It has a decisive impact on the level of development of the productive forces of society. Sectoral structure of industry - composition and share ratio various industries and types of production included in it, as well as the dynamics of changes in these shares.
History of development
Industry was born within the natural household peasant economy. In the era of the primitive communal system, the main branches of production activity were formed among most peoples ( agriculture And cattle breeding), when products intended for own consumption were made from raw materials mined in the same farm. The development and direction of the domestic industry was determined by local conditions and depended on the availability of raw materials:
- hide processing;
- leather dressing;
- felt production;
- various types of processing of tree bark and wood;
- weaving of various products (ropes, vessels, baskets, nets);
For the medieval economic regime, it is traditional to combine peasant household crafts with patriarchal (natural) agriculture, which is integral part pre-capitalist mode of production, including the feudal one. At the same time, products left the boundaries of the peasant economy only in the form of quitrent to the landowner, and the domestic industry was gradually replaced by small-scale manual production of industrial products, but not completely replaced by the latter. Thus, the craft played an important economic role in the states of the feudal era.
The process of separating crafts from agriculture contributed to the formation of an independent industry social production- industry. The allocation of industrial production to a special sphere of social labor in many countries is associated with the commercial and industrial centers of vast territories and the formation of feudal cities.
Classification
The industry is made up of two large groups industries:
- Mining
- Processing
Extractive industry
TO extractive industry include enterprises for the extraction of mining and chemical raw materials, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and non-metallic raw materials for metallurgy, non-metallic ores, oil, gas, coal, peat, shale, salt, non-metallic building materials, light natural aggregates and limestone, as well as hydroelectric power plants, water pipelines, forest exploitation enterprises, fishing and seafood production.
Manufacturing industry
TO manufacturing industry include engineering enterprises, enterprises for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rolled products, chemical and petrochemical products, machinery and equipment, woodworking products and pulp and paper industry, cement and other building materials, light and food industry products, local industry, as well as enterprises for the repair of industrial products (steam locomotive repair, locomotive repair) and thermal power plants, film industry (film industry).
Industries
Industry- an objectively isolated part of the industry, uniting enterprises that produce homogeneous, specific products that have the same type of technology and a limited circle of consumers.
Definition of electric power industry in GOST 19431-84:
The electric power industry is a section of the energy sector that ensures the electrification of the country on the basis of a rational expansion of the production and use of electrical energy.
Fuel industry
Fuel industry is the basis for development Russian economy, a tool for conducting internal and foreign policy. The fuel industry is connected with the entire industry of the country. More than 20% is spent on its development Money accounts for 30% of fixed assets and 30% of the cost of industrial products in Russia.
Fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex system that includes a set of industries, processes, material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary FER and converted types of energy carriers. It includes:
Ferrous metallurgy
Ferrous metallurgy serves as the basis for the development of mechanical engineering (one-third of the cast metal from the blast furnace goes to mechanical engineering) and construction (1/4 of the metal goes to construction). The main raw materials for the production of ferrous metals are iron ore, manganese, coking coal, and ores of alloying metals.
Ferrous metallurgy includes the following main sub-sectors:
- mining and enrichment of ores of ferrous metals (iron, chromium and manganese ore);
- extraction and enrichment of non-metallic raw materials for ferrous metallurgy (fluxed limestones, refractory clays, etc.);
- production of ferrous metals (cast iron, carbon steel, rolled metal, ferrous metal powders);
- production of steel and cast iron pipes;
- coking industry (production of coke, coke oven gas, etc.);
- secondary processing of ferrous metals (cutting scrap and waste of ferrous metals).
Non-ferrous metallurgy
Non-ferrous metallurgy- branch of metallurgy, which includes the extraction, enrichment of non-ferrous metal ores and the smelting of non-ferrous metals and their alloys. According to their physical properties and purpose, non-ferrous metals can be conditionally divided into heavy(copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel) and lungs(aluminum, titanium, magnesium). Based on this division, the metallurgy of light metals and the metallurgy of heavy metals are distinguished.
