Home natural farming Comparative analysis of foreign and domestic theories of personality. Personality Theories: A Comparative Analysis. Cognitive approach to the study of personality

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Comparative analysis of foreign and domestic theories of personality. Personality Theories: A Comparative Analysis. Cognitive approach to the study of personality

Psychodynamic direction: Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud put forward the theory that people are in a state of constant conflict, the origins of which lie in the realm of unconscious urges.

Freud identified three levels in mental life:

consciousness
preconscious
unconscious

The level of consciousness consists of sensations and experiences that we are aware of at a given moment in time. Freud insisted that an insignificant part of mental life (thoughts, perception, feelings, memory) enter the sphere of consciousness, so that at a given moment in time it is not experienced in the mind of a person. This should be seen as the result of a selective sorting process largely controlled by external signals. Certain content is perceived only for a short period of time, and then quickly sinks into the preconscious or unconscious level as the person's attention moves to other signals. Consciousness captures only a small percentage of all information stored in the brain.

The area of the preconscious includes all experience that is not currently conscious, but can easily return to consciousness.

The deepest and most significant area of the human mind is the unconscious. The unconscious is a storehouse of primitive instinctive urges plus emotions and memories that are so threatening to consciousness that they have been repressed and forced into the unconscious. Unconscious material largely determines our daily functioning.

Freud gave the concept of unconscious life an empirical status. Freud later introduced three basic structures into the anatomy of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id realm is completely unconscious, while the ego and superego operate on all three levels of consciousness. Consciousness covers all three personal structures, although its main part is formed by impulses emanating from the Id.

eid according to Freud means the primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of the personality. It functions entirely in the unconscious and is closely related to the instinctive biological urges that energize our behavior. Id is something dark, not knowing the laws, not obeying the rules. It expresses the primary principle of all human life - the immediate discharge of psychic energy produced by biologically determined impulses (especially sexual and aggressive ones). The latter, when they are held back and do not find release, create tension in personal functioning. Since the id knows no fear and anxiety, it does not resort to precautions in expressing its goal.

Ego is a component of the mental apparatus responsible for decision making. The ego strives to express and satisfy the desires of the id in accordance with the restrictions imposed by the outside world. The ego helps to ensure the safety and self-preservation of the body. In the struggle for survival, both against the external social world and the instinctive needs of the id. The ego is the "executive" organ of the personality and the domain of intellectual processes and problem solving.

Superego- these are internalized social norms and standards of behavior obtained in the process of “socialization”. The superego tries to completely inhibit any socially condemned impulses from the id, trying to direct a person to absolute perfection in thoughts, words and deeds.

Psychoanalytic theory is based on the idea that human behavior is activated by a single energy, according to the law of conservation of energy (that is, it can move from one state to another, but its amount remains the same) and human motivation is completely based on the excitation energy produced by bodily needs expressed as desires are called instincts.

Freud named two main groups: the life instinct and the death instinct. The first group includes the most essential, sexual instincts. The energy of sexual instincts is a certain amount of energy that finds discharge only in sexual behavior. The second group is the basis of all manifestations of rigidity and aggression. He believed that instincts obey the principle of entropy, according to which any energy system strives to maintain dynamic balance.

In an effort to get rid of unpleasant emotional states, a person develops so-called defense mechanisms.

Negation. When the reality is very unpleasant for a person, he “turns a blind eye to it”, resorts to denying its existence, or tries to reduce the severity of the emerging threat.

suppression. Unlike denial, which mostly refers to information coming from outside, suppression refers to blocking internal impulses and threats. Most often, those thoughts and desires that contradict the moral values and norms accepted by the person themselves are suppressed.

Rationalization. This is a way of rationally justifying any acts and actions that are contrary to moral standards and cause concern, usually after they have been committed. The most typical methods of rationalization:

justifying one's inability to do something;
justification of a completely undesirable action, objectively prevailing circumstances.

Reaction formation. Sometimes people can hide from themselves the motive of their own behavior by suppressing it through a particularly pronounced and consciously supported motive of the opposite type.

Projection. All people have undesirable qualities and personality traits that they are reluctant to recognize, and more often not at all. The projection mechanism manifests itself in the fact that a person unconsciously ascribes his own negative qualities to another person, and, as a rule, in an exaggerated form.

Intellectualization. This is a kind of attempt to get out of an emotionally threatening situation by not, as it were, a detached discussion in abstract, intellectualized terms.

substitution. It is expressed in the partial, indirect satisfaction of an unacceptable motive in some morally acceptable way. Unsatisfied impulses make themselves felt in a coded, symbolic form - in a dream, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, jokes, oddities in human behavior, up to the appearance of pathological deviations.

Analytic Theory of Personality: Carl Gustav Jung.

Jung argued that the soul is made up of three separate interacting structures:

personal unconscious
collective unconscious

The ego is the center of the realm of consciousness and includes all the thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations that make us feel whole. The ego is the basis of our self-consciousness. The personal unconscious contains conflicts and memories that were once conscious but are now repressed and forgotten. Jung introduced the concept of a complex, or accumulation of emotionally charged thoughts, feelings and experiences, taken by an individual from personal or hereditary unconscious experience. Complexes can arise around the most common topics and have a strong influence on behavior. Jung argued that the material of the personal unconscious is unique and accessible to awareness. Finally, a deeper layer in the personality structure is the collective unconscious, which is a repository of latent memory traces of humanity. It reflects the thoughts and feelings common to all human beings.

Jung hypothesized that the collective unconscious consists of powerful primary mental images - archetypes. Archetypes are innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience and respond to events in a certain way; in other words, these are universal models of perception, thinking and action in response to some object or event. Among the archetypes described by Jung are the mother, the child, the hero, the sage, the Sun, the rogue, God, death, and so on. The most important archetypes are the persona (our public face), the shadow (the repressed, dark side of the personality), the animus/anima (the inner image of a woman in a man and vice versa, the inner image of a man in a woman), the self (the core of the personality around which everything is organized and united). other items).

Jung's most famous contribution to psychology is the two main ego orientations he described:

extraversion
introversion.

The idea of mental energy, self-regulation, compensation is closely connected in analytical psychology with the classification of “psychological types”. There are several such types. They refer to an innate difference in temperament, an integral combination of enduring psychodynamic properties manifested in activities that cause individuals to perceive and respond in a specific way. First of all, two stable types should be distinguished: extrovert and introvert.

An extrovert is characterized by an innate tendency to direct his psychic energy, or libido, outward, connecting the carrier of energy with the outside world. This type naturally and spontaneously shows interest and pays attention to the object - other people, objects, external manners and landscaping. An extrovert feels best when dealing with the external environment, interacting with other people. And it becomes restless and even sick, finding itself in loneliness, a monotonous monotonous environment. Maintaining a weak connection with the subjective inner world, the extravert will beware of meeting with him, will seek to underestimate, belittle and even defame any subjective requests as selfish.

The introvert, on the other hand, is characterized by the tendency of his libido to rush inward, by all means linking psychic energy with his inner world of thought, fantasy or feeling. The most successful introvert interacts with himself and at a time when he is freed from the obligation to adapt to external circumstances. The introvert has his own company, his own "closed world" and immediately closes in large groups.

