Since the division of estates after the fathers to immovable children, there is great harm in our state, both to the interests of the state, and to the subjects and to the families themselves ... For the good, it was invented to repair according to this, as announced below:
1. All immovable things, that is, ancestral, served and purchased estates and estates, as well as palaces and shops, do not sell or mortgage, but apply to the clan in this way:
2. Whoever has sons and if he wants to, one of them to give real estate through the spiritual, that will be an inheritance; but other children of both sexes will be rewarded with movable estates, which their father or mother should divide them, with them both sons and daughters, as many of them will be, at their will, except for one, who will be the heir to immovables. And if he does not have sons, but has daughters, then he must determine in the same way. But if he does not determine with himself, then the immovable will be determined by decree for the primacy of the big son as an inheritance, and the movable by another will be divided equally, the same means about daughters ...
These points are attached to the established above-announced table of ranks, on how everyone should act with these ranks.
1. Princes who are descended from our blood, and those who are combined with our princesses: in all cases, they have chairmanship and rank over all the princes and high servants of the Russian state.
4. ... No one has a rank to claim for himself, as long as he does not have a proper patent for his rank.
5. So no one has a rank to take on the character that he received in other people's services, until we confirm it to him, which confirmation, we will gladly grant to everyone according to the state of his merits.
6. Without a patent, an apshit does not give a rank to anyone, unless this apshit will be given by our hand.
8. To the sons of the Russian state of princes, counts, barons, the noblest nobility, also servants of the most noble rank, although we allow for the noble breed of their fathers of noble ranks in the public assembly where the court is located, free access to other lower ranks, and willingly wish to see that differed from others in every case in merit; however, we do not allow any rank for this until they show us and the fatherland no services, and for these they do not receive character.
11. All servants, Russian or foreign, who are of the first ranks, or really were, have their legitimate children and descendants and eternal times, the best senior nobility in all virtues and advantages is equally honored to be, even if they were of a low breed, and before from Crowned heads have never been made to the nobility or equipped with a coat of arms.
14. It is necessary to produce noble children in colleges from below ... Who teach .... sciences, send those of their colleagues to foreign lands a few at a time, for the practice of that science.
And who will show noble services, they can be promoted for their labors by a higher rank, such as a clerk and in military service, who will show their length of service. But it is only right to fix this in the Senate, and even then with our signing.
15. To military ranks who do not serve as chief officers from the nobility, then when someone receives the above rank, he is a nobleman, and his children, who are parents in the chief officer, and if there are no children at that time, but there is before, the father will be beat with a brow, then give the nobility to those, only one son, about whom the father asks. Other ranks, both civil and courtiers, who are not of noble rank, their children are not nobles.
16. ... The trouble is, whoever asks for explicit services for a grant, then for the services of that inquirer. And there will be truly meritorious ones from such, and inform the Senate about it, and leave the Senate to us. And those who have risen to the rank of chief officer, Russian or foreign, as from the nobility, give emblems to those according to their merits. And who, although they were not in the military service, and did not deserve anything, but can prove not less than a hundred years: and give coats of arms to such.
1. All immovable things, that is, ancestral, served and purchased estates and estates, as well as yards and shops, do not sell or mortgage, but turn them to the genus in this way.
2. Whoever has sons and to him, if he wants, to give immovable property to one of them, through the spiritual, to him it will be an inheritance. The other children of both sexes will be rewarded with movable estates, which their father or mother must share with them, both sons and daughters, as many of them will be, according to their will, except for one, who will be the heir to the immovable. And if he does not have sons, but has daughters, then he must determine them in the same way.<…>
Decree on unity.
On March 23, 1714, Peter signed a decree on single inheritance, according to which the estates of the nobles were equated with the boyar estates. This document was aimed at blurring the lines between the tribal and the "new" (noble) nobility. Now there was no difference between noble and boyar land ownership.
The decree limited the right of the landowner to dispose of real estate (estates and the peasants who lived in them): it was forbidden to sell it, and also to divide it among heirs. After the death of the owner, all immovable property (patrimony) could be transferred only to one of the sons, and not necessarily the eldest, and the rest of the heirs received movable property. The need for the Decree on Uniform Heritage was motivated by the desire to prevent the fragmentation of land holdings, and, as a result, the crushing of landed estates. On the other hand, the Decree established that sons who did not receive real estate "will be forced to seek their bread by service, teaching, trading," or other activities for the benefit of the state.
Group 5. Church reform slide 12
Work with the textbook on p. 118-119 and answer the questions:
1) What was the name of this board that managed church affairs?
2) Who was in it?
3) What is the role of the emperor in this college?
4) Who led the Synod?
What is a general regulation?
5) What did Peter I achieve by carrying out this reform?
Building a diagram slide 13
Church reform.
Under Peter I, the process of turning the church into one of the most important state institutions, completely subordinate to the highest secular authority, was completed.
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I forbade new elections of the patriarch, citing the outbreak of the Northern War. He appointed Stefan Yavorsky as the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne (that is, acting head of the church).
After the end of the Northern War, Peter I completely abolished the patriarchate. The management of church affairs was transferred to the Theological College, which was soon transformed into the Most Holy Governing Synod. This board included representatives of the higher clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The actions of the Synod, on behalf of the highest secular power in power, were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar.
By a special decree, Peter I ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read sermons and instructions to them, to teach children prayers, to instill in them respect for the tsar and the church.
This reform finally turned the church into a pillar of Russian absolutism.
Attitude towards reforms
Why was the secret office created?
Who is Marta Skavronskaya?
Tell us about the decree on succession to the throne?
Building a scheme of state structure under Peter I. Slide 16
What are the results of the reforms of Peter I? Slide 18
The answer to the problematic question posed at the beginning of the lesson
Probably the main lesson of history is that Russia is a strong, powerful state, Russian people are courageous, ready to do a lot for the good of our Motherland. What modern Russia will be depends on you and me. We are her future.
Show an emoji that suits your mood.
What problem did you solve? What should have been done? What they were doing? How did you complete the task? What didn't work and why? What should be done next? What can help you move forward?
What difficulties (problems) arose (experienced)? Why? How were they overcome?
What they wanted? What have you achieved? How was this achieved?
Group 1. Senate
Read an excerpt from the work of the historian S.M. Solovyov and answer the questions.