Weapons
space industry
Chemical and petrochemical industry
Chemical industry- an industry that includes the production of products from hydrocarbon, mineral and other raw materials through its chemical processing. Gross production chemical industry in the world is about 2 trillion US dollars.
concept petrochemistry combines several related values:
- a branch of chemistry that studies the chemistry of the transformations of petroleum hydrocarbons and natural gas into healthy foods and raw materials;
- section of chemical technology (second name - petrochemical synthesis), which describes the technological processes used in industry in the refining of oil and natural gas- rectification, cracking, reforming, alkylation, isomerization, coking, pyrolysis, dehydrogenation (including oxidative), hydrogenation, hydration, ammonolysis, oxidation, nitration, etc.;
- branch of the chemical industry, including production, common feature which is the deep chemical processing of hydrocarbon raw materials (fractions of oil, natural and associated gas).
The volume of industrial production of the chemical and petrochemical industry in Russia in 2004 amounted to 528,156 million rubles.
Mechanical engineering and metalworking
Mechanical engineering- a branch of heavy industry that produces all kinds of machines, tools, instruments, as well as consumer goods and defense products. Mechanical engineering is divided into three groups - labor-intensive, metal-intensive and science-intensive. In turn, these groups are divided into the following industry subgroups: heavy engineering, general engineering, medium engineering, precision engineering, production of metal products and blanks, repair of machinery and equipment.
Metalworking - technological process, the process of working with metals, during which their shape and dimensions are changed, parts are given the desired shape using one or more metal processing methods to create separate parts, assemblies or large structures (metal structures). The term covers a wide range of different activities from building large ships and bridges to making the smallest details and jewelry. Therefore, the term includes a wide range of skills, processes and tools. Reliability, the technology of any production, any metal structure depends on the quality of the metalworking performed, therefore, such a task must be entrusted to professionals with sufficient experience and necessary equipment designed specifically for these types of metalworking. Metalworking began to develop with the discovery of various ores, the processing of malleable and malleable metals for the production of tools and jewelry.
Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industry
Forest industry- a set of industries that harvest and process wood. Timber harvesting in countries and areas with limited forest reserves is usually carried out by forestry enterprises - forestries, forestries, etc. In countries and areas with large reserves of natural forests, logging, including floating, has the nature of an extractive industry and is an independent industry - the logging industry . In Russia, the issues of the forest industry on this moment handled by the Federal Forestry Agency (Rosleskhoz). There is no profile ministry in Russia. Basic legislative act for the forest industry - "Forest Code". The timber industry accounts for less than 5% of the country's GDP, despite the fact that 25% of the world's forest reserves are concentrated in Russia.
All wood processing and processing industries, taken together, form the timber industry, which includes the following types industry:
- woodworking industry, uniting groups of enterprises producing mechanical and partially chemical-mechanical processing and processing of wood;
- Pulp and paper production- a technological process aimed at obtaining pulp, paper, cardboard and other related products of the final or intermediate processing; hydrolysis industry And wood chemical industry, the production of which is formed on the basis of the chemical processing of wood and some non-timber forest products.
Building materials industry
Construction Materials- materials for the construction of buildings and structures. Along with the "old" traditional materials like wood and brick, with the beginning of the industrial revolution, new building materials appeared, like concrete, steel, glass and plastic. Currently widely used
In handicraft production, a person directly influenced the object of labor with the help of simple tools, mainly machine-engines were used, used in secondary and preparatory production processes. The transition from manufactory to machine production was carried out with the invention and use of working machines. The large-scale machine industry has historically replaced the manufacture not immediately, but over a certain period of time, different in different countries in time of implementation and duration.
The introduction of working machines made it possible to raise labor productivity.
They replaced the hands of the worker, moreover, they created the possibility of almost unlimited expansion of the number of tools that simultaneously affect the object of labor. But the technique of making machines, even in the most advanced countries, was manual, and consequently machines were produced slowly and in small quantities. Manual labor could not solve many technical problems. After the collapse of feudalism (the period from late XVIII century to the 70s of the XIX century. - the time of the establishment of capitalism in the advanced countries of the world - England, France, Germany), large-scale machine capitalist industry began to develop rapidly.
The bourgeoisie has created enormous productive forces. basis new form the capitalist factory became the organization of social production.
A characteristic feature of the technology of this period was the invention and distribution in the main branches of industry of working machines, which are a qualitatively new phenomenon in the history of technology. Thus, the industrial revolution or industrial revolution is the process of the transition of manufacturing production to the factory system. And this process is divided into several stages.