Both the extrovert and the introvert reveal one or another of their shortcomings, depending on the severity of the type, but each involuntarily seeks to underestimate the other. To an extrovert, an introvert seems self-centered, so to speak, "obsessed with himself." To an introvert, an extrovert seems like a small empty opportunist or hypocrite.

Any real person carries both tendencies, but usually one is somewhat more developed than the other. As an opposite couple, they follow the law of opposites - i.e. excessive manifestation of one attitude inevitably leads to the emergence of another, opposite to it. Extraversion and introversion are just two of the many features of human behavior. In addition to them, Jung singled out four functional types, four basic psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, intuition.

Thinking is the rational ability to structure and synthesize discrete data through conceptual generalization. Feeling is a function that determines the value of things, measures and defines human relationships. Thinking and feeling are rational functions, since thinking evaluates things from the point of view of "truth - falsehood", and feeling - "acceptable - unacceptable". These functions form a pair of opposites, and if a person is more perfect in thinking, then he clearly lacks sensuality. Each member of the couple seeks to disguise the other and slow down.

Sensation is a function that tells a person that something is, it does not say what it is, but only indicates that this something is present. In sensation, objects are perceived as they exist in themselves in reality. Intuition is defined as perception through the unconscious, that is, the lowering of pictures and plots of reality, the origin of which is unclear, vague, poorly explained. The functions of sensation and intuition are irrational - external and internal perception, independent of any assessments.

In turn, rational and irrational functions operate in a mutually exclusive way. All four functions are represented by two pairs of opposites: thinking - feeling, sensation - intuition. Although each individual potentially possesses all four functions, one of them usually turns out to be more developed than the others. They call her the leader. The function that is less developed than the others, as a rule, remains in an unconscious state and turns out to be subordinate. Often, another function can be sufficiently developed, approaching the leading function in terms of activity. Obviously, it is represented by another pair of opposites. This function is helpful. In accordance with the leading function, we will have four functional types: thinking, sensual, sensory, intuitive.

The thinking type identifies itself with thought processes and is not aware of the presence of other functions in itself, but simply suppresses them; his thinking is autocratic, intellectual formulas fetter the integral manifestation of life. Feeling turns out to be a subordinate function. Human relationships are preserved and maintained only as long as they serve and follow the governing intellectual formulas, in all other cases they are easily sacrificed.

The sensual type is correspondingly more common in women. The affirmation and development of interpersonal interactions and partnerships are the main goal here. Sensitivity and responsiveness to the needs of others is an indicative feature, the main quality of this type. The greatest satisfaction here is the experience of emotional contact with other people. In its extreme manifestation, this functional type can cause hostility with its excessive interest, unhealthy curiosity about the personal affairs of others. Thinking turns out to be a subordinate function; as such, it serves the interests of sensory relationships.

The sensory (sensing) type is characterized by adaptability to ordinary momentary reality, to “here and now”. The feeling type looks stable and earthy, real and real in the sense of being ready to “live” in the moment, but at the same time it looks rather stupid. The sensing type actually suppresses intuitive manifestations as unrealistic fantasies and thus gets rid of the burdensome yeast of inner clumsiness, inertia.

The intuitive type is motivated mainly by a constant stream of new visions and premonitions flowing from his inner active perception. Everything new and possible, incomprehensible and different, excellent is a bait for this type. The intuitive type is more likely to grasp weak connections between things that to others seem unrelated and alien. His mind works spasmodically and quickly, it is difficult to trace his action. If you ask him to act more slowly, he may become irritated and consider his interlocutors slow-witted and stupid. Feeling as a psychic property is subdued and suppressed in him. In real life, such a person often remains misunderstood by others, and his insights, if they turn out to be constructive as a result, must be patiently developed by others.

Usually, the development of an auxiliary function softens and modifies the severity of the manifestation of the characteristics described above. But that's not all, because according to the established type, each of the functions can be oriented either introverted or extraverted.

Ideally, an individual should fully master all four functions in order to give an appropriate adequate response to any vital requests. Unfortunately, in reality this is unattainable, although it remains a desirable goal, thus defining one of the main tasks of analytical psychotherapy: to bring to consciousness this state of affairs and to help in the development of subordinate, oppressed, undeveloped functions in order to achieve psychic integrity.

Individual personality theory: Alfred Adler.

The individual psychology of Alfred Adler has several key principles, based on which he describes a person:

man is one, self-consistent and whole;
human life is a dynamic striving for excellence;
the individual is a creative and self-determining entity;
the social affiliation of the individual.

According to Adler, people try to compensate for the feeling of their own inferiority that they experienced in childhood, and experiencing inferiority, throughout their lives they struggle for superiority. Each person develops his own unique lifestyle, within which he strives to achieve fictitious goals focused on superiority or perfection. Related to this is the concept of "fictitious finalism" - the idea that human behavior is subordinated to their own intended goals in relation to the future. According to Adler, the style of life is especially clearly manifested in the attitudes of the individual and her behavior, aimed at solving the three main life tasks: work, friendship and love. Based on an assessment of the degree of expression of social interest and the degree of activity in relation to these three tasks, Adler distinguished types of attitudes that accompany lifestyle:

Adler believed that the style of life is created due to the creative power of the individual, but a certain influence on it is the order of birth: first-born, only child, middle or last child.

Also in individual psychology, the emphasis is on the so-called social interest, namely the internal tendency of a person to participate in the creation of an ideal society.

The central concept of the whole theory of Alfred Adler is the creative "I". This concept embodies the active principle of human life; what gives it meaning; that under whose influence the style of life is formed. This creative force is responsible for the purpose of human life and contributes to the development of social interest.

ego psychology

Personality theories in ego psychology: E. Erickson, K. Horney

In the theory of Eric Erickson, the ego and its adaptive abilities are of the greatest importance. Other features of his theory, called ego psychology, include:

emphasis on changes occurring in the process of development throughout a person's life;
emphasis on a mentally healthy person;
the special role of identity;
combination of clinical observations with the study of cultural and historical factors in the study of personality structure.

Erickson's ego psychology is considered a development of psychoanalysis, but he departed from psychoanalysis on several important points: a shift in emphasis from the id to the ego; emphasizing the historical conditions for the formation of the child's ego; coverage by the theory of the entire living space of the individual; finally, his views on the nature and resolution of psychosexual conflicts differ from those of Freud.

Central to his theory of ego development is the epigenetic principle. According to him, a person during his life goes through several stages that are universal for all mankind. The personality develops in steps, the transition from one stage to another is predetermined by the readiness of the personality to move in the direction of the further path. Society is arranged in such a way that the development of social opportunities is accepted approvingly, society contributes to the preservation of this trend, maintaining its pace and

Erickson described eight stages in the psychosocial development of the individual:

infancy (basal trust - basal distrust);
early childhood (autonomy - shame and doubt);
the age of the game (initiativity - guilt);
school age (industriousness - inferiority);
youth (ego-identity - role confusion);
early maturity (intimacy - isolation);
average maturity (productivity - inertia);
late maturity (ego integration - despair).