Textbook p.196-197 (point 1 paragraph 1-2)
... For more than ten years, the old soul got used to a new position - to rule during the absence of the king. She got used to independent activity and to the responsibility that is necessarily associated with such activity, responsibility before the king, about whom they knew that she would not miss any omission, would not look at anything through her fingers. The highest government assembly is already called a conzil, and its members are ministers. In 1711 This council of ministers received a new name and a more definite meaning and structure: the Governing Senate, to which everyone had to listen, as to the king himself, and at the same time a new form of oath to the sovereign and the state appeared. The first trial, the punishment of unjust judges and hackers, the observance of strict frugality in expenditures, the multiplication of income, the supply of troops with people, the intensification of trade - these are the first duties of the Senate, attributed to it by the founder. Cases were decided unanimously, each decree had to be signed by all members with their own hands; if one refuses to sign, then the verdict of the others is null and void, but the senator who disagrees must state the reasons for his disagreement in a letter.
(Soloviev S.M. Reading and stories on the history of Russia. M.: Pravda, 1989.p.522)
Central government reform.
The trend towards absolutism, which emerged as early as the 17th century, demanded even greater centralization of power in the conditions of the Northern War.
In 1699, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the tsar with the Near Office, renamed in 1708 into the “consilium of ministers”.
The next step was the creation in 1711 of the Governing Senate, which became the highest government institution. He possessed not only legislative, but also administrative and judicial functions, and also controlled the work of an extensive state apparatus in the center and in the field. The tsar appointed 9 people to the Senate, representing both the clan nobility (including former members of the Boyar Duma) and his nominees. Decisions of the Senate were made by its members at a general meeting. Control was also established over the activities of the Senate: in 1722, a prosecutor general (P. I. Yaguzhinsky) was appointed, who was called the "eye of the sovereign" in the Senate.
Group 2. Colleges
Read an excerpt from the complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, answer the questions.
Page 197 paragraph 2
General Regulations, 1720
More like his royal majesty ... following the examples of other Christian regions, he deigned the most merciful intention of perception, for the sake of decent management of his state affairs, and the correct determination of his parishes, and the correction of useful justice and police (that is, in the reprisal of judgment and citizenship), also for the sake of the possible protection of his subjects and the maintenance of sea and land forces in a good condition, as well as commerce, arts and manufactories, and the good establishment of their sea and land duties, and for the sake of multiplying and increasing ore-digging plants, and other state needs, the following necessary and appropriate State Collegiums should be established. Namely: Foreign Affairs, Kamor-, Justice-, Revision-, Military, Admiralty, Commerce-, State-offices, Berg- and Manufactory - collegiums.
And in it presidents, vice-presidents and other members belonging to that, and clerical and office servants, and more from their own subjects to determine, and also to establish the necessary offices and offices at the same time. For this reason, it is necessary to judge by deigning all the above-mentioned State Collegiums to acquire high and low servants in general, and to each in particular, by this General Regulation to the notice, and instead of the general instruction (mandate) ... announce.
(V.A. Orlov Reader on the history of Russia M., 2003. S. 172-173)
The reform of 1718-1720 abolished cumbersome and clumsy orders and introduced colleges. There were originally 11 of them.
Unlike orders, decisions here were made collectively (collegially). Each collegium was headed by a president, vice president, and several advisers. To guide the activities of the collegiums, the General Regulations and the regulations of each collegium were issued.
Administrative reform
Familiarize yourself with the maps you presented and, based on them, draw conclusions about what's new in the administrative-territorial division of the country. Supplement your knowledge with textbook data and build a local government diagram based on them
pp 197 (paragraph 3.4) -198 (paragraph 1-2)
regional reform.
In 1708, in order to strengthen the local apparatus of power and increase its authority and role in governance, the country was divided into eight provinces (later their number increased): Moscow, Ingermanland (later Petersburg), Smolensk, Kiev, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk, Siberian . They were headed by governors appointed by the king and possessing administrative, military and judicial power. The provinces were divided into counties, and later - into provinces.
In 1719, there were 50 provinces in the country, headed by governors. The provincial division, however, was preserved. But only military and judicial functions remained in the hands of the governors.
A special regime of local government existed in Ukraine. The power here belonged to the hetman.
However, to control his actions (especially after the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa), the Little Russian Collegium was created, headed by a tsarist officer. After the death in 1722 of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky, new elections of hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree.
City government reform.
As cities grew, so did the urban population. By the end of Peter's reign, 350 thousand people already lived in cities. The composition of the urban population was complex: the bulk of the townspeople were artisans and small townspeople, the first manufacturing workers appeared, and the number of merchants and traders increased significantly.
The townspeople were removed from the jurisdiction of the voivods and handed over to the elective Burmister Chamber in Moscow, and in other cities - to elected burmisters.
They were managed by the Chief Magistrate, created in St. Petersburg in 1720, to which local magistrates headed by burmisters and ratmans elected from the urban population were subordinate. The townspeople were now divided into "regular" (higher) and "mean" (lower). The "regular", in turn, were divided into two guilds: the first included rich merchants and persons of "free professions" (doctors, pharmacists, artists), and the second - artisans and merchants. "Regular" enjoyed special state support and benefits.
The urban reform not only contributed to the economic growth of the cities, but also provided support for the autocracy from wealthy citizens.
We are talking about the death of the sovereign Fedor Alekseevich.
C1 No. 2106. From an 18th century document.
"…one. All immovable things, that is, ancestral, served and purchased estates and estates, as well as yards and shops, should not be sold or mortgaged, but they should be addressed to the genus in this way.
2. Whoever has sons and still wants to give him immovable property through a spiritual one, that will be in the inheritance. Other children of both sexes will be rewarded with movable estates, which their father or mother must share with them, both sons and daughters, how many of them will be, according to their will, except for one who will be in immovable heirs ... The same goes for about daughters.
What was the name of the document from which the extract is given? When and by whom was it published?
Explanation.
It may be indicated that
We are talking about the "Decree on Single Succession";
Time of publication - 1714;
Decree issued by Peter I
C1 No. 2109. From a historical source.
“Because by the will of the almighty God and by the general desire of the Russian people, we, upon the death of the most illustrious sovereign Great Sovereign Peter the Second, Emperor and Autocrat of the All-Russian, our dearest sovereign nephew, took the imperial All-Russian throne ... for this reason, through this most powerful promise, that the most important my care and diligence will not only be about the content, but also the extreme and all kinds of distribution, the Orthodox found the faith of the Greek confession, so, after accepting the Russian crown, I will not enter into marriage and an heir all my life, neither with myself, nor about myself determine anyone . We also promise that since the integrity and well-being of any state consists of good advice, for this reason we will always maintain the already established Supreme Privy Council in eight persons even without this Supreme Privy Council of consent:
1) Do not initiate war with anyone.