First stage is associated with the appearance of workers.
The increasing complexity of machines required an increase in power, speed, as well as the reliability and accuracy of the mechanisms. With the introduction of machines in all new branches of industry, more and more increased demands were made on mechanical engineering.
Second phase begins with the invention of the universal heat engine, i.e. steam engine. After the invention of working machines and the creation of a heat engine, the main task is the technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering.
Coming third stage industrial revolution. Mechanical engineering becomes the basis of a large machine industry.
A feature of mechanical engineering in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century is an increase in the accuracy of production.
English machine tool builder Joseph Whitworth invents the first measuring machine and introduces calibers. He came up with the idea of standardizing screw threads.
Man creates machines for movement, carrying him over land, air, sea. The first land-based self-propelled vehicle was a huge three-wheeled carriage with a steam engine and a speed of 5 km / h, built in 1769 by the Frenchman Nicolas Cunier.
The first gasoline-powered car was created in 1887 by the German Gottlieb Deischler and improved by pneumatic tires and spoked wheels in 1895 by the Englishman Lanchester. Since that time, the development of the car has gone very quickly. In 1903, the world's first mass-produced car factory was built by the American engineer Henry Ford. From this time begins the age of cars.
The first tanks appeared in England shortly before the First World War.
The English word tank means an empty mechanical tank. In the 1920s, the American designer W. Christie designed a tank that could move both on tracks and on wheels, which significantly increased its speed. But the real revolution in tank building occurred with the invention of light and durable armor, which made it possible to reduce weight and at the same time increase speed and technical equipment.
One of the best tanks in the world is the Soviet T-34, designed by N.A. Astrov, and the engine for it was created under the guidance of aircraft designer A.A. Mikulin.
The inventor of the first aircraft was a Russian officer navy A.F. Mozhaisky. In July 1882, the first manned flight took place in an apparatus heavier than air. Mozhaisky's aircraft had all the main parts inherent in modern aircraft: a fuselage - a wooden boat, a propulsion-steam piston engine, three four-bladed propellers, a rectangular wing, tail, rudders and elevators, as well as wheeled landing gear.
In 1881 there were hydraulic presses- machines for forging large forgings that do not cause shaking and noise during operation.
The deformation of the metal is produced by the gradual application of pressure. Due to their high technological qualities, hydraulic presses began to displace heavy hammers.
In the forging industry, crank forging machines are widely used: horizontal forging, vertical forging, vertical crank presses, bending presses, cold heading machines and shears for cold cutting metal.
Mechanical engineering, equipped with a powerful energy base and equipped with working machines, made it possible to organize the uninterrupted production of a wide variety of machines and supply them to all branches of production.
As a result of technical changes, mechanical engineering by the 70s of the 19th century turned into a branch of factory production. In terms of the nature of their products, some factories focused on the production of machines.
Post-reform decades - the period of capitalist industrialization of Russia.
Large-scale machine industry is victorious over small-scale production and manufacture. Production techniques in the leading branches of industry are rapidly improving.
At the same time, it was essential that Russia, having entered later than a number of other European countries on the path of capitalism, could use the already available technical experience and organizational forms of industrial-capitalist development.
After 1861, V. I. Lenin wrote, “the development of capitalism in Russia proceeded with such speed that in a few decades transformations took place that took whole centuries in some old European countries.”
One of the most characteristic indicators of this process is the introduction into industry steam engines.
In 1875-.1878. at the factory and mining enterprises of European Russia worked steam boilers and machines with a capacity of about 100 thousand liters. s., and by the beginning of the 90s, their capacity had already increased to 256.5 thousand liters. s., having increased by 2 ½ times in sixteen years.
In the cotton industry, the factory finally pushes aside capitalist manufacture and the distribution system closely connected with it, as well as small peasant industries.
Machines replace manual labor and in the cloth, and in the food industry, and in other industries. In metallurgy, the place of the backward bloomery method of iron production is occupied by puddling.
In the 1970s, steel production developed rapidly, based on the use of first Bessemer and then open-hearth furnaces. Thus, within two or three decades after the fall of serfdom in Russia, the industrial revolution, which began in the pre-reform period, was completed.
