Since the mid 90s. 19th century The spearhead of Russia's foreign policy was directed to the Far East, since at the end of the century, Korea and Manchuria, the territories directly bordering Russia, became the object of the aspirations of England, the USA, and Japan. strengthening Russian positions on the Far East contributed to the completion of the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
The assertion of Japan on the Liaodong Peninsula and in Korea created a direct threat to Russia's interests in the Far East. Russia, supported by France and Germany, made Japan refuse to annex (forced annexation) of the Liaodong Peninsula. The Sino-Japanese war intensified the struggle of the imperialist powers for spheres of influence in China. On May 22, 1896, a Russian-Chinese treaty was concluded on a defensive alliance against Japan and on the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Under the agreement on March 15, 1898, Russia leased Port Arthur. Following this, England captured the port of Weihaiwei. The capture of bases in China and the intensification of foreign penetration caused a popular uprising in the country, in the suppression of which the troops of all imperialist powers took part. Russian troops were brought into Manchuria. All these events took place against the backdrop of military preparations by Japan, supported by Britain and the United States.
On the night of January 27, 1904, the Japanese fleet suddenly attacked the Russian squadron in Port Arthur. After a series of defeats of the tsarist army on the fronts Russo-Japanese War the autocracy agreed to sign a peace treaty with Japan in August 1905. According to it, Russia ceded to Japan the lease of Port Arthur and transferred to it southern part Sakhalin. Russia also pledged to grant Japan the right to fish along the Russian coast in the Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea.
The Russo-Japanese War revealed not only foreign policy miscalculations, but also the military-political weakness of the tsarist autocracy. Losses in the war of 1904-1905, including the wounded and prisoners, amounted to 400 thousand people. The war had a huge revolutionary impact on Russian society. She also weakened international position country.
All this led to the intensification of the process of rapprochement between Russia and England (in 1904 an agreement was concluded between England and France, and even earlier - in 1894 - the formation of the Russian-French alliance was completed). The conclusion of the Anglo-Russian treaty in 1907 completes the formation of Atlanta.
The First World War, which began in the summer of 1914, included 38 states with a population of 1.5 billion people, or 3/4 of the population the globe The contradictions between the capitalist states, the struggle for spheres of influence, sales markets, the redivision of the world formed the basis of the clash between the two leading groups: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (Triple Alliance), on the one hand, England, France and Russia (Entente), on the other. sides. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war against Russia.
1915 turned out to be even more difficult for the Entente and, above all, for Russia. The main blow of the Austro-German troops was inflicted on the Eastern Front. If in April 1915 there were 100 German divisions on the Western Front, then in August of the same year 90 German divisions were concentrated in the west, and 105 divisions in the east. At the same time, England and France did not support their ally in a timely manner. Russian troops were forced to leave Poland, Lithuania, part of the Baltic states and Belarus. But, despite heavy defeats, the Russian front still held out.
Thus, Russia's struggle for spheres of influence dragged her into wars for which she was not prepared and which put society in a critical situation.
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. there was a significant change in the international situation, caused by the struggle of the great powers for the redivision of the world, the intensification of the tendency towards the direct annexation of various territories and their transformation into colonies. On the international arena increased influence German Empire established in 1870. In connection with the desire of Germany to participate in the redivision of the world, its contradictions with Great Britain and France sharply escalated. In addition, the United States and Japan began to act more actively, wishing to expand their spheres of economic influence.
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX century. The Russian Empire was one of the leading countries in the world. The role of Russia in the international arena was determined by its geographical location, geopolitical, strategic and economic interests, as well as its military potential and richest resources.
Contradictory trends were observed in the choice of allies and the definition of priority areas of foreign policy. On the one hand, part of the ruling elite (S. Yu. Witte, and later P. A. Stolypin) understood the danger of armed conflicts for the internal modernization of the country. Therefore, they insisted on resolving the contradictions by peaceful diplomatic means. Russia showed peaceful initiatives in matters of disarmament, war and peace (The Hague Conference of 1899). On the other hand, part of the ruling circles occupied expansionist positions, advocated further territorial acquisitions (A. M. Bezobrazov (“Bezobrazovskaya clique”), A. P. Izvolsky, S. D. Sazonov).