2) Do not make peace.
3) Do not burden our faithful subjects with any new taxes.
4) In the noble ranks ... above the colonel's rank do not favor, below the noble deeds no one should be appointed, and the guards and other regiments should be under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Privy Council.
5) Do not take away the belly and property and honor from the nobility without a trial.
6) Do not favor estates and villages.
7) In the court ranks, both Russians and foreigners, without the advice of the Supreme Privy Council, do not produce.
And if I don’t fulfill this promise and don’t keep it, then I will be deprived of the Russian crown.
What century does this document belong to? Specify its name. Who was it originally signed by?
Explanation.
The following provisions may be mentioned:
The document belongs to the 18th century.
The document was called "conditions"
Originally signed by Empress Anna Ioannovna
C1 No. 2112. From the work of the historian V.N. Balyazin
“This century has gone down in world history under the name of the “Century of Russia”. Two brilliant reigns symbolized this century: it began with the reign of Peter the Great, and ended with the activity of Catherine II, also called the Great. According to A.S. Pushkin, in this century Russia "entered Europe like a ship launched from the stocks - with the sound of an ax and the thunder of cannons."
At the beginning of the century, St. Petersburg was founded, and in the middle of it, Moscow University was founded. In this century, Russia has become a European power, firmly taking its place in the alliance of other states and loudly declaring itself as a great and powerful country. The century ended with the victorious Italian and Swiss campaigns of A.V. Suvorov, when "the Russian bayonet broke through the Alps." This century passed the baton of glory and deeds to the centuries to come.
What century is the document talking about? What did the historian mean when he said that in this century Russia became a European power?
Explanation.
The following statements may be made:
1. We are talking about the XVIII century.
2. Russia acquired the position of a great European power thanks to:
Gaining access to the Baltic and Black Seas;
C1 No. 2117. From the "Manifesto" written by S. P. Trubetskoy.
“The Senate Manifesto declares:
Destruction of the former Board. The establishment of a temporary (board) until the establishment of a permanent one (chosen by representatives of the estates) ... Equality of all estates before the Law ...
The declaration of the right of every citizen to do what he wants, and therefore the nobleman, merchant, tradesman, peasant - all the same have the right to enter the military and civil service and the clergy, to trade wholesale and retail ... To acquire all kinds of property, like - then land, houses in villages and cities ... Addition (cancellation) of poll taxes and arrears on them ... Destruction of recruitment and military settlements.
The reduction of the term of military service for the lower ranks and the definition of it will follow the equation of military service between all estates.
Name the event in connection with which the Manifesto was written, indicating the date (day, month, year) and place of this event. Who, together with S.P. Trubetskoy, took part in this event? (Indicate at least 2 names of associates of S. P. Trubetskoy).
Explanation.
It may be indicated that
- "Manifesto" S.P. Trubetskoy was written in connection with the speech of the Decembrists
Venue - Senate Square in St. Petersburg
Companions of S. P. Trubetskoy: K. F. Ryleev, E. P. Obolensky, A.I. Odoevsky (others may be named)
C1 No. 2124. From an official document of the 19th century:
"one. The defense of the throne and the fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject. The male population, without distinction of condition, is subject to military service.
2. Monetary redemption from military service and replacement by a hunter are not allowed ...
10. Admission to the service by conscription is decided by lot, which is taken out once for a lifetime. Persons who, according to the number of the lot drawn by them, are not subject to admission to the permanent troops, are enrolled in the militia.
17. The total term of service in the ground forces for those entering by lot is determined at 15 years, of which 6 years of active service and 9 years in the reserve ...
20. The periods of service indicated in ... the articles are established for peacetime proper; during the war, those who are in the ground forces and in the navy are obliged to remain in the service as long as the state needs require it.
What was the name of the reform referred to in the above passage from the document? Indicate the name of the author of this reform and the date of publication of this document.
Explanation.
The date of the appearance of the official document is 1874.
C1 No. 2127. From the work of a historian.
“In a difficult and mournful time, the emperor ... entered the ancestral throne ...
The whole state awaited with trepidation how the sovereign would determine the general direction of his reign. And in response to this, on April 29, a firm word was heard from the height of the throne .... The highest manifesto spoke (about the role) of autocratic power, which (necessary) "to be approved and protected for the good of the people from any encroachments on it."
... Knowledgeable persons from among the Zemstvo (invited) to a meeting on lowering peasant redemption payments. The consequence of the work of this conference was the supreme command, extremely important for the peasants, to reduce the redemption payments everywhere.
The Sovereign ... passionately loved everything that was dear to him: Russian speech, song, clothes ...
The firm management of the emperor ... increased the well-being of the Russian people. ... The poll tax, which gave the state annually 60 million, was destroyed ...
Although Russia did not wage wars for this reign, her position among the European states was high, and everyone reckoned with her.
The sovereign clearly understood the importance of railways for strengthening the connection between native Russia and the distant outskirts ... By his order, the Trans-Caspian railway was built, connecting our Central Asian possessions, including Merv, with the coast of the Caspian Sea. Another extremely important railway route, conceived by the emperor and launched under him, the great Siberian railway, connected European Russia with the Far East ... "
What is the name of the ruler in the XIX century. emperor, whose domestic and foreign policy is in question. Give the date of the beginning of his reign.
Explanation.
It may be stated that:
Emperor's name - Alexander III
The date of the beginning of his reign is 1881.
C1 No. 2130. From official decrees.
“In Bose, our late Parent Alexander II, freeing the former landlord peasants from serfdom and establishing mandatory, in the sense of a transitional measure, their land relations with the landowners, had in mind that these relations should eventually end through the peasants buying their allotments into property.
On the largest part of the landowners' estates, the peasants have already passed into the category of peasant proprietors, and there are now relatively few peasants who are temporarily liable. ... The nobility of some provinces has recently petitioned for the transfer of all temporarily liable peasants for redemption in the form of a general government measure.
Considering, according to the testament and example of our unforgettable parent, it is our sacred duty to take care of the well-being of our loyal subjects ... we command: ... the former landlord peasants who still remain in obligatory relations with the landowners ... transfer to ransom and classify them as peasant proprietors with January 1, 1883."
