linguists and is associated with the peculiarity of perception of the internal form, or the motivation of the linguistic sign of a borrowed word. In most cases, the internal form of a word is not transparent to those borrowing the word, and the meaning is not motivated, as a result of which there are no negative associative connections. Borrowed euphemisms appear in a language as a result of linguistic and cultural contacts with representatives of other peoples, for example Negro, der Facility-Manager, der Hairstylist

Periphrase

This method is a euphemization of a concept by explaining its meaning: Personen mit Psychiatrieerfahrung

Also, euphemisms can be formed using word-formation means (affixation, compounding, merging, conversion, truncation of stems, etc.). For example, Sozialschwache (composition), Nachrichtensprecherin (suffixation), Vorsenioren (prefixation).

Some euphemisms are abbreviations (literal,

syllabic or mixed). For example, das HwG-Mädchen (letter abbreviation).

\ Lexical means of forming euphemisms:

1) Defining words with diffuse semantics: some, famous, definite, corresponding, proper and so on.: “These government actions have already led to known results» - meaning bad, negative results; "A certain contact was between our services, but everyone remained alive"; “People are driving in Mercedes, I would say with peculiar faces» ;

2) Nouns with a fairly general meaning, used to name very specific objects and actions: promotion, product, an object, product(about the “stuffing” for atomic bombs), product (about drugs) material(meaning “compromising information about someone”), signal (in the meaning of “reporting to higher authorities about something unfavorable”);

3) Indefinite or demonstrative pronouns, as well as pronominal phrases like this business, one place: - At your place anything was it with Tolya? - No, what are you talking about! He and I have Nothing did not have(meaning sexual relations); title of a television program about sex - "About This» ; I need to one place(=to the toilet);

4) Foreign words and terms used as designations are more suitable - due to their less intelligibility to most native speakers - for veiling the essence of a phenomenon than native vocabulary: cancerer(cancer), pediculosis(lice), liberalization prices, celadon(womanizer), destructive (destructive), confrontation (confrontation), etc.;

5) Words denoting the incompleteness of an action or a weak degree of a property, used not in their dictionary meaning, but as a euphemism: underscored shuffle (about a deaf person), limp(about the lame one) suspend(stop, cease activities), etc.;

6) Abbreviations, especially characteristic of the repressive sphere and areas associated with concealing military and state secrets: VM = capital punishment (punishment), i.e. execution, SS = top secret (a stamp on documents; in professional usage such a stamp was called "two Semyons"), prisoner, in a later writing - convict(from the phrase prisoner canal soldier - the abbreviation arose during the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal).

2 Political correctness as one of the motives for using euphemisms

2.1The concept of political correctness

The very concept of political correctness is quite multifaceted and is understood ambiguously. For example, N.G. Komlev in the “Dictionary of Foreign Words” gives the following definition: “Political correctness, political correctness is a concept established in the United States - a slogan demonstrating the liberal orientation of modern American politics. Political correctness deals not so much with content as with symbolic images and adjustments to the language code. The speech is decorated with signs of anti-racism, environmentalism, tolerant attitude towards national and sexual minorities, and the fight against AIDS. Tolerance is manifested in softened terms (for example, instead of “blacks” - “African Americans”, instead of “disabled” - “those in need of physical support”)

S.G. Ter-Minasova believes that “political correctness of language is expressed in the desire to find new ways of linguistic expression instead of those that hurt the feelings and dignity of the individual, infringes on his human rights by habitual linguistic tactlessness and/or straightforwardness in relation to race and gender, age, health status, social status, appearance, etc.” . Along with this, S.G. Ter-Minasova believes that the phrase political correctness is unsuccessful, proposing to replace it with the more appropriate term “linguistic tact.”

Foreign authors focus on the fact that the phenomenon of political correctness arose and spread on the territory of American colleges and universities, thanks to the ethnic, racial and cultural diversity of the student body. In the preface to the book “Are You Politically Correct?” F. Beckwith and M. Bauman write that political correctness is “a network of interconnected ideological views that question the foundations of university education: the traditional curriculum, views on the objectivity of the knowledge acquired, attaching importance to cultural, gender, class and racial differences.”

Politically correct ideas are often expressed in a more relaxed form. It is for this reason that one of the most effective means of expressing politically correct vocabulary is euphemism. I. Radchenko says: “political correctness is a general name for the euphemization of speech in certain, particularly sensitive topics.”