The main directions of Russia's foreign policy
Western - relations with England, France, Germany. From the end of the 1880s. France became Russia's ally in Europe. Russia competed with England for influence in Iran and Afghanistan, with Austria-Hungary for influence in the Balkans.
Southern - relations with Turkey, Iran. Russia fought for the Black Sea straits and tried to strengthen its economic and political influence in Asia.
Far East - relations with China, Japan. The actions of Russian diplomacy have become especially active since the beginning of the 1890s. This was due to the intensification of the struggle of the great powers for spheres of influence in China. In 1891, a decision was made to build the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was of strategic importance. In 1896, an agreement was signed on the construction of the CER. These treaties made Russia a dangerous rival for Japan and England in China. In 1895, the Russian-Chinese Bank was established. In 1898, Russia leased from China part of the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur and Dalian (Far). Russia's naval presence in the Qinhuang Bay allowed it to pursue an active policy both in China and on the Korean peninsula. In 1900, Russian troops were brought into Manchuria to suppress the Yihetuan uprising. Russo-Japanese negotiations in 1903 on the fate of Manchuria and Korea reached an impasse, as both sides sought complete dominance in Manchuria.
Peacekeeping initiatives of Russia and the Hague Conference of 1899
It was convened in the capital of Holland, The Hague. 26 countries of Europe, Asia and America took part in it. They made the following commitments:
Do not use asphyxiating and poisonous gases (Germany subsequently violated - Ypres (yperite))
Do not use gas-containing projectiles and grenades
Do not use explosive bullets
The Hague International Court of Political Conflicts was created. In general, the results of the conference did not correspond to the plans of Nicholas II, the first statesman who raised the issue of general disarmament.
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
The struggle between Japan and Russia for influence in Northern China, Manchuria and Korea resulted in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In 1902, Japan and England concluded an agreement directed against Russia. This completed the diplomatic preparations for war. Britain and the United States of America provided military and economic assistance to Japan.
There was no consensus in the Russian leadership on the question of the war with Japan. S. Yu. Witte took a cautious position, speaking about the desirability of a compromise with the opposite side. V. K. Plehve believed that Russia needed a "small victorious war." The king himself hesitated, not wanting to go to war. As a result, the country entered the war ill-prepared:
The fleet consisted of various types courts;
The forces of the fleet were dispersed between Port Arthur and Vladivostok
Scattered ground forces in the Far East
Bad weapons ( latest developments only 1/3 of the forces)
Port Arthur is not fully fortified
Bad roads and supplies
There were no clear plans for military operations, the enemy forces were underestimated.
In turn, Japan, preparing for war, with the help of British and American advisers, re-equipped the army and navy. Campaign plans were elaborated, maps of the theater of operations were drawn up, and detailed intelligence on the enemy was collected.
On January 27, having rejected Russia's response to its ultimatum, the Japanese side began hostilities by attacking the Port Arthur squadron and the Varyag cruiser, which was neutral in the port of Chemulpo. The four Japanese armies then launched an offensive on land, attempting to cut off the rail link to Port Arthur and take it by storm. The course of the war immediately began to take shape not in favor of Russia. The Russian squadron was blocked in Port Arthur. The land army was defeated in the battle of Liaoyang (August 1904), December 20, 1904 Port Arthur capitulated (Stessel). February 24, 1905 Russia suffered a crushing defeat in the battle of Mukden (Kuropatkin, retreat along the "corridor"). On February 24, Admiral Makarov arrived and the actions of the fleet intensified, but on March 31 the cruiser Petropavlovsk was blown up and Makarov died (Vereshchagin). On May 15, the Russian squadron was defeated in the Tsushima Strait.