The most important centers of developing in Russia capitalist industry were Petersburg and Moscow. At the same time, St. Petersburg was promoted primarily as a center of mechanical engineering, while Moscow and the industrial region surrounding it remained the main center of the textile industry.
The mining and metallurgical industry of the Urals, based in the past on forced labor of forced laborers, experienced serious difficulties in the first years after the reform. Thousands of workers freed from serfdom left the factories.
Only ten years later, Ural metallurgy reached the level of 1860. However, even further it developed extremely slowly.
Meanwhile, since the 70s of the XIX century. in the south of the country began to form a new area of mining and metallurgical industry. The construction of two railway lines linking Moscow with Rostov-on-Don provided an outlet for Donetsk coal and significantly increased demand for it.
Near Donetsk Ridge new mines began to emerge. Shaft structures and cone-shaped waste heaps have drastically changed the previously deserted landscape of the Donetsk steppe.
In 1872, the first blast furnace was put into operation at the plant built in the western part of the Donets Basin by the English capitalist Hughes, and two years later the Sulinsky Metallurgical Plant, founded by the Russian capitalist Pastukhov in the eastern part of the basin, produced pig iron.
Both plants - Yuzovsky and Sulinsky - then worked on local ore poor in metal. Only after the coal-mining Donbass was connected by rail with the Krivoy Rog region, where there were large reserves of iron-rich ore, in the mid-1980s, did a rapid rise in southern metallurgy begin.
Halfway between the Donbass and Krivoy Rog, the Prydniprovsky metallurgical region arose with its center in Yekaterinoslav.
The young southern metallurgy, which did not know feudal traditions and was distinguished by a higher technical level, quickly began to overtake the old Urals.
Almost a completely new branch of the Russian economy was the oil industry. In the pre-reform period, oil production was negligible, the demand for it was small. The development of the oil industry in the region of Baku was hampered by the existence of a farming system - renting out oil wells for a certain period.
With the abolition of this system in 1872 and the transition to long-term leasing of oil-bearing sites from auction, forests of towers began to grow around Baku, and a new “Black City” shrouded in a veil of smoke and soot with dozens of oil refineries appeared near the old city.
For twenty years (from 1870 to 1890) oil production increased 140 times - from 1.7 million to 242 million poods.
Outstanding discoveries and inventions of Russian scientists and engineers expanded the possibility of using petroleum products - as fuel, lubricating oils, etc. - and provided Baku oil with access to world markets.
IN late XIX V. Russia moved into first place in the world in oil production, pushing the United States aside for a while.
The development of industrial capitalism was greatly facilitated by railway construction.
In 1860, Russia had only 1.5 thousand km of railways, and in 1892 - already 31.2 thousand km. Railroads connected agricultural areas with industrial areas, suburbs with the center, accelerating the process of social division of labor and the growth of the all-Russian market.
However, railways, being large consumers of coal and metal, machines and mechanisms, contributed to the rise of heavy industry.
At the end of the first decade after the reform, Russia entered a period of increased founding of enterprises, banks, joint-stock companies.
Most of equity capital was invested not in industry, but in trade enterprises, banking and especially railway construction. During the crisis of 1873-1875. many of these joint-stock companies, which arose in an atmosphere of stock exchange hype, went bankrupt.
The rise in industry that followed the crisis turned out to be short-lived and gave way to an even stronger crisis in 1882-1886.
Only since 1887, some economic revival was again indicated, but in 1890-1891. a number of industries again experienced a state of stagnation.
The exit from the crisis and from the depression was hindered by narrowness domestic market, the interweaving of the industrial crisis with the agrarian one (which dragged on in Russia until the mid-1990s), the preservation of outdated methods and forms of organizing production.
The post-revolutionary decade is the period of capitalist industrialization of Russia. Large-scale machine industry is victorious over small-scale production and manufacture. Production techniques in the leading branches of industry are rapidly improving.
It was essential that Russia, having entered the path of capitalism later than the developed European countries, could use the already available technical experience and organizational forms of industrial development.