As already noted, political euphemisms represent a special group of euphemisms and can be considered within the framework of the general phenomenon of euphemism. Consequently, if euphemisms arise to replace taboo words, then it can be assumed that political euphemisms are directly related to the existence of political taboos. Subject-conceptual spheres of political taboos

In parentheses are the original names of the “subject areas” of the use of euphemisms according to R. Holder’s dictionary of euphemisms with translation into Russian:

Titles related to the field of politics;

Names related to the military sphere;
- Names related to the field of economics and business;
- Names related to the criminal sphere;

Names of concepts related to poverty;

Names of human mental and physical disabilities;

Titles related to the field of education;

Names related to the field of ethnic, age, gender, differences;

Names of human vices;

Having analyzed the resulting list of subject-conceptual spheres of political taboos, we can conclude that a minority of political taboos cover areas of names directly related to the foreign policy of the state (international relations, military sphere). A larger number of areas of prohibitions relate to domestic politics, that is, to what is in one way or another connected with society and public relations - these are names in the field of education, business, names of ethnic, age, gender differences, names of the concept of poverty , some professions, etc.

Thus, taking into account the scope of political taboos and the fact that a recognized feature of political euphemisms is their use in texts of political communication, we can give the following definition of political taboos:

political taboos are words and expressions undesirable for use in political communication that can cause a negative reaction or offend the feelings of any groups of the population or even the nation as a whole. Appearing at the next stage of development of human civilization, they are socially conditioned, their number in a particular language and the necessity of replacement depend on the historical period, cultural characteristics, political regime, etc.

2.2 Media and euphemism

It makes sense here to mention the influence of the media in the political world. During election campaigns, the media use their main functions, such as:

Information function, which is the most important function of the media. It consists of obtaining and disseminating information about the most important events for citizens and authorities. The information obtained and transmitted by the mass media includes not only impartial, photographic coverage of certain facts from the political and personal life of a presidential candidate, but also their commentary and assessment;

Ideological function (socially orienting), associated with the desire to have a profound influence on the ideological foundations and value orientations of the audience, on people’s self-awareness, their ideals and aspirations, including the motivation of behavioral acts;

The manipulative-managerial function is the most important, since the media influence the nature of our values, change attitudes, behavior patterns and perceptions of reality. They form myths and stereotypes. Today, a person’s consciousness is sometimes unable to resist such manipulation, as a result of which he becomes the object of information aggression and agitation. The media persuades or tries to persuade a citizen to side with a particular future political leader.

In the print media, almost all political actions today are carried out with the help of political manipulative discourse, the purpose of which is primarily the struggle for power, its distribution and use to control the masses. Over time, the methods of communicative influence on the addressee have changed in many ways, and this is especially pronounced in political discourse. Modern approaches to manipulation make it possible for all kinds of necessary manipulative pictures of the world to appear in the recipient’s mind. If we talk specifically about how political speech is formed (especially if it is presented to the masses), then we can identify a number of features that characterize it. Firstly, there is never any talk about the means of implementing certain social programs. An experienced politician will always call for goals, he will talk about how good it will be for everyone if he is elected or supported in terms of implementing programs and ideas. It is always easy to catch an ordinary person describing such colorful pictures of the future. The illusion has been created, the words have had an effect, but the means are kept silent. Secondly, the politician’s speech is prepared in advance. And it is really simple in its content, easy for members of society to understand. As mentioned above, speech is created in such a way that it is freed from political terminology and professionalism for the best perception by the addressee and, accordingly, creating the most effective basis for introducing consumer ideas and various kinds of illusions into the recipient’s consciousness. In this case, the image of a politician plays an important role, namely how he positions himself in front of a group of people. One of the manipulative strategies in this situation is to create the image of “I’m like everyone else, like ordinary people.” Perhaps this is why political discourse is currently being simplified in terms of linguistic means; Politicians even allow themselves to use jargon in their speech, and in general they use the most commonly used vocabulary. Among the extralinguistic elements in this type of discourse, it can be noted, for example, that politicians (in order to be closer to the people) try to dress more simply, to look more natural, “like everyone else.” Thirdly, by analyzing political discourse, it is possible to identify strategies whose main “impact” falls on the feelings of the addressee. Consider the following slogan: “Are you a citizen of your country? Then you have the right to choose your destiny. Vote!..” If we explicate the real meaning hidden behind such seemingly logically unrelated words, we can deduce the following: “If you don’t vote, you are not a citizen of your country and you are not responsible for your destiny.” In the minds of the addressee, everything is interpreted exactly this way, as a result of which an internal conflict arises, a struggle, the victory of which, as a rule, is won by a manipulative move, strategy, and not common sense. If we consider political discourse from the point of view of linguistics, we can note the presence of political euphemism in media texts. Recently, there has been a tendency not to limit political discourse to the framework of professionalism and to make it accessible to every member of society. Like “euphemism” itself, “political euphemism” has several definitions, which indicate the features that distinguish it from other euphemisms: functioning in texts of political communication with the aim of hiding the unpleasant aspects of reality by softening and distorting the meaning of the fact being described. However, the use of political euphemism is due to several factors: a number of legal restrictions on the use of linguistic means of expressing direct negative assessment in texts of political communication; compliance with the rules of cultural correctness in modern society; greater effectiveness of influencing the audience with an implicit (hidden) method of transmitting information.