The war, which coincided with economic crisis in the country, became an important revolutionary factor. Even liberal circles began to criticize the autocracy. Considering its main task to suppress the revolution that had begun in the country, the government
S. Yu. Witte agreed to the mediation of American President T. Roosevelt in signing a peace treaty with Japan. On August 23, 1905, in Portsmouth (USA), the Russian delegation headed by Witte signed a peace treaty with Japan. Despite the bitterness of military defeats, the terms of the Portsmouth peace were not too burdensome for Russia. This showed the diplomatic skill of Witte, who skillfully played on the contradictions between Japan and the United States. Russia rejected claims for indemnity and conceded to Japan:
Lease of the Liaodong Peninsula
The southern half of Sakhalin Island (Witte - "Count Polusakhalinsky")
Railway line from Port Arthur to Changchun
Part of the Kuril Islands (the dispute is still ongoing)
Japanese fishermen received the right to fish along the Russian coast
Reasons for the defeat of Russia
Economic and military-technical backwardness of the country
The mediocrity and mistakes of a number of tsarist military leaders (Kuropatkin - Minister of War and Viceroy of the Far East, Admiral Alekseev)
Aid to Japan from Britain and the United States
Betrayal of the interests of the country by its internal enemies (some representatives of the social democracy and the so-called "liberal" bourgeoisie).
Thus, as a result of the defeat in the war, Russia's influence in the Far East was significantly undermined. In this war, unfair and predatory on both sides, Russia and Japan suffered huge financial costs and human losses. The war showed the inability of the autocracy to govern the country and led the country to revolution. Russia's defeat in the war with Japan had a serious impact on the alignment of forces of the imperialist powers not only in the Far East, but also in Europe.
Trinity formation. Entente
The weakening of Russia as a result of the Russo-Japanese War and the need for internal stabilization forced Russian diplomats to avoid external complications, cautious policy. It was aimed at strengthening the international position of the country and counteracting the aggression of the Central European states in the Balkans, the Near and Middle East.
In connection with the expansion of Germany's expansion in these and other regions of the world, Great Britain changed the policy of "free hands" ("remote contemplation") (rejection of international alliances), which it had previously pursued, and went towards rapprochement with France. In 1904, these powers, having settled disputes in Africa, signed an agreement (cordial consent - from the French "entente cordiale"), which created the basis for their political and military cooperation. In 1907, Russia and Great Britain signed an agreement on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. The international meaning of this document was much broader than the settlement of territorial disputes in Central Asia. Following the "cordial agreement" of England and France, the Russian-English agreement led to the creation of the Anglo-French-Russian alliance - the Entente (officially took shape only at the beginning of the First World War).
Europe finally split into two hostile camps - the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente.
Continuing the peaceful foreign policy of his father, Alexander III acted more cautiously and prudently, preventing his country from being drawn into any of the conflicts outlined in Europe. They played their role in this natural properties of his nature, by no means aggressive, the experience of being in the army during Russian-Turkish war. In the field of foreign policy, Alexander III was most free from any outside influences, and it can be said without exaggeration that in this area he was guided almost exclusively by his own views. In 1882, A.M. Gorchakov just died, who by the end of his life had already become completely unable to work, and not some outstanding statesman was appointed in his place, but a modest and very executive official, State Secretary Nikolai Karlovich Girs, who was , in fact, not so much a minister as the personal secretary of the emperor in the field of foreign policy. This circumstance, however, did not prevent Alexander, in those cases when the activities of the Foreign Ministry did not correspond to the views of the most intolerant nationalists, to pretend that Girs was showing unacceptable arbitrariness and to bring down all kinds of attacks on him.