“Paying attention to the situation of the former landlord peasants ... and wanting to show them a sign of our royal concern for them, we command:
Reduce the redemption payments of the former landlord peasants.
Name the emperor who approved the above decrees. Indicate the name and date (year) of the start of the reform referred to in the first paragraph of the text.
Explanation.
Can be named:
Emperor who approved the above decrees - Alexander III
Reform (which is referred to in the first paragraph of the text) - Peasant reform
Start date of the Peasant reform - 1861.
C1 No. 2256. Read an extract from a historical source and briefly answer questions C1-C3. The answers assume the use of information from the source, as well as the application of historical knowledge in the course of the history of the corresponding period.
Read an excerpt from the petition.
... And even if they find out who their fugitive peasants live with, then even then they cannot get them extradited in the assigned years by the court, because they cannot get the court; and if someone starts to sue, then by the time it comes to
decisions, a lot of time passes, because the boyars and okolnichy rarely sit and do business in orders ... And (then) the school years pass, then they are refused in the case of the extradition of those peasants even without any trial.
Yes, they (nobles and boyar children) are pointed out to patriarchal and episcopal administrators and monasteries in offense to file lawsuits for three terms: on Trinity and on Semyonov’s day, and on the Nativity of Christ, and to them on
It is impossible to come to Moscow during those dates, because they are in the service at that time. But in the localities, in cities, they are not allowed to file lawsuits against patriarchs and episcopal servants, but they take the peasants out of them and take their land by force and do all sorts of offenses to the peasants, but they leave the court, because claims must be filed only within the specified time. .
To which king was the petition addressed? What are "class years"? When were they introduced?
Explanation.
1) Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich;
C1 No. 2281. From memoirs.
“The governor, seeing my determination to go, said to me: “Think about what conditions you will have to sign.” “I will sign them without reading them.” - "I must order to search all your things, you are forbidden to have the slightest value." With these words, he left and sent me a whole gang of officials [...] then they showed me the notorious signature for signature, and they told me to keep a copy of it in order to remember it well. When they left, my man, who had read it, said to me with tears in his eyes: "Princess, what have you done, read what they require of you!" “I don’t care, let’s pack up and go.”
Here is this signature: “A wife, following her husband and continuing her marital relationship with him, naturally becomes involved in his fate and will lose her former title, that is, she will already be recognized only as the wife of a convict, and at the same time accepts to endure everything that such a state can be painful, because even the authorities will not be able to protect her from hourly insults that may be from people of the most ... contemptuous class, who will seem to find in it some right to consider the wife of a state criminal, who bears an equal fate with him, like themselves; insults these can even be violent.
Inveterate villains are not afraid of punishment […] Children who take root in Siberia will go to state factory peasants […] It is not allowed to take money or valuable things with you; this is forbidden by the existing rules and is necessary for their own safety, because these places are inhabited by people who are ready for all kinds of crimes. Departure to the Nerchinsk Territory destroys the right to serfs who arrived with them.
Explanation.
The correct answer should include:
2) 1820s;
3) the wives of political exiles were deprived of class privileges and civil rights from the moment they settled in exile.
Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.
C1 No. 2285. Read the passage from the petition.
“In the past, in 1641, the nobles and boyar children from different cities throughout the land turned to the sovereign tsar and the Grand Duke of All Russia with a request.
Their old peasants run away from them to different cities, to large estates and to patrimonial estates, to patriarchal, and metropolitan, and archiepiscopal, and to various monasteries, and to the sovereign’s palace villages, and to black volosts, and settle with the boyars, and with the roundabouts. , and other metropolitan ranks of people on preferential terms. And those landlords and estates and monasteries are building (new) settlements for those runaway peasants in empty places, and their estates and estates are empty from that. And those fugitive peasants, having lived for those people for the fixed years and relying on these "strong" people, coming to them (to their former places), and the remaining peasants, they persuade them to leave and even set fire to their houses and ruin them; yes (the new owners) from those fugitive peasants they take records of loans and borrowings in order to secure them more reliably.
... And even if they find out who their fugitive peasants live with, then even then they cannot get them extradited in the assigned years by the court, because they cannot get the court; and if someone begins to sue, then a lot of time passes before the matter comes to a decision, because the boyars and okolnichy rarely sit and do business in orders ... any court.
Yes, they (nobles and boyar children) are pointed out to patriarchal and episcopal administrators and monasteries in offense to file lawsuits for three terms: on Trinity and on Semyonov's day, and on the Nativity of Christ, and it is impossible for them to come to Moscow at that time because they are in service at the time. But in the localities, in cities, they are not allowed to file lawsuits against patriarchs and episcopal servants, but they take the peasants out of them and take their land by force and do all sorts of offenses to the peasants, but they leave the court, because claims must be filed only within the specified time. .
To which king was the petition addressed? What are "class years"?
Please indicate when they were introduced (to within a fraction of a century)?
Explanation.
The correct answer must include:
1) Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich;
2) "lesson years" - the term of the investigation of fugitive peasants;
3) “lesson years” were introduced at the end of the 16th century.
C1 No. 2337. What was the name of the war, the events of which are discussed in the passages? Indicate the dates (years) of the beginning and end of the named war. Name at least two allied countries that fought against Russia.
Show text
Explanation.
Crimean (Eastern) War
1853-1856
Enemies of Russia: England and France.
C1 No. 2374. Indicate the name of the period of Russian history in which the described events took place. What is the name of the prince about whom it speaks. What century does the reign of this prince belong to?
Show text
Explanation.
The period of fragmentation (specific Russia);
Prince Anrey Bogolyubsky;
C1 No. 2414. Read the extract from the historical source and briefly answer questions C1-C3. The answers assume the use of information from the source, as well as the application of historical knowledge in the course of the history of the corresponding period.
From the memoirs of a contemporary
The country was engulfed in the pathos of construction. The heroism of the builders during the years of the first five-year plan is striking. Thousands and thousands of people gave all their strength and life to the revolution, socialism...
It is now difficult to imagine the conditions under which these gigantic works began. After all, there was almost no mechanization. There were only jib cranes, concrete mixers and some other simple devices. Earthworks on the layout of sites, digging pits for the foundations of the workshops were carried out by gangs of grabars. ... And all their "equipment" consisted of carts-grabarok, into which horses were harnessed, and an ordinary shovel. ...