After 1861, the development of capitalism in Russia proceeded so rapidly that in a few decades transformations took place that took whole centuries in some European countries. One of the most characteristic indicators of this process is the introduction of steam engines into industry. In 1875 - 1878. at factories and mining enterprises European Russia steam boilers and machines with a capacity of about 100 thousand horsepower were operating, and by the beginning of the 90s their power had already increased by 2.5 times - and this was in 16 years.
In the cotton industry, the factory finally pushes aside manufactory and the distribution system closely connected with it, as well as small peasant crafts. Machines are replacing manual labor in cloth, food and other industries.
In metallurgy, the place of the backward bloomery method of iron production is occupied by puddling. In the 1970s, steel production developed rapidly, based on the use of first Bessemer and then open-hearth furnaces.
Thus, within two to three decades after the fall of serfdom in Russia, the industrial revolution, which began in the pre-reform period, was completed.
Petersburg and Moscow were the most important centers of capitalist industry developing in Russia. At the same time, St. Petersburg was promoted primarily as a center of mechanical engineering, while Moscow and the industrial regions surrounding it remained the main center of the textile industry.
The mining and metallurgical industry of the Urals, based in the past on the forced labor of serf workers, experienced serious difficulties in the first years after the reform. Thousands of workers freed from serfdom left the factories. Only 10 years later, Ural metallurgy reached the level of 1860. However, even further it developed very slowly.
Meanwhile, since the 70s of the XIX century. in the south of the country began to form a new area of mining and metallurgical industry. The construction of two railway lines linking Moscow with Rostov-on-Don provided an outlet for Donetsk coal and significantly increased demand for it. New mines began to appear in the area of the Donetsk Ridge. Shaft structures and cone-shaped waste heaps have drastically changed the previously deserted landscape of the Donetsk steppe.
In 1872, the first blast furnace was put into operation at the plant, which was built in the western part of the Donets Basin by the English industrialist Yuz, and two years later the Sulinsky Metallurgical Plant, founded by the Russian entrepreneur Pastukhov in the eastern part of the basin, produced pig iron. Both plants - Yuzovsky and Sulinsky - then worked on local ore poor in metal.
Only after the coal-mining Donbass was connected by rail with the Krivoy Rog region, where there were large reserves of iron-rich ore, in the mid-1980s, did southern metallurgy begin to rise rapidly.
Halfway between the Donbass and Krovorozhye, the Prydniprovsky metallurgical region arose with its center in Yekaterinoslav. The young southern metallurgy, which did not know feudal traditions and was distinguished by a higher technical level, began to quickly overtake the old Urals.
Almost a completely new branch of the Russian economy was the oil industry. In the pre-reform period, oil production was negligible, the demand for it was small. The development of the oil industry in the region of Baku was hampered by the existence of a farming system - renting out oil wells for a certain period.
With the abolition of this system in 1872 and the transition to long-term lease of oil-bearing sites from auctions, forests of towers began to grow around Baku, and a new “Black City” shrouded in a veil of smoke and soot with dozens of oil refineries appeared near the old city. For 20 years, from 1870 to 1890, oil production increased 140 times - from 1.7 million to 242 million poods.
Outstanding discoveries and inventions of Russian scientists and engineers expanded the possibility of using petroleum products - as fuel, lubricating oils and others - and provided Baku oil with access to world markets. At the end of the XIX century. Russia moved into first place in the world in oil production, pushing the United States of America for a while.
The development of industrial capitalism was greatly facilitated by railway construction. In 1860, Russia had only one and a half thousand kilometers of railways, in 1892 - already more than 30 thousand kilometers. Railroads connected agricultural areas with industrial areas, suburbs - with the center, accelerating the process of social division of labor and the growth of the all-Russian market.
At the same time, the railways were major consumers of coal and metal, machines and mechanisms, and contributed to the rise of heavy industry.
At the end of the first decade after the reform, Russia entered a period of increased founding of enterprises, banks, and joint-stock companies. Most of the share capital was invested, however, not in industry, but in trade enterprises, banking and, especially, in railway construction. During the crisis of 1873 - 1875. many of these joint-stock companies, which arose in an environment of stock market hype, went bankrupt.