In the first half of his reign, the international situation was not particularly successful for Russia. Relations with Great Britain were threatened with conflict - because of the Russian conquests in Central Asia Russia's border came close to Afghanistan. After the conquest of the stronghold of the Tekins Geok-Tepe by Skobelev, things went not only to the final subjugation of the Turkmen tribes, but also to the unacceptable (from the British point of view) approach of the Russians to the holy of holies of their colonial empire - british india. The last straw, overflowing the patience of the British was the accession in 1884 to Russia of the Merv oasis (Eastern Turkmenistan). After that, Great Britain began to openly provoke the Russian-Afghan incident, hoping to draw Russia into a war with Afghanistan, about which they themselves had broken their teeth at one time. The Afghans, incited by the British, in March 1885 occupied the disputed territory with the fortress of Kushka with their troops. The commander of the Turkestan district, realizing that the matter was taking a serious turn and could have far-reaching consequences, requested instructions from St. Petersburg. Alexander reacted briefly: “Drive out and teach a lesson properly!”. Faced with the Russian army, the Afghans fled and were pursued by the Cossacks, who sought to capture the English instructors, for several tens of miles. The British ambassador received a stern order from London to demand an apology from the Russian government. Instead of answering, Alexander III rewarded the chief border detachment in Trkestan, Gen. A.V. Komarov with the Order of St. George of the 3rd degree and mobilized the Baltic Fleet. The decisive position of the emperor, the caution of Gears, who nevertheless sought to prevent a direct military clash and the unpreparedness for a major war of Gladstone's liberal cabinet in the UK did their job - London proposed creating a joint commission to consider this incident and work out acceptable solution. On August 29, 1885, an Anglo-Russian treaty was concluded, which determined the line of the Russian-Afghan border (the former Soviet-Afghan border). The border of Russia in the Pamir region came close to Northern India. After Kushka, Great Britain until the beginning of the 20th century. no longer allowed itself to be clearly anti-Russian actions.
Russian policy in the Balkans
Another danger that threatened us was the war with Austria-Hungary and, perhaps, even with Germany. Bismarck was not averse to provoking a Russian-Austrian war, hoping in this way to get a free hand in relation to France. Despite the persistent antipathy of Alexander III to the Germans (largely instilled in him by his wife, the Dane Dagmara (Maria Fedorovna), he, largely thanks to good personal relations with the old German Kaiser (Emperor) Wilhelm I, managed to destroy Bismarck's plans. Nevertheless , the situation in the Balkans was becoming very unfavorable for Russia. Russian influence and, accordingly, the positions of Austria-Hungary were strengthened. Romania and Serbia, not having received what was due to them under the San Stefano peace, blamed Russia for this and were very cool towards her. Bulgaria, which was created by Russia and in which, with the consent of the Russian government, Alexander Battenberg (nephew of the Dowager Empress Maria Alexandrovna) was elected prince, experienced great internal turmoil during this period. In 1879, she received a very democratic (Tyrnovskaya) constitution, drawn up by Russian lawyers, which significantly hampered Alexander's independent actions in governing the country. At the beginning of 1882, Alexander Battenberg carried out a coup d'état. The Tarnovo constitution was destroyed by him and a new one was introduced, which significantly expanded his powers (in particular, he received the right to dictatorial rule of the country for seven years). All this ended in strong popular discontent, trying to cope with which Alexander, contrary to the wishes of the Russian government, in September 1885 announced the reunification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia (the latter - southern Bulgaria - was part of Turkey as an autonomous province). Russia, which considered Bulgaria especially close to itself, was not even informed about such plans. All of Europe expected that Russia in Once again will stand up for his Bulgarian friends and provoke a war in the Balkans. Bismarck, for example, expected to use the Bulgarian events in order to provoke a clash between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Alexander III, however, had the wisdom of state not to take this rash step. Russia, not wanting to be drawn into the Balkan events again against its will, categorically did not recognize the legality of this step, leaving Battenberg to extricate himself from the difficulty. Moreover, Alexander III went to break off diplomatic relations with Bulgaria, recall Russian military advisers from the Bulgarian army and crossed out Alexander Battenberg from the lists of the Russian army. Despite the fact that the weakened