Thus, the target feature of political communication texts is to influence the political views, thinking, and behavior of people in society.

In the minds of people there are a number of certain beliefs of political myths that can be activated in order to influence the audience. Political euphemisms are used in political communication texts in order to soften the negative associations associated with certain facts, often by distorting the meaning of the fact being described.

Political euphemisms are part of the general dictionary of euphemisms; the areas of their use in the language are related to the meaning of the term “political”: state power, social life, social issues, public actions of politicians and officials.

The determining factor in the emergence of political euphemisms
is the need to replace words that are political taboos.

The motives for political euphemization are different: social, legal,
communicative.

The texts of political communication create the prerequisites for
the widespread use of political euphemisms, as they help maintain a balance between two opposing trends: the implementation of the pragmatic orientation of political communication texts towards propaganda and persuasion and compliance with the rules of legal and cultural correctness that exist in modern society.

With the help of political euphemisms in the texts of political communication, a targeted influence on the addressee of political communication can be carried out. It is carried out by changing the assessment of certain phenomena, events, a total replacement of concepts in some areas of life and is aimed at changing the worldview, ideological, political, moral attitudes of the individual, that is, it is ideological in nature.

Conclusion

As a result of the study, we assumed that when creating and using old and new euphemisms in speech, representatives of German-speaking cultures are guided not only by its values, but also by the provisions of the universal theory of politeness, which operates with the concepts of positive and negative face. It was the desire to maintain a positive face that became one of the reasons for the emergence and consolidation in German-speaking cultures of euphemisms belonging to the second or new sphere of euphemism, that is, politically correct words and expressions.

Although political correctness is somewhat at odds with German-speaking cultures' values ​​of honesty and directness, it is a fairly powerful means of social control that can force speakers of this culture to suppress verbal aggression and use non-aggressive words and expressions in their speech. Thus, we believe that one of the means of countering verbal aggression and maintaining a positive face of the interlocutor is political correctness, implemented within the framework of politeness strategies. A correctly chosen euphemism can resolve an emerging communication conflict. This issue is becoming increasingly relevant in an era of widespread intercultural interaction and inevitably associated intercultural conflicts.

So, euphemisms, being not only a linguistic, but also a cultural phenomenon, are a reflection of the values ​​of modern German-speaking cultures. Based on some outdated euphemisms and comparing them with new ones, we can trace changes in the very value systems of the cultures under consideration, which, in turn, allow us to consider political correctness as its new value and guideline in speech behavior, as well as as a means of adhering to a polite strategy behavior and avoidance of verbal aggression that can turn into a communicative conflict.

The study of euphemisms, methods and reasons for their formation, of course, can be considered one of the promising areas in modern linguistics. An additional area of ​​research could be a comparative analysis of euphemisms and methods of their formation in Russian and German. In light of the fact that until now in Russian lexicography there is no tradition of compiling a dictionary of euphemisms, this goal seems all the more relevant. In addition, continuing the study of euphemisms not only in linguistic, but also in sociocultural contexts, using methods of cultural studies and sociology, will likely add new data to the theory of linguistics and intercultural communication.

In conclusion, it must be said that euphemisms are not only a characteristic, but also a “legitimate” means of linguistic expression, which has a clear normative status: they are used when (in those situations and contexts) when the linguistic taste of the speakers, their idea of ​​moral and ethical values ​​dictate they need to replace direct nominations with indirect ones. At the same time, euphemisms can serve as an indicator of certain stereotypes that exist in a given society at a given time: very often what is called directly in some social conditions, in other, changed conditions and in another era, requires euphemistic designations.