The rise in industry that began after the crisis turned out to be short-lived and gave way to an even stronger crisis in 1882-1886. Only since 1887, some economic recovery was again indicated, but in 1890 - 1891. a number of industries again experienced a state of stagnation. The narrowness of the domestic market, the intertwining of the industrial crisis with the agrarian one (which dragged on in Russia until the mid-1990s), and the preservation of outdated methods and forms of organizing production prevented the exit from the crisis and depression.
Brief answers to questions about the Second World War: 1, What is the Typhoon, Citadel, Bagration plan? 2. What happened and when: in Tigiran to Yalin Potsdam.
3. Which of the named persons did not participate in the Potsdan Conference and why:
Stalin, Churchill, Truman, Roosevelt?
4. Villages and settlements ascended into history and what happened in them:
5. What do the documents and the secret protocol tell about:
Pact of non-intimidation and secret protocol.
6. What is the Barbaros plan, the Ost plan, the East shaft plan?
7. When did it happen and what does it matter?
Battle near Moscow.
Battle of Kursk.
8. Name literary works about WWII.
9. When was the first salute given?
10. What feat did Matrosov accomplish?
11. What is a rail war?
12. The highest military order of the USSR?
13. Name the largest military commanders of the Second World War.
14. What is a brotherly land?
Which of the following terms refer to the construction and decoration of churches in ancient Rus'? Define this concept: fresco, mosaic, romanesquebasilica, filigree, stained-glass window, cross-domed temple.
Task 4 do the test1. Indicate years of government Alexander III
A) 1881-1894 B) 1881-1917 C) 1881-1896 D) 1881-1895
2. Why did contemporaries call Alexander III the Peacemaker?
A) for the fact that he managed to pacify the revolutionary movement in Russia
B) for his peaceful policy in the foreign policy arena
C) for his policy of sharp reductions in military spending and the army
3. Which countries signed an agreement on the creation of the Union of the Three Emperors?
A) Russia, England and France B) Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany
C) Russia, France and Türkiye
4. The so-called circular about "cook's children" (1887):
A) forbade admission to the gymnasium of children of lower social strata
B) prescribed to open orphanages in cities
C) allowed manufacturers to hire children from the age of eight
5. Who are the zemstvo chiefs?
A) representatives of zemstvo assemblies B) chairmen of zemstvo councils
C) officials appointed by the Minister of the Interior exercising administrative control
6. According to the University Charter of 1884. meetings and speeches of students:
A) were allowed with the participation of the rector or trustee of the university
B) allowed only on Tatyana's day C) strictly prohibited
7. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began in:
A) 1856 B) 1904 B) 1914 D) 1891
7. The mentor of Alexander III, the inspirer of his policy of counter-reforms was:
A) S. Uvarov B) K. Pobedonostsev C) M. Loris-Melikov D) S. Witte
8. The main reason for the slow development Agriculture in the second half of the 19th century. is:
A) the preservation of deep feudal remnants in the countryside (landownership, cuts, community)
B) primitive agricultural technology
C) lack of capital investments allocated by the government for the needs of the village
D) lack of chemical fertilizers for agriculture
9. What do you know about the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior?
10. Under what conditions was the accession carried out Central Asia to Russia?
11. Name the states united in the Triple Alliance?
12. Define concepts
Coalition Reform Counterreform CensorshipProtectionism Coalition Reform Counterreform Censorship Protectionism
13. What was the main prerequisite for the rapprochement between Russia and France in the 80s. 19th century?
A) interest in limiting the aggressive aspirations of England
B) Russian victory in Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878
C) formation of the Austro-German alliance
14. What states united the Triple Alliance?
A) Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy
B) Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia
B) Germany, Italy, Turkey
15. In 1892 appointed Minister of Finance:
A) D. Tolstoy B) M. Katkov C) S. Witte D) P. Shuvalov
16. During the reign of Alexander III, peasants:
A) segments were returned, the right to elect their deputies to the Duma was granted
B) the collection of taxes has been streamlined, the right to redeem at will with land has been granted
C) it is allowed to secure a land allotment and leave the community
D) the amount of redemption payments was reduced, the Peasant Bank and the position of zemstvo chiefs were established
Task 5 fill in the table
Representative
Field of activity
Political Views
Role in history
K.P. Pobedonostsev
M.N. Katkov
G.V. Plekhanov
A.M. Gorchakov
General Skobelev
O. Bismarck
Seraphim of Sarov