Karen Horney rejected Freud's position that physical anatomy determines the personality differences between men and women, arguing that the nature of the social relationship between parents and child is a decisive factor in personality development. According to Horney, the primary needs in childhood are satisfaction and security. If the behavior of the parents does not contribute to the satisfaction of the need for security, this leads to the emergence of basal hostility, and that leads to the emergence of basal anxiety - the basis of neurosis. She called basal anxiety a feeling of helplessness in a hostile world.

Horney described ten neurotic needs that people use to cope with the lack of security and helplessness generated by basic anxiety. Unlike healthy people, neurotics rely on one need when responding to various situations. The ten neurotic needs are:

in love and approval; in a leading partner; within clear limits;
in power; in the exploitation of others; in public recognition;
in self-admiration; in ambition; in self-sufficiency and independence;
in perfection and irrefutability.

Horney divided the list of needs into three categories, each of which represents a strategy for optimizing interpersonal relationships in order to achieve safety in the outside world. Each strategy is accompanied by a certain orientation in relations with other people: towards people, away from people and against people.

Horney also put forward feminist-oriented ideas that emphasize the importance of culture and gender roles. She owns numerous articles on the psychology of women.

Humanistic direction

Humanist movement: Abraham Maslow

The term "humanistic psychology" was defined by a group of psychologists led by Abraham Maslow. Maslow called his approach Third Force Psychology, contrasting it with behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The humanistic concept is characterized by an existential view of man. The main principles put forward are the interpretation of the personality as a whole, the futility of animal studies, the perception of a person as a positive and creative being at its core, an emphasis on the study of mental health.

Maslow's theory describes motivation in terms of a hierarchy of needs. The lower (basic) needs must be reasonably satisfied before the higher order needs become the dominant motivating forces in human behavior. The hierarchy of needs in order of dominance is as follows:

1. physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.);

2. the need for security (stability, order);

3.needs for love and belonging (family, friendship);

4. need for respect (self-respect, recognition);

5. the need for self-actualization (development of abilities).

Maslow distinguished two types of motives in humans: deficit motives and growth motives. The former aims to reduce tension, while the latter aims to increase tension by seeking out new and exciting experiences. Maslow suggested that both kinds of motives are biologically embedded in people.

He singled out several meta-needs (for example, truth, beauty or justice), with the help of which he described self-actualizing people. The dissatisfaction of the metaneeds should cause metapathologies (eg, apathy, cynicism, and alienation).

Maslow's empirical research focuses on the concept of self-actualization. Self-actualizing people are the “color” of humanity, people who live life to the full and have reached the potential level of personal development. Their characteristics are as follows: more effective perception of reality; acceptance of self, others and nature; immediacy, simplicity and naturalness; problem centered; independence: need for privacy; autonomy: independence from culture and environment; freshness of perception; summit experiences; public interest; deep interpersonal relationships; democratic character; delimitation of means and ends; philosophical sense of humor; creativity (creativity); resistance to cultivation.

Phenomenological direction: Carl Rogers

In the phenomenological direction of personality psychology, developed by Carl Rogers, the central position is occupied by the position that human behavior can only be understood in terms of his subjective experiences. It also implies that humans are capable of shaping their own destiny and are inherently goal-oriented, trustworthy, and self-improving.

From the point of view of human perception, there is a subjective reality - the personal world of human experiences. The central place in this world belongs to the self-concept. The elements that determine the development of the self-concept are the need for positive attention, the conditions of value, and unconditional positive attention. Rogers argued that for the most part people behave in accordance with their self-concept. The threat arises if a person feels a discrepancy between it and the general organismic experience, and then he tries to protect the integrity of the Self by distorting or denying perception.

Rogers gives an important place to openness to experience (the ability of a person to experience what is happening inside him without feeling threatened), organismic trust (the ability to rely on internal experiences and feelings as the basis for making important decisions), empirical freedom (a subjective sense of what is possible live the way you want). Also among the characteristics of a fully functioning person is creativity, that is, creativity, the ability to produce new ideas, results and ways to solve problems.

Typological models of social characters: Erich Fromm

Erich Fromm continued the post-Freudian trend in personality psychology, focusing on the influence of socio-cultural factors on personality. Fromm argued that a certain part of people are driven by the desire to escape from freedom, which is carried out through the mechanisms of authoritarianism, destructiveness and conformism. Fromm's healthy path to liberation is to gain positive freedom through spontaneous activity.

Fromm described five existential needs inherent in a person: in establishing connections; in overcoming; in the roots; in identity; in the system of views and devotion.

Fromm believed that the basic orientations of character are a consequence of the way in which existential needs are met.

Unproductive character types:

receptive (sentimental, dependent and passive, believing that one should be loved, not loved),
exploiter (a person who gets what he wants from others by force and deceit),
accumulative (stingy, stubborn and past-oriented)
market (a person who defines himself as a commodity that can be profitably sold / exchanged; extremely alienated from others).

There is only one productive character; according to Fromm, it represents the goal of human development, and it is based on reason, love and work. This type is independent, honest, calm, loving, creative and doing socially useful things.

Disposition direction

Disposition direction: Allport, Kettel, Eysenck

The dispositional direction of personality psychology is based on two general ideas. The first is that people have a wide range of predispositions to respond in certain ways in different situations. That is, people demonstrate a certain constancy in actions, thoughts and emotions. The second main idea has to do with the fact that no two people are exactly alike.

Personality, according to Allport, is the dynamic organization of those psychophysical systems in an individual that determine his characteristic behavior and thinking, determine his unique adaptation to the environment.

In terms of Allport's theory, one can define a personality trait as a predisposition to behave in a similar way in a wide range of situations.

Allport distinguished between individual and general traits. At the same time, Allport called only common features as a trait, and individual traits as a personal disposition or morphogenic trait. The real difference between the two is that personal dispositions, unlike traits, are defined as belonging to the individual. Using the concept of common features, it is possible to carry out a comparative study of the same trait expressed in different individuals or groups of individuals. He believed that although traits and personal dispositions really exist in a person, they are not directly observable and must be inferred from behavior.

Allport suggested that there is a principle that organizes attitudes, motives, evaluations and inclinations into a single whole. For this, he coined the term proprium. Proprium is a positive, creative, growth-seeking property of human nature, it covers all aspects of the personality that contribute to the formation of a sense of inner unity. Allport identified seven different aspects involved in the development of the proprium:

feeling of your body;
a sense of self-identity;
a sense of self-respect;
expansion of the self;
self-image;
rational self-management;
propriety desire.

Allport had never practiced psychotherapy and therefore refused to believe that mature and immature people have much in common. Allport worked for a long time to create an adequate description of the “mature personality”, concluding, as a result, that a psychologically mature person is guided by six traits:

a mature person has wide boundaries of "I";
a mature person is capable of warm, cordial social relations;
a mature person demonstrates emotional unconcern and self-acceptance;
a mature person demonstrates realistic perception, experience and claims;
a mature person demonstrates the ability to self-knowledge and a sense of humor;
a mature person has a whole philosophy of life.

Dispositional direction - Raymond Cattell.