What is the name of the process of economic development that took place during the first five-year plan, in which the author of the text was a participant? Indicate the years of implementation of the first five-year plan. Who was the leader of the country during these years?
Explanation.
2) years - 1928-1932;
C1 No. 2494. Read the extract from the imperial decree and briefly answer questions C1-C3. The answers assume the use of information from the source, as well as the application of historical knowledge in the course of the history of the corresponding period.
"one. The duties of the peasants in favor of the landowners may be determined in contracts by cash rent, works, cultivation of the landowners' land, or other work.
2. In the event that the peasants fail to fulfill their obligations under the contract, they are forced to do so by the zemstvo police, under the leadership of the county marshals of the nobility and under the highest supervision of the provincial government.
3. The peasants, upon the proper approval of the agreements concluded between them and the landlords, accept the title of obligated peasants ...
6. The landowners establish patrimonial administration in the villages of the obliged peasants and have the highest supervision over the rural police in them and over the implementation of laws on rural improvement; they also have the right to judge and punish misdemeanors and unimportant crimes of obligated peasants and the initial analysis of mutual lawsuits and disputes between them ... ".
Indicate the name of this imperial decree, the year of its publication, the name of the emperor who issued it.
Explanation.
1) the name of the decree - "On obligated peasants";
3) emperor - Nicholas I.
C1 No. 2574. Read an extract from a historical source and briefly answer questions C1-C3. The answers assume the use of information from the source, as well as the application of historical knowledge in the course of the history of the corresponding period.
From the memoirs of a contemporary
“Telling about the construction projects of those years, I want to testify that it is not for nothing that they say and write: during the years of the first five-year plan, our entire country turned into a huge construction site. ... Each collective, each party, Komsomol, trade union organization in its area of work did everything possible to fulfill orders for shock construction projects on time. ...
It is now difficult to imagine the conditions under which these gigantic works began. After all, there was almost no mechanization. There were only jib cranes, concrete mixers and some other simple devices. Earthworks on the layout of sites, digging pits for the foundations of the workshops were carried out by gangs of grabars. ... And all their "equipment" consisted of carts-grabarok, into which horses were harnessed, and an ordinary shovel. ...
With the development of a wide front of work, the main political task of the Party organization of construction was the struggle for high rates. The slogan of the day was: "Catch up and overtake the American pace in construction." This is where the socialist competition began.
Many young people came to the construction site, Komsomol members, who became active organizers of shock brigades. ...
Widespread competition gave birth to new, progressive methods of labor. A real war was declared on routine. Its first step was the introduction of a continuous working week. This business was so new that some workers, especially seasonal workers, became agitated. Like, both our fathers and grandfathers honored Sunday, rested, you can’t deviate from this. Some even left the construction site - they could not come to terms with the violation of the "covenant of the fathers."
What is the name of the process of economic development, in which the author of the text was a participant? Specify its chronological framework. Who was the leader of the country during these years?
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) the process described in the text - industrialization;
2) years - the end of the 1920s - the first half of the 1930s;
3) the head of the country - I.V. Stalin.
C1 No. 2614. Read an extract from a historical source and briefly answer questions C1-HC3. The answers assume the use of information from the source, as well as the application of historical knowledge in the course of the history of the corresponding period.
From the writings of the historian
“In a difficult and mournful time, the emperor ... entered the ancestral throne.
The whole state awaited with trepidation how the sovereign would determine the general direction of his reign. And in response to this, on April 29, a firm word was heard from the height of the throne ... The Highest Manifesto spoke about the role of autocratic power, which "needs to be affirmed and protected for the good of the people and all encroachments on it."
Knowledgeable persons from among the Zemstvo were invited to a meeting on the reduction of redemption payments. The result of the work of this meeting was the supreme command, extremely important for the peasants, to reduce the redemption payments everywhere. The special conditions of state life at that time prompted the emperor to introduce some restrictions in the system of zemstvo and city self-governments established in the previous reign; in addition, the use of the elective principle in the magistrate's court was reduced, in the counties the performance of judicial duties was transferred to the newly established zemstvo chiefs.
The sovereign passionately loved everything that was dear to him: Russian speech, song, clothes. The firm rule of the emperor increased the well-being of the Russian people. The poll tax, which gave the state 60 million annually, was abolished. Although Russia did not wage wars for this reign, her position among the European states was high, and everyone reckoned with her.
The sovereign clearly understood the importance of railways for strengthening the connection between native Russia and the distant outskirts. By his order, the Trans-Caspian railway was built. Another extremely important railway route, conceived by the emperor and launched under him - the great Siberian railway - connected European Russia with the Far East.
Name the emperor whose activities are in question. Give the years of his reign. What is the period of his reign called in historical science?
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
Emperor Alexander III;
Years of reign -1881-1894;
The period of counter-reforms.
C1 No. 2654. Read an extract from a historical source and briefly answer questions C1-HC3. The answers assume the use of information from the source, as well as the application of historical knowledge in the course of the history of the corresponding period.
From the writings of the historian
The short Crimean period of the White movement, associated with the name of General ____________, to whom Denikin transferred the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia, is of particular interest from the point of view of changing the domestic policy and strategy of the last military dictator.
The general and his closest assistants managed to draw the main conclusion from the experience of the defeats of Kolchak and Denikin: the fight against the Red Army in the center of Russia without the support of the peasantry is a hopeless business. Many projects of agrarian reform and notes were submitted to the commander’s headquarters, the authors of which, based on the fact that the struggle against Soviet power “is impossible without bringing calm to the countryside, without relying on a large mass of peasants, owners in their souls”, proposed “to satisfy the land hunger and the uncontrollable desire of the peasants to seize the landlords' land" and thereby "pull this soil from under the feet of the Bolsheviks."
Five days after the appointment of the new Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia, white airplanes began to scatter leaflets in the immediate rear of the Red troops, announcing that "Denikin went abroad" and "an order will soon be issued on the distribution of land."
Attempts are being made to put an end to the forcible mobilizations and requisitions of grain, horses, livestock, carts, clothing and other property from the peasants, which had taken root under Denikin, the most categorical orders on this subject are repeatedly issued, special military judicial commissions are created in the troops to consider peasant complaints about robberies and military violence.