List of sources used

• Vanyushina N.A. Features of the functioning of euphemistic vocabulary in mass and political communication // Philological Sciences. Questions of theory and practice/ www.gramota.net\materials\2\2010\2\7.html
• Galperin I. R. On the concept of “text”: Linguistics of text (materials on-
  scientific conference) part 1 // Collection of scientific works of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. M.
  Thorez - M, 1974. - P. 67-72.
• Galperin I. R. Problems of linguistic stylistics // New in linguistics. -
  -Vol. 9.-S. 5-68.
• Kade T. X., Melnik E. M. Lexicography of scientific research
  in the linguistic classurus // IV Zhitnikov Readings: current ones
  problems of lexicography of scientific research. - 2000. - Part 2. -
  pp. 126-135.
• Katsev A.M. Linguistic taboo and euphemia. - L.: LGPI, 1989. - 79 p.
• Komissarov, V. N. Workshop on translation from English into Russian / V. N. Komissarov, A. L. Koralova - M.: Higher School, 1990. - 127 p.
• Krysin L. P. Sociolinguistic aspects of the study of modern
  Russian language. - M.: Nauka, 1989. - 186 p.
• Krysin L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech / Russian language
  the end of the 20th century (1985-1995) - M., 1996. - P. 384-408.
• Moskvin V. P. Methods of euphemistic encryption in modern
  Russian language // Linguistic personality: sociolinguistic and emotive aspects. - Volgograd, Saratov, 1998. - P. 160-168.

Title="The goals of euphemization of speech: 1. The desire to avoid conflicts, not to create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor: blind > blind, untruth > lies or lies. 2. Veiling the essence of the matter: for official use (about secret documents">!}

Title="Professional euphemisms People whose professions involve risk have taboos on some words. For example, pilots, parachutists, and circus performers avoid using the word “last.” It is replaced by “extreme.” For example: extreme flight > the last ones">!}

Title="Socially significant euphemisms In documents and media messages, euphemisms are often used that change the emotional tone of the message. For example: Negro (American) > African American, disabled > person with disabilities">!}

Title="Joking euphemisms Euphemisms that arise as a result of combining euphemistic and playful intentions. Techniques for producing humorous euphemisms are paraphrase: For example: a glass of vodka > invite for a glass of tea; not the first youth > not the first freshness.">!}

Title="Economic euphemisms Economic euphemisms are a type of political euphemisms used by economists. For example: capitalism, capitalist > free enterprise, market, market economy, entrepreneur. Also related to economic">!}

Title=" Etiquette euphemisms Etiquette euphemisms are euphemisms used so as not to offend the interlocutor or a third party: For example: full -> thick; can’t think of gunpowder -> stupid. Etiquette euphemism refers to the norms of linguistic behavior. Steam">!}

1 of 27

Presentation on the topic: Euphemisms in Russian

Slide no. 1

Slide description:

Slide no. 2

Slide description:

Goals and objectives Goals of the work: to identify the features of the use of euphemisms in communication as a means of creating a psychological climate. Objectives of the work: 1) clarify the definition of euphemism. 2) formulate the purposes of using euphemisms; 3) identify linguistic means and methods of euphemism; 4) determine the range of main thematic groups of euphemisms and analyze them from the point of view of functioning in speech; 5) conduct a study of the use of euphemisms at school by teachers and students, and also in the family by parents.

Slide no. 3

Slide description:

Slide no. 4

Slide description:

The essence of euphemism. The following points are essential for the euphemization process: 1) the speaker’s assessment of the subject of speech as one whose direct designation can be regarded as rudeness, harshness, indecency, etc.; 2) the speaker’s selection of such designations that not only soften the method of expression, but also mask and veil the essence of the phenomenon; 3) the dependence of the use of euphemism on the context and on the conditions of speech: the stricter the social control of the speech situation and the speaker’s self-control of his own speech, the more likely the appearance of euphemisms, and, on the contrary, in poorly controlled speech situations and with high automatism of speech, “direct” euphemisms may be preferred , non-euphemistic means of designation.

Slide no. 5

Slide description:

The goals of euphemization of speech: 1. The desire to avoid conflicts, not to create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor: blind > blind, untruth > lie or lies.2. Veiling the essence of the matter: for official use (about secret documents), streamlining or regulating prices (increasing), 3. The desire to hide from others what the speaker wants to communicate only to a specific addressee (“I am changing a 3-room apartment for a 4-room apartment under a solid agreement ). The recipients of euphemism can be both individuals and representatives of a certain social group (this is especially typical for political euphemism).