Cattell's approach is based on the use of precise empirical research methods. According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation. He views personality as a complex and differentiated structure of traits, where motivation is predominantly dependent on a subsystem of so-called dynamic traits. Trait is the most important concept in Cattell. Central to Cattell is the distinction between surface and baseline features. He considers original features more important than superficial ones. Dynamic traits can be divided into three groups: attitude, erg and feeling.

Eysenck's theory of personality types.

Eysenck's theory of personality types is based on factor analysis.

His hierarchical model of personality structure includes types, personality traits, habitual responses, and specific responses. Types are sets in which characteristics of individuals are located between two extreme points. Eysenck emphasizes that most people do not fall into extreme categories. According to Eysenck, the personality structure is based on two main types (superfeatures): introversion - extraversion and stability - neuroticism, represented as the "Eysenck circle".

Eysenck circle.

Explicit features of behavior resulting from combinations of these two types are considered. A third super-trait is also considered: psychotism is the power of the superego. At the same time, Eysenck attaches great importance to the genetic factor. He developed several questionnaires to assess the three main superfeatures.

Cognitive approach to the study of personality.

The theory of personality constructs by J. Kelly

Sources of development. The main source of personality development, according to J. Kelly, is the environment, the social environment. The cognitive theory of personality emphasizes the influence of intellectual processes on human behavior. In this theory, any person is compared with a scientist who tests hypotheses about the nature of things and makes a forecast of future events. Any event for any person is open to multiple interpretations. The main concept in this direction is "CONSTRUCTION" (from the English "construct" - to build). This concept includes features of all known cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking and speech). Thanks to these constructs, a person not only cognizes the world, but, according to J. Kelly, establishes interpersonal relationships. The constructs that underlie these relationships are called personality constructs.

J. Kelly discovered and described the basic mechanisms of the functioning of personal constructs. He formulated one basic postulate and 11 corollaries. The basic postulate states that personal processes are psychologically channeled in such a way as to provide a person with the maximum prediction of events. All other corollaries refine this basic postulate. Let's consider some of them. For example, the consequence called "interpretation" specifies the way in which a person predicts events. According to J. Kelly, a person actualizes the construct that was most often used in the past in a similar situation to make a decision. Imagine that an unknown person has entered your audience. Five minutes later he left without saying a word to anyone. Ask each other what each of you has to say about this person. One of you will claim that he is probably an athlete (the stranger was in sportswear). Another will say that he is a musician (he has long fingers). And the third will insist that the stranger is an intellectual (he has unusual glasses), and so on. Thus, each looked at the stranger "with his own eyes" and saw what was important in the past in similar situations.

From the point of view of J. Kelly, each of us builds and tests hypotheses, in a word, solves the problem of whether a given person is athletic or unsportsmanlike, musical or non-musical, intelligent or non-intelligent, etc., using the appropriate construct (classifier). Each construct has a "dichotomy" (two poles): in this case, "sports-unsportsmanlike", "musical-non-musical". A person arbitrarily chooses that pole of the dichotomous construct, that outcome that best describes the event, i.e. has the best prognosis. Some constructs are suitable for describing only a narrow range of events, while others have a wide range of applicability. For example, the "smart-stupid" construct is hardly suitable for describing the weather, but the "good-bad" construct is suitable for virtually everything.

occasions of life. According to J. Kelly, to the extent that one person uses constructive subsystems similar to the constructive subsystems of another person, to the same extent this person has similar personal processes. This means that friendship, love, and generally normal relationships between people are possible only when people have similar constructs. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a situation where two people communicate successfully, one of whom is dominated by the “decent-dishonest” construct, while the other does not have such a construct at all.

Decisive age period. According to J. Kelly, personality is formed and develops throughout life. The structural system is not a static formation, but is in constant change under the influence of experience.

Conscious-unconscious in personality. According to the cognitivists, the personality is predominantly dominated by the "conscious". "Unconscious" can only refer to distant (subordinate) constructs that a person rarely uses when interpreting perceived events.

free will. J. Kelly believed that a person has limited free will. The constructive system that has developed in a person during his life contains certain limitations. However, he did not believe that human life is determined, fatal. In any situation, a person is able to construct alternative predictions. The outside world is neither evil nor good, but the way we construct it in our head. Ultimately, according to cognitivists, the fate of a person is in his hands.

Subjective-objective. The inner world of a person is subjective and, according to cognitivists, is his own creation. Each person perceives and interprets external reality through their own inner world.

In the cognitive approach to the study of personality, the main attention is paid to the description of personality elements. Block and integral properties are effectively merged.

Elemental properties of personality. The main conceptual element is the personal "construct". A construct is a kind of classifier-template of our perception of other people and ourselves (smart-stupid, strong-weak, good-bad, etc.). People differ not only in the number of constructs (someone has ten - like the "cannibal" Ellochka, and someone has several thousand), but also in their location. Those constructs that are actualized in consciousness faster are called "superordinate", and those that are slower - "subordinate". For example, if, having met a person, you immediately evaluate him in terms of whether he is "smart" or "stupid", and only then - "kind" or "evil", then your construct is "smart-stupid " is "superordinate", the construct "good-evil" is "subordinate".

Block personality traits. Each person has his own system of personal constructs, which is divided into two levels (blocks).

The block of "nuclear" constructs is about 50 main constructs that are at the top of the construct system, i.e. in the constant focus of operational consciousness. People use these constructs most often when interacting with other people.
The block of peripheral constructs is all other constructs. The number of these constructs is purely individual and can vary from hundreds to several thousand.

Holistic personality traits. These properties appear as a result of the joint functioning of both blocks, all constructs. There are two types of integral personality:

A cognitively complex personality is a person who has a large number of constructs.
A cognitively simple personality is a personality with a small set of constructs.

A cognitively complex personality, in comparison with a cognitively simple one, has:

Better mental health;
Copes better with stress;
Has a higher level of self-esteem;
More adaptable to new situations.

There are special methods for evaluating personal constructs (their quality and quantity). The most famous of these is the "Repertory Grid Test" (Fransella, Bannister, 1987). The subject compares triads simultaneously with each other (three people, the list and sequence of triads is compiled in advance from people who play an important role in the past or present life of this subject) in order to identify such psychological characteristics that two (from these compared three people) have, but missing from the third person. For example, you have to compare the teacher you love with your wife (or husband) and yourself. You think, for example, that you and your teacher have a common psychological property - sociability, while your spouse (s) does not have such a quality. Therefore, in your constructive system there is such a construct - "sociability-non-sociability". Next, you have to compare three other people, and so on. Thus, by comparing yourself and other people with each other, you reveal the system of your own personal constructs. People who have a large number of identical constructs, i.e. those who perceive and interpret the world in a similar way develop closer friendships or family relationships much faster. Thus, if you are looking for a close friend, try to compare your construct system with the construct system of your acquaintances. Groups of people (collectives, and the family is also a collective) that have similar structural systems, when performing joint activities, have fewer conflicts and work more efficiently. Therefore, according to the cognitive theory of personality, the structure of personality is an individually peculiar hierarchy of constructs.

Thus, within the framework of this approach, personality is a system of organized personal constructs in which a person's personal experience is processed (perceived and interpreted). To our control question, why some people are more aggressive than others, cognitivists answer this way: because aggressive people have a special personality construct system. They perceive and interpret the world differently, in particular, they better remember events associated with aggressive behavior.