Having reorganized the remnants of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia into a 25,000-strong army, on May 11, the general gave it the name "Russian Army", hoping thereby to give it a "people's" character and emphasize its difference from the Volunteer Army, whose name was hated by the peasant population of southern Russia and Ukraine and associated them with the restoration of landownership, robbery and terror.
Decree on single inheritance - a legislative act of Peter I dated March 23, 1714, which fixed the noble ownership of land. He eliminated the legal difference between local and patrimonial land ownership, forbade the sale and mortgage of real estate. There was a single concept of "real estate". On its basis, there was a consolidation of the estate
The main motive for issuing the Decree was the desire of Peter I to prevent the fragmentation of noble estates. However, the establishment of the institution of inheritance of property by only one eldest son led to the emergence of a significant group of landless nobility, the only possibility for self-preservation of which was military or civil service.
This provision of the Decree caused discontent among the nobles. In 1731, this act was canceled by Empress Anna Ioannovna at their request.
(Extract)
Since the division of estates after fathers to immovable children, there is great harm in Our State, both to the interests of the State, and to subjects and to the names themselves, the fall, namely,
I. About taxes. For example, if someone had a thousand households and five sons, he had a happy house, a glorious meal, a clear treatment of people; when, after his death, it is divided to his children, then only two hundred households will go to them, who, remembering the glory of their father and the honor of their family, will not want to live orphaned, but each one is clear (although not so), then there will already be five tables from poor subjects, but not one, and two hundred households will be forced to bear almost the same as a thousand carried (and State taxes in taxes) from which it is not ruination for people, and harm to the interests of the State, because two hundred households cannot pay taxes so regularly to the treasury and the landowner like a thousand households, for (as it is written above) from a thousand one Lord (and not from two hundred households) who will be satisfied with a fifth share, but, by the way, will make it easier for the peasants, who can pay taxes more regularly to the treasury and the Lord. And so from that division there is harm to the treasury of the Great State, and ruin to vile people.
II. About surnames. And when there will be two sons from those five, then they will get a hundred households, and multiplying further, they will come to such poverty that they themselves can find one palace 1, and a noble surname, instead of glory, the settlers will be, as there are already many of those copies (images ) is in the Russian people.
III. About uselessness. Above both forces of harmful deeds, there is also this, that everyone, having his free bread, albeit small, will not serve and prostrate for any benefit of the State without compulsion, but seeks to turn away and live in idleness, which (according to Holy Scripture ) matter is all evil deeds.
On the contrary. On the first: if the immovable will always be for one son, and only the movable for others, then the State revenues will be more fair, because the Lord will always be more satisfied with the big one, although he will take it little by little, and there will be one house, and not five (as it is written above) and maybe better favor subjects, not ruin.
On the second: the names will not fall, but in their clarity they will be unshakable through the glorious and great houses.
On the third: the rest will not be idle, for they will be forced to seek their bread by service, teaching, bidding, and so on. And then everything that they will do again for their livelihood, There is a public benefit; why, for the sake of goodness, is it invented to repair according to this, as it is declared below:
1. All immovable things, that is, ancestral, served and purchased estates and estates, as well as yards and shops, do not sell or mortgage, but turn them to the genus in this way.
2. Whoever has sons, and if he wants to give him immovable property through spiritual 1 to one of them, that will be his inheritance; but the other children of both sexes will be rewarded with movable estates, which their father or mother should share with them, both sons and daughters, as many of them will be, according to their will, except for one, who will be the heir to immovables. And if he does not have sons, but has daughters, then he must determine them in the same way. And if he doesn’t determine with himself, then the immovable will be determined by decree according to the primacy of the big son as an inheritance, and the movable by another will be divided equally; And of course the daughters too...
4. Whoever, by spiritual or primacy, will get an immovable property, let that part of the others be preserved in that movable estate until his brothers and sisters ripen their age, male up to seventeen, and female up to seventeen years, and in those doomed years that heir of their brothers and sisters should feed, and provide, and teach everyone to read and write, and the male gender and the number count, as well as the sciences to which someone will have an inclination. And then, when those years are exhausted, then give them to each person his lot according to the spiritual in full, without counting the costs inflicted (on them) in the above-mentioned years.
5. And for this it is necessary for fathers or mothers to write spiritual things in advance, and describe the movable estates by shares; if a father or mother dies without a spiritual one, then immediately announce to their children after the death of their parents, where they are led, and demand that they describe their belongings, and determine their shares in front of witnesses. In the meantime, the heirs of immovable things up to twenty years of their age do not come, and others who remain in movable estates of both sexes do not ripen until the years described above, do not believe any of their letters or records, which will appear before those years from anyone; and so that Cadets 2 of both sexes are not oppressed in any way at a young age, in order to, involuntarily, enter into marriage earlier, males up to twenty, and females up to seventeen years ...
7. And for the renewal of the surname, in which the surname of the male gender will remain one; the rest from the descending and ascending line of that kind will all die out, except for the female sex, of whom there is one or several left in the maidens, or married: then the last mentioned of this family is guilty of all the immovable things that came to him by inheritance, to give as an inheritance to one of them to whom a married woman, a widow, or a maiden, however, with such an explanation that the married husband is guilty of accepting the nickname 3 of the one from whom he and his heirs receive real estate (leaving his) ; and in order not to enter into marriage before, and married not to strengthen the immovable, until he submits a written obligation, where those deeds are known, that he takes this nickname forever for himself, and the heir of his line; if none of them receive the title of onago, then the immovable will be liable to take everything against the Sovereign, except for the movable, which is left in the division as presented.
8. And who will have children from different wives, and their mothers had dowries of estates and patrimonies, and their father will make the heirs of one: and that will of the father on his paternal immovable estates only, and in mothers to be the heir to their children. In the same way, repair the female sex, which will have children from different husbands. And so this decree (clause) should be valid until those places, until then, those children who were born before this decree, in the immovable dowry of their mothers, will be their heirs, for henceforth there will be no one with an immovable dowry.
9. Which wife after her husband remains childless, then her husband's real estate should be given to one of his surnames not from the Cadets, but from the heirs of his neighbor; and the dowries of her village, which she has, may they return to her family in the same way; and the rest of her husband and her estate, let it be after her death or tonsure; but when she dies or gets tonsured: then the immovable of her husband and her estate, if she dies without a covenant, let some of her husbands return to his generation, and the other, that of her, to her relatives who are close, belongs to all equally, except for those who real estate will come. And if this widow marries, then her first husband's immovable estate will be returned to his family to one elder in the line, as announced above, and everything else will be with her. And this point is valid against the eighth point ...