Slide no. 6

Slide description:

Linguistic means and methods of euphemization 1) defining words with diffuse semantics: some, known, definite, corresponding, appropriate, etc.: “People are driving in Mercedes, I would say, with peculiar faces” 2) nouns with with a fairly general meaning, used to name very specific objects and actions: signal (in the meaning of “a message to higher authorities about something unfavorable”); 3) indefinite or demonstrative pronouns, as well as pronominal phrases such as this is the case, one place: You have did anything happen to Tolya? - No, what are you talking about! We had nothing with him (meaning sexual relations); 4) foreign words and terms used as designations more suitable - due to their less intelligibility to most native speakers - for veiling the essence of the phenomenon than the original vocabulary: pediculosis (instead of lice), 5) words denoting the incompleteness of an action or a weak degree of a property used not in its dictionary meaning, but as a euphemism: not to hear enough (about a deaf person); 6) abbreviations, especially characteristic of the repressive sphere and areas related to the concealment of military and state secrets: VM = capital punishment (punishment), i.e. execution,

Slide no. 7

Slide description:

Areas of use of euphemisms: Frightening objects and phenomena. For example, for the thematic area “death”: losing a patient, death (medical), funeral service bureau. Names of this type are often formed through direct or indirect negation: to take someone’s life; receive an injury incompatible with life. Non-prestigious, from the point of view of a given society, profession and organization: a stylist instead of a hairdresser, a lyceum instead of a vocational school, an operator at a slaughterhouse instead of a flayer. Socially non-prestigious names and surnames: Gnidin > Gnedin, Grobov > Gromov, Blokhin > Sokolov , Chicken > Orlov, etc. Some physiological processes and conditions: Free your nose! Certain parts of the body associated with the "bottom"; Relations between the sexes; Various spheres of social life of a person and society (for example, diplomacy, which traditionally uses various kinds of camouflaging expressions such as certain circles, adequate measures, unpredictable consequences, peacekeeping action, physical elimination. Certain types of speech acts. For example, speech acts of threat, blackmail - “U you may be in trouble”; “If you do not comply with our requirements, you will have problems” (difficulties, complications, etc.).

Slide no. 8

Slide description:

Slide no. 9

Slide description:

Everyday euphemisms Everyday euphemisms are euphemisms used when one does not want to call something unpleasant or physically disgusting by its direct name. For example: I eased my nose, I managed with a handkerchief, in my mouth after yesterday it was as if a squadron had spent the night.

Slide no. 10

Slide description:

Gender euphemisms Gender euphemisms are euphemisms that representatives of feminist organizations insist on introducing, believing that “part of male power is the power of speech”: Alternative appearance - unattractive appearance. Gallantry is a weapon of suppression that makes a woman unable to solve life's problems without the daily help of a man.

Slide no. 11

Slide description:

Ironic euphemisms Ironic euphemisms are euphemisms as the subject of irony or black humor. Neighbor is the one whom we are ordered to love more than ourselves and who does everything possible to make us disobey. The future is that period of time when our affairs prosper, our friends are faithful and our happiness is guaranteed. Congratulations are a polite manifestation of envy. Erudition is dust , shaken out of a book into an empty skull.

Slide no. 12

Slide description:

Masking euphemisms Masking euphemisms - euphemisms that veil the true essence of the denoted are called masking euphemisms. Masking euphemisms are intended to “varnish” the condemned object. As an example, let us give a fragment of one famous dialogue. For example: small apartment > compact apartment; embezzlement of funds > misuse of funds, redistribution of funds

Slide no. 13

Slide description:

Politically correct euphemisms Behind each class of these euphemisms are demands put forward by a certain social group or a certain political movement. Politically correct euphemisms serve, in particular, to “overcome interethnic, intercultural, interethnic contradictions and conflicts.” For example: ordering prices or changing tariffs > increasing prices, poor > beggar

Slide no. 14

Slide description:

Professional euphemisms People whose professions involve risk have taboos on certain words. For example, pilots, parachutists, and circus performers avoid using the word “last.” It is replaced by “extreme”. For example: extreme flight > last, yellow metal > gold.

Euphemisms in Russian speech are divided into:

• 1. Euphemisms of swear words;
• 2. Religious euphemisms;
• 3. Socially significant euphemisms;
• 4. Professional euphemisms;
• 5. Personal euphemisms.