Behavioral approach to the study of personality

This approach has also other names - "behaviorist" or "scientific". There are two main directions in the behavioral approach to the study of personality - "reflex" and "social". The reflex direction is represented by the works of well-known American behaviorists J. Watson and B. Skinner. The founders of the second direction are American researchers: A. Bandura and J. Rotter.

Sources of development. The main source of personality development, according to this approach, regardless of direction, is the environment in the broadest sense of the word. There is nothing in the personality of genetic or psychological inheritance. Personality is a product of learning, and its properties are generalized behavioral "REFLEXES" and "SOCIAL SKILLS". From the point of view of behaviorists, any type of personality can be formed - a worker or a bandit, a poet or a merchant. For example, according to J. Watson, all the emotional properties of a person (fear, anxiety, joy, anger, etc.) are the result of the development of "CLASSICAL CONDITIONAL REFLEXES". J. Watson did not make any distinction between the development of a salivary reflex in a dog (recall the work of I.P. Pavlov) and the development of emotional reactions in humans. The second representative of the "reflex" direction - B. Skinner argued. that personality is a set of social skills formed as a result of "OPERATING" learning. Operant Skinner called any change in the environment as a result of any human motor act. A person tends to perform those operants that are followed by reinforcement, and avoids performing those operants that are followed by punishment.

Thus, as a result of a certain system of reinforcements and punishments, a person acquires new social skills, and, accordingly, new personality traits - kindness or honesty, aggressiveness or altruism.

According to representatives of the second direction, an important role in the development of a personality is played not so much by external as by internal factors, for example, expectation, purpose, significance, etc.

A. Bandura called human behavior, determined by internal factors, "SELF-REGULATION". The main task of self-regulation is to provide "SELF-EFFICIENCY", i.e. perform only those forms of behavior that a person can implement, relying on internal factors at the moment. Internal factors operate according to their "internal" laws, although they arose from past experience as a result of learning through imitation.

The second representative of the "social-scientific" trend - J. Rotter - is even more of a "cognitivist" than A. Bandura. To explain human behavior, J. Rotter introduces a special concept of "BEHAVIORAL POTENTIAL", which means a measure of the probability of what kind of behavior a person will perform in a given situation. According to J. Rotter, the potential of behavior consists of two components: "SUBJECTIVE SIGNIFICANCE" of the reinforcement of this behavior (i.e. how much the upcoming reinforcement is valuable, significant for a person) and "AVAILABILITY" of this reinforcement (i.e. how much the upcoming reinforcement in this situation can be implemented).

Decisive age period. According to behaviorists, personality is formed and develops throughout life as socialization, upbringing and learning. However, they regard the early years of a person's life as more important. The basis of any knowledge, abilities, including creative and spiritual, in their opinion, is laid in childhood. Behavioral theory states that any person can be taught any behavior and, accordingly, can be weaned from any unwanted reactions, including painful ones.

Conscious-unconscious in personality. According to behaviorists, rational and irrational processes are equally represented in the personality. Their opposition is meaningless. It all depends on the type and complexity of the behavior. In some cases, a person can be clearly aware of his actions and his behavior, in others not.

Free will. According to behavioral theory, a person is almost completely deprived of free will. Our behavior is determined by external circumstances. We often behave like puppets and are unaware of the consequences of our behavior, because the social skills we have learned and reflexes from long-term use have long been automated.

Subjective-objective. The inner world of man is objective. Everything in it is from the environment. Personality is fully objectified in behavioral manifestations. There is no "facade". Our behavior is personality. Behavioral traits of a person are amenable to operationalization and objective measurement.

In the behavioral approach, three levels of properties are distinguished, however, as in the case of the approaches described above, there is no clear boundary between the levels.

Elemental properties of personality. The elements of personality here are "REFLEXES" or "SOCIAL SKILLS". It is postulated that the list of social skills (i.e. properties, characteristics, personality traits) inherent in a particular person is determined by his social experience (learning). The properties of the individual and the requirements of the social environment of a person coincide. If you were brought up in a kind, calm family, and you were encouraged for kindness and calmness, then you will have the properties of a kind and calm person. And if you are sad and sad, or are distinguished by increased vulnerability, then this is not your "fault", you are a product of society, a product of education. Well, if you like poetry, then here too, there is no merit in this. Family, street, school, etc. developed a love for this art form. Your profession - present or future - is also a consequence of your upbringing, which included a certain system of reinforcements and punishments.

The problem of reinforcement for behaviorists is not limited to food. Representatives of this trend argue that a person has his own ecologically valid hierarchy of reinforcements. For a child, a more powerful, after food, reinforcement is “active” reinforcement (watch TV, video), then “manipulative” (play with a toy, draw), followed by “possessional” (from the English word possess - to possess) reinforcement (sit on dad's chair, put on mom's skirt), and finally, social reinforcement - praise, hug, encourage the child, etc.

If within the framework of the "reflex" direction of behavioral theory the existence of certain personality blocks is actually denied, then the representatives of the "social-scientific" direction consider the allocation of such blocks to be quite possible.

Block personality traits. In the behavioral model, there are three main conceptual blocks of personality. The main block of personality, according to A. Bandura, is "SELF-EFFICIENCY". Self-efficacy is a kind of can-can't cognitive construct. A. Bandura himself defined this structure as "faith", "belief", or "expectation" of receiving future reinforcements. This block determines the success of a certain behavior, or the success of acquiring new social skills. If a person makes a decision "I can", then he proceeds to perform a certain behavior, if a person makes a verdict "I can not", he refuses to perform this action, or to learn it. For example, if you decide that you cannot learn Chinese, then no force will force you to do so. And if you decide that you can do it, then sooner or later you will learn it.

According to A. Bandura, there are four main conditions that determine the formation of a person's confidence that he "can" or "cannot" do something:

past experience (knowledge, skills); for example, if before I could, then now, apparently, I can;
self-instruction; e.g. I can, I can do it!;
increased emotional mood (alcohol, music, love);
and, finally, the most important condition is observation, modeling (imitation) of the behavior of other people (observation of real life, watching movies, reading books, etc.); For example, if others can, then I can too!

According to J. Rotter, there are two main internal blocks of personality:

"Subjective significance" - structure, I evaluate the value of the upcoming reinforcements.
"Availability" is a structure related to the expectation (probability) of receiving reinforcements based on past experience.

These blocks do not function independently, but form a more general block called "BEHAVIORAL POTENTIAL" or "COGNITIVE MOTIVATION" block.

Holistic personality traits. The holistic properties of the personality are manifested in the unity of the action of blocks of subjective significance and accessibility. People who do not see a connection (or see a weak connection) between their behavior (their efforts, their actions) and their results (reinforcements), according to J. Rotter, have an external or external "LOCUS OF CONTROL". "EXTERNALS" are people who do not control the situation and hope for "maybe" in their lives. Externals usually reason like this: "maybe you'll get lucky."