11. Whose villages and lands have been mortgaged before this decree and are overdue, or not overdue: to redeem those villages and lands according to the previous decree 1; and if someone does not redeem: register for lenders for those fortresses with payment of the previous duties.
12. And from this decree, whoever is immovable will be forced to sell a patrimony or estate, or something else: and for that he will have duties, from the ruble to the hryvnia, so that no one from immovable fiction is sold for strengthening. And if someone sells any of it to smaller children (both sexes who are not heirs to immovables) without paying money, as they did before, or some other fiction, but about who informs him: and that immovable that appears in resale, give it to that bearer.
13. The redemption of patrimonies and estates and other immovable property should be those that the heirs will be in the line of neighbors, and not to the Cadets 2 of them. And when redeeming a newly arrived building, set aside the take according to fairy tales, and pay according to the certificate and inspection, imposing a real truthful price, what has become.
14. This decree is not for the past tenses, but from this year 1714 it has its own effect. And although in the past two months some sections have been made where, they will be redistributed according to this decree. And for those who until this year, to be as they were committed, only the will is given to fathers and mothers, if, although they have separated their children for several years, and now they want to redistribute according to this decree, and then let it be in their will ...
(Complete collection of legislation, vol.V, № 2789.)
I deliberately included the "Decree on Uniform Succession" in the paragraph "Military Reforms", since the service at that time was for life, an attempt to evade it was punishable by the confiscation of the estate. In order to encourage the nobles to serve, in 1714 Peter issued a decree on uniform inheritance, which forbade the splitting of estates when they were inherited.
Catching individual netchik nobles is troublesome and, as it turned out, not quite effective - their number has decreased, but they still failed to achieve the desired results. Much easier, the tsar reasoned, was to create conditions for the nobles so that they themselves hurried to the barracks and offices. Thus, the idea of a decree on single inheritance arose.
¨ ON THE ORDER OF INHERITANCE IN MOVABLE AND REAL ESTATE. MARCH 23, 1714(Extract)
... After the division of estates after the fathers to immovable children, there is great harm in our state, both to the interests of the state and to the subjects and to the surnames themselves, the fall, namely:
I. About taxes. For example, if someone had a thousand households and five sons, he had a contented house, a glorious meal, a clear treatment of people; when, after his death, it is divided to his children, then only two hundred households will go to them, who, remembering the glory of their father and the honor of their family, will not want to live orphaned, but each one is clear (although not so), then there will already be five tables from poor subjects , and not one, and two hundred households will be forced to carry almost the same as a thousand carried (and state taxes with taxes), from which it is not ruining the essence of people and harming the interests of the state; for two hundred households to the treasury and the landowner cannot pay taxes so regularly, as a thousand households, for (as it is written above) from a thousand one master, (and not from two hundred households) who will be satisfied with a fifth share, but nevertheless will make it easier for the peasants, who are more efficient in they can pay taxes to the treasury and the master. And from that division there is harm to the great state treasury, and vile ruin to people.
II. About surnames. And when there will be two sons from those five, then they will get a hundred households, and further multiplying, they will come to such poverty that they themselves can find one-palaces, and a noble surname, instead of glory, the settlers will be, as there are already many of those instances (images) is in the Russian people.
III. About uselessness. Above both forces of harmful deeds, there is also this, that everyone, having his free bread, albeit small, will not serve and prostrate for any benefit of the state without compulsion, but seeks to turn away and live in idleness, which (according to Holy Scripture ) matter is all evil deeds...
For the good it is invented to repair according to this, as it is declared below:
1. All immovable things, that is, ancestral, served and purchased estates and estates, as well as yards and shops, do not sell or mortgage, but address them to the genus in this way:
2. Whoever has sons, and if he wants to, to one of them to give immovable property through the spiritual, to him it will be an inheritance; but other children of both sexes will be rewarded with movable estates, which their father or mother should divide them, with them both sons and daughters, as many of them will be, at their will, except for one, who will be the heir to immovables. And if he does not have sons, but has daughters, then he must determine in the same way. And if he doesn’t determine with himself, then the immovable will be determined by decree according to the primacy of the big son as an inheritance, and the movable by another will be divided equally; the same goes for daughters, of course.
3. He who is childless, and he is free to give the immovable to one of his last name, to whom he wants, and the movable, to whom he wants to give something to his relatives, or to outsiders, and that will be at his discretion. And if he doesn’t do it with himself, then let those estates be divided by decree into clan: immovable to one along the line of the neighbor, and the rest to others who should, in the same way.
4. Whoever, according to spiritual or primacy, will get immovables, let those parts of others be preserved in that and movable estate until his brothers and sisters ripen their age, male up to eighteen, and female up to seventeen years; and in those doomed years, that heir of their brothers and sisters should feed and provide, and teach everyone to read and write, and the male sex and numeracy, as well as the sciences to which someone will have an inclination. And then, when those years are exhausted, then give them to each person his lot according to the spiritual in full, without counting the costs inflicted (on them) in the above-mentioned years.
5. And for this it is necessary for fathers or mothers to write spiritual things in advance and describe movable estates in shares; if a father or mother dies without a spiritual one, then immediately announce to their children after the death of their parents, where they are led, and demand that they describe their belongings, and determine their shares in front of witnesses. In the meantime, the heirs of immovable things up to twenty years of their age do not come, and others remaining in movable estates of both sexes do not ripen until the above years, do not believe any of their letters or records that appear before those years from anyone; and so that the Cadets of both sexes are not oppressed in any way in their young years, in order, involuntarily, to enter into marriage earlier, males up to twenty, and females up to seventeen years ...
7. And for the renewal of a surname, in which the male sex will remain alone, while the others from the descending and ascending line of that kind will all die out, except for the female sex, of which one or several remain in the maidens, or married, then the last mentioned last of this surname is guilty of all immovable things that came to him by inheritance, to give as an inheritance to one of them, to whom he wants, a married, widow or girl, however, with such an explanation that the husband of the married woman is guilty of accepting the nickname of the one from whom he receives immovable (leaving his) he and his heirs, and a maiden or a widow should not encroach on someone who does not receive a nickname; and in order not to enter into marriage before, and married people not to strengthen immovables until they submit a written commitment, where those matters are known.