Euphemisms of swear words:

Euphemisms are used in speech to replace rude and abusive words. Everyone knows that swearing is bad and vulgar. But sometimes it’s impossible to resist. Nobody canceled surprises and emotions: indignation, delight, annoyance, displeasure and other strong feelings, and even extreme ones. This is where euphemisms come in handy, allowing you to avoid uttering swear words. In this case, the role of euphemisms is very simple

Religious euphemisms:

“The superstitious fear of spells, the magical effect of a call, direct naming gave rise to prohibitions on words (taboos), gave rise to a division into general and “secret” words, allowed only to priests and leaders. The same belief in the magic of words gave rise to prayers, disease conspiracies, and bewitching suitors. To replace forbidden words, new (“fake”) names are created so as not to anger the gods, deceive evil spirits or a terrible beast in order to appease them” Larin B. A. History of the Russian language and general linguistics // On euphemisms. - Moscow, 1977, - P.101..

So, for example, in order to avoid the direct use of the name of the devil, euphemisms such as jester, horned, crafty, unclean, etc. were previously used.

Socially significant euphemisms:

The media often uses euphemisms that change the emotional tone of the message. For example: “person with disabilities” instead of “disabled person”, “place of deprivation of liberty” instead of “prison”. In Soviet times, the words “rootless cosmopolitan” and “Zionist” often served as a substitute for the words “Jew” or “Jew.” Recently, the expression “reputable businessman” has been used by the press as a euphemism when the author wants to hint at the involvement of a given person in criminal activity. The names of low-prestige jobs also receive euphemisms: courier - “forwarder”, secretary - “office manager”, “assistant”, etc.

Professional euphemisms:

People whose professions involve risk have superstitious prohibitions on certain words. For example, miners say “yellow metal” instead of “gold.” Gold is also called in police reports, because the final conclusion on the characteristics of the seized item is given by a special examination, and until its decision it is unlawful to recognize the yellow metal as gold. They also use the euphemism “person of Caucasian nationality” until they find out the exact nationality of the person. Doctors can be cited as an example; they quite often use euphemisms to soften the essence of what is being said for an already sick person. Thus, they call “people with schizophrenia” “mentally ill.”

Personal euphemisms:

Personal euphemisms concern the personal life of the speaker, the addressee, or third parties. These include:

• 1. Physiological processes and states (“empty your mouth!” instead of “spit it out,” “she’s expecting a baby” instead of “she’s pregnant,” etc.);
• 2. Relations between the sexes (“being in close, intimate relationships” instead of “dating”, etc.);
• 3. Illness and death (“left us” instead of “died”, “malaise” instead of “sick”, etc.).

Krysin L.P. thematically divides euphemisms into 8 groups:

• 1) Euphemisms associated with discrimination: a) racial, cultural, religious; b) sexual; c) sexual minorities; d) other types;
• 2) Euphemisms denoting terrible and unpleasant phenomena of reality: a) death; b) illness; c) natural needs; d) physical disabilities; e) mental and mental disorders;
• 3) Euphemisms associated with the influence of the state on people’s lives: a) military actions; b) social vices (drunkenness, drug addiction, prostitution, crime, lies); c) poverty; d) non-prestigious professions; e) family; f) state supervision institutions; g) dismissals; h) academic failure;
• 4) Euphemisms denoting a person’s appearance and age: a) weight; b) age; c) appearance; d) growth;
• 5) Euphemisms denoting human influence on flora and fauna;
• 6) Humorous euphemisms;
• 7) Diplomatic euphemisms;
• 8) Euphemisms in the language of advertising.

A.S. Kurkiev identifies five groups of euphemisms, classifying them according to their generating motives:

• · arisen on the basis of superstitions (for example: to be sick - unwell, ill);
• · arising from a feeling of fear and displeasure (for example: to kill - to nail, to slap, to kill);
• · arising on the basis of sympathy and pity (for example: a sick person - not everyone is at home);
• · generated by modesty (for example: illegitimate - a bastard, a bastard);
• · generated by politeness (for example: old - in years, advanced age) Kurkiev A. S. On the classification of euphemistic names in the Russian language. Classification of euphemisms by generating motives / A. S. Kurkiev. - Grozny, 1977.

Functions of euphemisms

V.P. Moskvin says that the functions of euphemisms are:

• 1) replacing the names of frightening objects;
• 2) replacing definitions of various kinds of unpleasant, disgusting objects;
• 3) designation of what is considered indecent;
• 4) replacement of direct names for fear of shocking others (etiquette euphemisms);
• 5) masking the true essence of the designated;
• 6) designation of organizations and professions that seem to be non-prestigious Moskvin V.P. Euphemisms in the lexical system of the modern Russian language, 2nd ed. - M. 2007. - P. 264..