People who see a clear connection between their behavior (their efforts, their actions) and the results of their behavior have an internal or internal locus of control. "INTERNALS" are people who manage the situation, control it, it is available to them. Internal:

CAREFULLY PREPARING FOR LESSONS;
BELIEVES IF HE HAS BEEN SUCCESSFUL IN HIS LIFE, IT'S BECAUSE HE WORKED HARD FOR IT;
DEVELOPS A PLAN FOR FUTURE ACTIVITIES;
CAN LEARN ALMOST EVERYTHING IF HE WANTS TO;
DOESN'T SET IMPOSSIBLE GOALS FOR YOURSELF;
HAS A HIGHER SELF-ESTIMATION;
LESS SUCCESSFUL TO DEPRESSIVE MOODS.

According to behavioral theory, personality structure is a complexly organized hierarchy of reflexes or social skills, in which the internal blocks of self-efficacy, subjective significance and accessibility play a leading role.
Thus, within the framework of this approach, personality is a system of conditional social skills and reflexes, on the one hand, and a system of internal factors: self-efficacy, subjective significance and accessibility, on the other.

Physiological or biological approach

Typological model: Kretschmer

There are a number of concepts in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique. These typologies are called constitutional typologies. The typological model proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”, was most widely used. The main idea was that people with a certain type of constitution have certain mental characteristics. He carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish 4 constitutional types:

Leptosomatic - characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest; the shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin;
Picnic - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese. characterized by small or medium stature, a spreading body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck;
Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips;
Dysplastic - people with a shapeless, irregular structure; individuals of this type are characterized by various deformations of the physique (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates two main types of temperament, which he calls schizothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, little susceptible to changes in attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. The cyclothymic has a picnic physique, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.

Kretschmer develops his theory of temperaments, separately highlighting the “special talents” inherent in full-fledged social variants of temperaments with a table. For example, a cyclothymic poet for him is a “realist, a humorist”, and a schizotimic one is rather a romantic, an artist of form. In the same way he shares the characters of explorers and leaders.

Kretschmer's theory was very common in Europe, and in the USA the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon, formulated by him in the 40s, gained popularity. 20th century It was assumed that the shape of the human body affects the personality and reflects its characteristics. Unlike E. Kretschmer, the initial concept for him is not type as a combination of physical and psychological traits, but a component of physique. Sheldon investigated three classes (body types) - endomorphic, ectomorphic and mesomorphic, highlighting them based on a rigorous analysis of photographs of 4000 students taken from the front, side and back. Having studied the characteristics of the temperament and personality of individuals assigned to a particular somatotype, Sheldon established significant relationships between certain body components and the “primary components of temperament”.

In modern psychological science, most constitutional concepts are sharply criticized because they underestimate the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of a person's mental properties.

Typological models of character accentuations and psychopathies: Leonhard

The typological model of K. Leonhard includes 10 types of accentuated personalities. They are divided into 2 groups:

character accentuations (demonstrative, pedantic, stuck, excitable);
temperament accentuations (hyperthymic, dysthymic, anxious-fearful, cyclothymic, affective).

Leonhard believes that people differ not only in accentuated features, but also in features, individual traits. The traits that define personality belong to different mental spheres:

to the sphere of orientation of interests and inclinations;
to the sphere of feelings and will;
to the sphere of associative-intellectual.

It is not always easy, says Leonhard, to distinguish between accentuated features and features that define variation in a person's personality.

With knowledge of individual features, one can trace their compatibility. Leonhard notes that the combination of accentuated features is distinguished by clear features, usually in the field of character.

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The aim of the study is to study foreign theories of personality.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks set by us, namely:
1) analyze the special scientific and psychological literature on the chosen topic;
2) to study the theoretical aspects of foreign theories of personality;
3) conduct a comparative analysis of foreign theories of personality.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
1. Personality theories put forward by foreign psychologists………………5
1.1. Sigmund Freud – Classical psychoanalysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.2. Alfred Adler – Individual personality theory……………………8
1.3. Carl Gustav Jung – Analytical Theory of Personality…..………………10
1.4. Eric Erikson - Ego-Theory of Personality…………………………………….15
1.5. Abraham Maslow - Humanistic direction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.6. Albert Bandura - Social-cognitive theory of personality…………20
1.7. Erich Fromm - Typological models of social characters………22
2. Comparative analysis of foreign theories of personality…………………… .26
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………29
References………………………………………………………………31
Application

The work contains 1 file

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3

1. Personality theories put forward by foreign psychologists………………5

1.1. Sigmund Freud – Classical psychoanalysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1.2. Alfred Adler – Individual personality theory……………………8

1.3. Carl Gustav Jung – Analytical Theory of Personality…..………………10

1.4. Eric Erikson - Ego-Theory of Personality…………………………………….15

1.5. Abraham Maslow - Humanistic direction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1.6. Albert Bandura - Social-cognitive theory of personality…………20

1.7. Erich Fromm - Typological models of social characters………22

2. Comparative analysis of foreign theories of personality…………………… .26

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………29

References…………………………………………………………………31

Application

Introduction

To the question of what a personality is, psychologists answer differently, and in the variety of their answers, and partly in the divergence of opinions on this matter, the complexity of the personality phenomenon itself is manifested. Each of the definitions of personality available in the literature deserves to be taken into account in the search for a global definition of personality.

Personality is a concept that combines many aspects that characterize a person: emotions, motivation, thoughts, experiences, perceptions and actions. The conceptual meaning of personality covers a wide range of internal mental processes that determine the characteristics of human behavior in various situations. Within the framework of psychology, there is no single generally accepted meaning - there are as many meanings as there are psychologists who solve this problem.

The problem of personality is central in psychology. The science of personality - personology - is a discipline that seeks to lay the foundation for a better understanding of human individuality through the use of various research strategies. Modern personality psychology, being a scientific discipline, transforms speculative reasoning about human nature into concepts that can be confirmed experimentally.

Personality theories vary so much that it is almost impossible to simply define the word "personality" conceptually. Numerous works have been devoted to the issues of personality theories. Basically, the material presented in the educational literature is of a general nature, and in numerous monographs on this topic, narrower issues of the problem are considered. However, it is required to take into account modern conditions in the study of the problems of the designated topic.

The relevance of this work is due, on the one hand, to the great interest in foreign and domestic personality theory in modern science, on the other hand, its insufficient development.

The object of this study is foreign theories of personality.

At the same time, the subject of the research is the analysis of modern foreign theories of personality.

The aim of the study is to study foreign theories of personality.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks set by us, namely:

analyze special scientific and psychological literature on the chosen topic;
to study the theoretical aspects of foreign theories of personality;
conduct a comparative analysis of foreign theories of personality.

To achieve the goal and objectives, we will use the following methods:

method of theoretical analysis of scientific and psychological sources.

1. Personality theories put forward by foreign psychologists

1.1. Sigmund Freud - Classical Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud put forward the theory that people are in a state of constant conflict, the origins of which lie in the realm of unconscious urges.

In mental life, Freud identified three levels: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.

The preconscious realm includes all experience that is not currently conscious, but can easily return to consciousness.

Freud later distinguishes in the structure of personality: Id, Ego and Superego. The id realm is completely unconscious, while the ego and superego operate on all three levels of consciousness. Consciousness covers all three personality structures, although its main part is formed by impulses emanating from the Id.