8. And who will have children from different wives, and their mothers had dowries of estates and estates, and their father will make them the heir of one, and the will of the father on his paternal immovable estates only, and in mothers to be the heir to their children. In the same way, repair the female sex, which will have children from different husbands ...
9. Which wife after her husband remains childless, let her husband's immovable estate be after her death or tonsure; and as soon as she dies or gets a haircut, then give her husband’s immovable to one of his surnames not from the Cadets, but from the heirs of his neighbor; and the dowry of her village, which she has, may return to her family in the same way; and the rest of her husband and her property, if she dies without a covenant, let some of her husbands return to his generation, and others that belong to her, to her relatives, to whom it belongs, to all in equal part, except for those to whom the immovable will come.
10. And who will declare such villages and lands, fortified for any reason, and those villages and lands are owned by those people whose those villages and lands were, and for whom they were fortified, and others own for the reason of infancy and widowhood and orphanhood , and as such, the villages and lands should be returned according to the old custom. And in that it is given a term for a year, and for officers and soldiers who are in the army and who are in foreign lands, for two years, so that they can either strengthen these villages and lands behind them, or declare them. And if at such a time someone does not improve, and those villages and lands will be behind the one who now owns them, irrevocably ...
12. And from this decree, whoever is immovable will be forced to sell a patrimony or estate, or something else, and for that he will have to pay duties from the ruble to the hryvnia so that no one from immovable fiction for strengthening does not sell. And if someone resells one of them to smaller children (both sexes who are not heirs to immovables) without paying money, as they did before, or some other fiction, but about who informs him, and that immovable that appears in resale, give to that bearer...
The decree on single inheritance limited the right of the landowner to dispose of the immovable estate, that is, the estates and the peasants who lived in them: it was forbidden to sell it, and also to divide it among the heirs. All immovable property, that is, the patrimony, could be transferred after the death of the owner to only one of the sons, and not necessarily the eldest, but to whomever the parent wishes, and other sons, daughters and a widow received movable property.
The need for a decree on single inheritance was motivated, I think, by the desire to prevent the fragmentation of land holdings, and hence the crushing of landowner farms. Even then, the decree says, there were quite a few landowners who owned a dozen serfs and were forced to cultivate arable land along with them. The fragmentation of estates, according to the legislator, should have increased the burden of duties from the peasants, because each landowner used to keep the amount of income that he received before the division.
It may seem that the Decree on Single Inheritance for the sake of the well-being of the peasants infringed on the rights of the landlords. In fact, the decree in this case had in mind the interests of the treasury.
CONCLUSION
It remains for me to summarize and briefly answer the question of what Russia became after the transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century, what new things appeared in the country, and what should be the social assessment of these innovations.
As a result, an army appeared in the country, homogeneous in national composition, distinguished by high combat training and combat readiness, and equipped with a charter that used its own experience in warfare.
The same was the case with the manufacturing industry. Manufactories arose in the 17th century, but their number was small, and with the exception of the Cannon Yard and the Printing House, they existed only in metallurgy (10-12 manufactories at the end of the century).
In the first quarter of the XVIII century. there were about a hundred large enterprises. The qualitatively new state of the manufacturing industry was expressed in the fact that large-scale production penetrated various branches of the economy: cloth making, the manufacture of silk and linen fabrics, playing cards, needles, smoking pipes, paints, silver mining, etc.
Another evidence of a qualitatively new state of the manufacturing industry was its ability to ensure the independence of Russia from the industrialized countries of Western Europe. Moreover, Russia began to export some products of manufactories. Metallurgical plants at the end of the 17th century. did not provide the country with the necessary amount of iron, and it was purchased in large quantities abroad. Imported from abroad and copper. By the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. domestic metallurgy provided not only the domestic market with iron, but also produced it for export. Products of sailing and linen manufactories were also exported for sale abroad. The import of copper has stopped.
In many cases, transformations marked the beginning of a new one. There was no printed newspaper in Russia. Now the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, has appeared. There were no museums in Russia. Now the Kunstkamera has been created - the first public museum. Russia did not have professional educational institutions. During the transformations they appeared. The network of general education schools has expanded.
There was no scientific center in Russia. Peter founded the Academy of Sciences. The introduction of civil type was associated with the name of Peter, assemblies were held on his initiative, a new capital was founded with a new street layout, magnificent parks and monumental secular buildings.
What did the transformations give the peasants and townspeople, that is, the working population of Russia?
In short, the transformations brought them new hardships. It could not have been otherwise, for in a class society all progress is achieved by intensifying exploitation.
The war, the construction of canals, cities and fortresses, the construction of ships and industrial enterprises required the mobilization of huge resources. The victims of the mobilization of these resources were peasants and townspeople. It was from them that new taxes were levied, introduced in the reign of Peter, it was their labor efforts that built the new capital of the empire, created the navy, it was their blood that won victories in the theaters of war: near Lesnaya and near Poltava, near Gangut and Grengam.
The nobility and, to some extent, the merchant class benefited the most from the transformations. Numerous benefits to merchants who created large industrial enterprises placed manufacturers in a privileged position.
I want to finish my work with a quatrain by A.S. Pushkin, which, more expressively than any words, will emphasize the successes achieved by Peter I:
Now an academician, then a hero,
Now a navigator, then a carpenter -
He is an all-encompassing soul
On the throne was an eternal worker.
Voskresensky N. A. Legislative acts of Peter I. M.-L., 1945, vol. I, p. 197-201, 204.
Commerce - trade, trading operations.
Justice - a set of legislative norms and rules of legal proceedings.
Seniors, middles, juniors.
Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire (hereinafter referred to as PSZ), vol. V, No. 3129.
PSZ, vol. V, No. 3255.
PSZ, vol. V, No. 2786.
Responsible for ensuring that the cases filed are discussed and resolved in the Senate.
PSZ, vol. VI, No. 3979.
PSZ, vol. VI, No. 3890
Yards and shops - the rules of inheritance under the decree of 1714 extended to the merchant class.
Who wants - relative or stranger of your choice.
Until those places until that time.
Cadets - here: minors, underage.
Adopt a nickname take the name of the heiress of the escheated real estate.
Do not encroach on such - don't get married.
Fortified for any reason - transferred or left in the possession of service people, their widows, orphans, young children, etc.
In foreign lands - in Russian troops who were at that time in other countries in connection with the Northern War.
Fiction - deceit, cunning, bypassing this decree.