Freud's id refers to the primitive, instinctive, and innate aspects of the personality. It functions entirely in the unconscious and is closely related to the instinctive biological urges that energize our behavior. Id is something dark, not knowing the laws, not obeying the rules. It expresses the primary principle of all human life - the immediate discharge of psychic energy produced by biologically determined impulses (especially sexual and aggressive ones). The latter, when they are held back and do not find release, create tension in personal functioning. Since the id knows no fear and anxiety, it does not resort to precautions in expressing its goal.

The ego is the component of the mental apparatus responsible for making decisions. The ego strives to express and satisfy the desires of the id in accordance with the restrictions imposed by the external world. The ego helps to ensure the safety and self-preservation of the body. In the struggle for survival, both against the external social world and the instinctive needs of the id. The ego is the "executive" organ of the personality and the domain of intellectual processes and problem solving.

The superego is the internalized social norms and standards of behavior obtained in the process of "socialization". The superego tries to completely inhibit any socially condemned impulses from the id, trying to direct a person to absolute perfection in thoughts, words and deeds.

Although the number of instincts can be unlimited, Freud recognized the existence of two main groups: the instincts of life (Eros) and death (Thanatos).

The first group includes the most essential, sexual instincts. The energy of sexual instincts is a certain amount of energy that finds discharge only in sexual behavior. The second group - underlies all manifestations of rigidity and aggression. He believed that instincts obey the principle of entropy, according to which any energy system strives to maintain dynamic balance.

In an effort to get rid of unpleasant emotional states, under the pressure of excessive anxiety, a person is sometimes forced to take emergency measures in order to reduce it. These measures are called defense mechanisms.

All defense mechanisms have two characteristics in common: 1) they reject, falsify or distort reality; 2) they act unconsciously, so that the person is unaware of their existence.

Denial - when the reality is very unpleasant for a person, he "turns a blind eye to it", resorts to denying its existence, or tries to reduce the severity of the emerging threat.

Suppression - Unlike denial, which mostly refers to information coming from outside, suppression refers to blocking internal impulses and threats. Most often, those thoughts and desires that contradict the moral values and norms accepted by the person themselves are suppressed.

Rationalization is a way of rationally justifying any acts and actions that are contrary to moral standards and cause concern, usually after they have been committed. The most typical methods of rationalization:

a) an excuse for not being able to do something;

b) the justification of a completely undesirable action, objectively existing circumstances.

Reaction formation - sometimes people can hide from themselves the motive of their own behavior by suppressing it through a particularly pronounced and consciously supported motive of the opposite type.

Projection - all people have unwanted properties and personality traits that they are reluctant to recognize, and more often do not recognize at all. The projection mechanism manifests itself in the fact that a person unconsciously ascribes his own negative qualities to another person, and, as a rule, in an exaggerated form.

Intellectualization is a kind of attempt to get out of an emotionally threatening situation by not as if detached discussion in abstract, intellectualized terms.

Substitution - is expressed in the partial, indirect satisfaction of an unacceptable motive in some morally acceptable way. Unsatisfied impulses make themselves felt in a coded, symbolic form - in a dream, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, jokes, oddities in human behavior, up to the appearance of pathological deviations.

In personality development, Sigmund Freud believed that a person is born with a certain amount of sexual energy - libido, and identified 5 stages of psychosexual personality development (Appendix 1).

1.2. Alfred Adler – Individual personality theory

The individual psychology of Alfred Adler has several key principles, based on which he describes a person:

1) the person is single, self-consistent and integral;

2) human life is a dynamic striving for excellence;

3) the individual is a creative and self-determining entity;

4) the social affiliation of the individual.

According to Adler, the style of life is especially clearly manifested in the attitudes of the individual and her behavior, aimed at solving the three main life tasks: work, friendship and love. Based on an assessment of the degree of expression of social interest and the degree of activity in relation to these three tasks, Adler distinguished types of attitudes that accompany lifestyle:

- manager (self-confidence, assertiveness, insignificant social interest, establishment of superiority over the outside world);

- avoidant (lack of activity and social interest, fear of boredom, flight from solving life problems);

- socially useful (combination of a high degree of social interest with high activity, concern for others and interest in communication, awareness of the importance of cooperation, personal courage and willingness to contribute to the well-being of others).

Adler believed that the style of life is created due to the creative power of the individual, but a certain influence on it is the order of birth: first-born, only child, middle or last child.

Also in individual psychology, the emphasis is on the so-called social interest, namely the internal tendency of a person to participate in the creation of an ideal society.

Thus, Adler's theory fills the main gap in psychoanalysis - the lack of social orientation. Adler emphasized the importance of social influence, volitional and creative aspects of personality.

Personality - this is a specific person, taken in the system of his stable socially conditioned psychological characteristics, which are manifested in social relations and relations, determine his moral actions and are essential for himself and those around him. There are 3 periods of development of personality psychology:

philosophical and literary- problems of the moral and social nature of man;

clinical - the beginning of the 19th century, psychiatrists dealt with the problems of personality psychology. The focus is on the personality traits of a sick person.

Experimental- the beginning of the 20th century, a stormy experimental study of personality, mathematical and static data processing.

Nemov has about 48 personality theories that can be evaluated

Neo-Freudianism. Jung(analytical psychology), Adler(individual psychology), Horney(sociocultural theory), Fromm, Reich etc.

Neo-Freudians refuse the priority of sexual desires and put forward the theory of the dependence of the individual on the environment. The environment projects its important qualities onto the personality. They become forms of activity of this personality. The unconscious plays a leading role in human behavior, his mental life. The content of the unconscious is, on the one hand, innate instincts (Freud - sex and aggression; Adler - striving for perfection, superiority and overcoming inferiority; Jung - the energy of the unconscious "libido" has different forms of manifestation and at different times). On the other hand, there are desires, affects, thoughts, images repressed from consciousness due to their unacceptability or unwillingness (cultural unacceptability or traumatic content). The contents of the unconscious are always powerfully energetically charged. From the point of view of all representatives of psychoanalysis, this energy is the main engine of human behavior, his aspirations, his personality. . The attraction of the unconscious is in conflict with the norms of culture. Instincts are asocial, selfish (Freud). The mental and social development of a person, his personality goes through the establishment of a balance between instincts and cultural norms. Thus, in the process of development, the personality of a person, his "I" is forced to constantly seek a compromise between the energy of the unconscious rushing outward and what is allowed by society. This balance is established through defense mechanisms. A defense mechanism is a specific change in the content of consciousness that has arisen in a situation of internal conflict. The main drawback of Freudianism can be considered a strong exaggeration of the role of the sexual sphere in human life and psychology. He understood man as a biological sexual being who is in a state of continuous secret struggle with society, forcing him to suppress sexual desires.

Behaviorism (behavioral approach). originated at the beginning of the 20th century. Founder - John Watson. Psychology must study behavior. Personality in this case acts as an organized and relatively stable system of skills. Man is understood as, first of all, a reacting, acting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions.

The development of the behavior of a particular individual is entirely determined by the influence of a certain environment. At the same time, it is argued that the formation of human behavior does not fundamentally differ from the formation of living behavior. The environment shapes behavior through stimuli and reinforcers. Incentives is that which precedes and causes behavior. Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior. If the consequence is not desirable for the individual, then the behavior is inhibited. If the consequence is favorable, then the behavior is reproduced again. Tolman, Bandura - Behaviorism too biologized man.

humanistic theory considers the main factor in the activity of the individual to be striving for the future, for maximum self-realization (self-actualization). Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers. The main motive of human behavior and personality development is the desire for self-actualization. Self-actualization is a continuous process of development. Each person from birth has his own inner potential, which strives for disclosure (Rogers' bud metaphor). The main features of a self-actualizing personality are: openness to experience and self-knowledge, does not resort to defense mechanisms; if negative feelings arise, he acknowledges their existence; self-confidence, self-confidence and competence; such a person is able to rely on his own opinion, and not on the one that is imposed on him from the outside; he is able to cope with life's difficulties; autonomy, independence, responsibility for one's life.

The main thing difference from psychoanalysis and behaviorism - the fact that they do not recognize the freedom of the individual depends on instinct, on the environment. Humanistic psychology claims that a person feels himself a hostage of circumstances only if the personality does not develop normally. A normally developing personality always has freedom of choice.

Topological theory.

Kurt Lewin: various points of the living space (field) in which an individual exists become motives for his behavior due to the fact that he feels the need for them. When the need for them disappears, then the value of the object is lost.

Gestalt psychology (image, form, structure). Gestalt psychology originated in Germany. Kehler, Levin. They put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures (Gestalt). We developed a systematic approach to mental phenomena. psyche – integer, not derived from elements(as in behaviorism), existing separately and then connected together, but, on the contrary, a separate part of the whole depends on the structural laws of this whole.

Kofka, Wertgemer, Keller - change in the perception of sensation. Levin studied motivation and personality. Perls - gestalt therapy. Main theses:

1. Mental activity is characterized by the desire for integrity and completeness. This is especially evident in the laws of perception, perception.

2. We always perceive not the sum of sensations, but holistic objects and qualities.

3. The desire for mental completeness is also manifested in the motivational sphere of the personality (if a person does not complete the action, he has a trace of tension left from the need).

4. The main cause of conflicts and neuroses of the personality is the lack of integrity or the emergence of a feeling of absence (when losing a loved one - a sense of guilt).

Goals of Gestalt Therapy help the client recognize conflict or tendencies towards it and restore integrity:

1. Biogenetic approach lays the foundation for the development of the Personality biological maturation of the body. Biologism appears especially brightly in the interpretation of Personality. Freud. According to his teachings, all behavior of the Personality is determined by biological drives, instincts, and primarily sexual drives (Adler also spoke about this: the development of the Child's Personality is carried out through his identification with his parents. This makes him socialized and moral). In a developing child constant conflict between unconscious drives and socially assimilated norms. Therefore, the developing Personality is potentially pathological: neurotic and insecure. Freud's Personality Structure has the following levels (components):

IT- the unconscious part of the psyche, the "boiling cauldron" of biological, instinctive drives: aggressive and sexual;
I – consciousness. Three forces act on the Self: "IT", "Super-I" and society makes its demands on a person. "I" tries to establish harmony;
"Super-I" – conscience serves as a carrier of moral standards.

To escape from the conflict between the "IT" and the "Super-I", the "I" uses the means of psychological protection: projection, rationalization, repression, etc.

2. Sociogenetic approach- a person, being born a biological individual, becomes a Personality due to the influence of social conditions of life. Communication, psychological understanding is of decisive importance., while the economic and political relations of people and their influence on Personalities are not taken into account ( Durkheim).

learning theory. The life of the Personality, its relationships - is the result of reinforced learning, mastering sums and skills ( E. Thorndike, B. Skinner).

role theory . It comes from the fact that every person in life plays a role that is intended for him alone. Depending on the role played, the nature of the Personality's behavior, its relationship with others ( E. Bern). As a result, each of these theories explains the social behavior of a person, the properties of the environment that are not closed in themselves, to which a person is forced to somehow adapt, while the objective socio-historical conditions of a person are not taken into account at all.

3. Psychogenetic approach does not deny either biology or the environment, but puts forward the development of mental processes proper. It has 3 streams:

1. Concepts reflecting preference development of the cognitive aspects of intelligence (J. Piaget, J. Kelpie). Cognitive theories of Personality proceed from the understanding of a person as “understanding, analyzing”, since a person is in information that needs to be understood, evaluated, used.

2.Concepts that focus on development Personalities in the theory of personological ( K. Buhler): development of the psyche - instinct - skill - intellect. Interpretation of the principle of integrity in the life of humans and animals; the need for self-actualization.

3. Concepts that explain the behavior of the Personality mainly through drives and other non-rational components of the psyche - psychodynamic concept (E. Erickson):

1. the main part of the structure of the Personality is the development goes through the crises of life;

2. The process of formation of Personality is the process of formation of Ego-identity.

Existential humanistic self-actualization. The main thing in the Personality is aspiration for the future, in the realization of creative potentials, strengthening faith in oneself and the possibility of achieving the “ideal Self” ( Rogers, Frankl- meaning is the true beginning of human behavior) + personological theories Kretschmer, Cattell, Eysenck (factorial theories).

(phenomenological approach..)

Similar information.

Personality theories differ in the kind of elements, or structural concepts, they use; they also differ in the way in which the organization of these elements is conceptualized. Some theories build a complex structural system in which many components are interconnected by many different connections. Other theories favor a simple structural system with only a few components connected by a few links.

Behind all modern theories of personality, explicitly or implicitly, is a philosophical concept of human nature. For example, one of the theories considers a person as an organism that thinks, chooses and makes a decision (a rational idea of a person), while another sees an organism in a person that behaves irrationally, forcibly, under the influence of drives (the idea of a person as a animal); one theory sees in a person a mechanism that automatically responds to external stimuli (mechanistic representation), while others look at it as a system that processes information, like a computer (computer representation) Uznadze D.N. General psychology. M. 2004. - S. 64 ..

The difference between foreign theories of personality can be illustrated by an example. Carl Rogers defined personality in terms of the self: as an organized, enduring entity that is at the core of our experiences. Gordon Allport defined personality as what an individual really is, as an internal something that determines the nature of a person's interaction with the world. George Kelly considered personality as a unique way of understanding life experience inherent in each individual. And Eric Erickson presented personality as a function of the outcome of psychosocial crises during a person's life.

Regarding domestic concepts of personality, it should be noted that in each of them the personality appears as a kind of hypothetical structure or organization. Human behavior is organized and integrated at the level of the individual. In most of the definitions of personality given in the concepts described, the importance of individual differences between people is emphasized. In the concepts described, a person is characterized in the evolutionary process as a subject of the influence of internal and external factors, including genetic and biological predisposition, social experience and a dynamic external environment.

Domestic concepts represent the individual as "responsible" for the stability of behavior. It is she who provides a person with a sense of continuity in time and the environment. A comparison of the generalized views of domestic psychologists reveals a certain similarity between them in relation to personality. Consequently, the general movement of psychological thought, recorded by various researchers, inspires a certain optimism regarding this complex psychological problem - the problem of the personality of Uznadze D.N. General psychology. M. 2004. - S. 65 - 67 ..