Turkey did not want war and was ready to put up with the annexation, pretending that Battenberg was, as it were, the governor-general of Eastern Rumelia, these events led to the war between Bulgaria and Serbia, in which Bulgaria was defeated and Alexander Battenberg was forced to flee the country. This coup did not take place without the influence of the foreign intelligence network of the Russian police, which had significant connections in government circles in Bulgaria and the Bulgarian army. A provisional government headed by Lyuben Karavelov was formed, which offered to return Alexander the throne to certain conditions. Realizing that without the help of Russia he would not be able to stay in Bulgaria, Battenberg asked St. Petersburg's attitude to this prospect and received a categorical negative answer from Alexander III - he did not forgive betrayal. As a result of a protracted government crisis in Bulgaria, without the consent of Alexander III, a protege of Austria-Hungary, Ferdinand of Coburg-Gotha, was elected to the throne. Bulgaria, liberated from the Turkish yoke by the blood of Russian soldiers, became alien and hostile to Russia. Ferdinand himself, according to the memoirs of contemporaries, felt for Russia "a feeling of insurmountable antipathy and a certain fear." Russian-Bulgarian diplomatic relations were restored only after the death of Alexander III - in 1896, but tension and coldness between the states persisted. From the end of the 80s. 19th century Serbia becomes the main ally of Russia in the Balkans - the only country that has its own ruling dynasty, and not imposed by Austria.
In an effort to avoid unnecessary aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, Alexander III nevertheless did not forget about Russia's strategic goal in this region - the Straits. He understood that in order to capture the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, an impressive sea power and came to grips with the reconstruction of the fleet, giving unconditional priority to the Black Sea. In 1886 - 1891. The Black Sea Fleet includes 4 battleships with characteristic names - “Sinop”, “Chesma”, “Catherine II” and “George the Victorious”. It is known that the Military and Naval Ministries developed in the late 80s. plan for a landing expedition to the Bosphorus. Thus, the Tsar-Peacemaker never for a moment forgot about being a great power.
Franco-Russian Entente
In the first half of the reign of Alexander III, the international position of Russia was completely secluded. This was explained by the basic principles of the foreign policy of Alexander III, who believed that, firstly, Russia did not need to look for allies in Europe, because. they can always betray her (he said that the only reliable allies of Russia are her army and navy, while everyone else will take up arms against us at the first opportunity), and, secondly, there is no need for Russia to interfere in the affairs of Europe. His words were widely known that never again Russian blood would be shed for any foreign interests. Alexander emphasized this peculiar isolationism of Russia once at a gala dinner in honor of Prince Nikolai Chernogorsky, calling him the only friend and ally of Russia in Europe. Alexander III sought to use the contradictions between the great powers for the good of Russia, providing her with a free hand in other regions, primarily in Asia. In 1881, he renewed the Union of the Three Emperors, aimed at maintaining the status quo in Europe (extended in 1884). Between Russia and Germany was concluded the so-called. "Reinsurance Treaty" (1887) on benevolent neutrality and non-interference in German policy in Europe. That. Alexander clearly sought to continue Gorchakov's policy towards Germany. However, the second half of Alexander's reign (starting from 1887) nevertheless became a time of active intervention in European affairs. In 1887 almost flared up new war between Germany and France. Here again (as in 1875) the position of Russia played a huge role - a personal message from Alexander III to Wilhelm I made it possible to avoid war, despite Bismarck's passionate desire. On the part of Russia, this was explained by the desire to restore the European balance disturbed in 1871 by the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the Franco-Prussian war and in 1879 by the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), which equally threatened both Russia and France. The resignation in 1890 of Bismarck from the post of chancellor testified to Germany's transition to a more aggressive foreign policy. This was the beginning of the rapprochement between Russia and France, the milestones of which were the visit of the French squadron to Kronstadt (during which the staunch conservative was forced to strip at the sound of the Marseillaise) in 1891, a military agreement signed in 1892 in St. Petersburg by the chiefs of the General Staff and, finally, the ratification of this agreement in 1893. This Russian-French rapprochement was important fact international politics late XIX v. This put an end to Bismarck's desire to deliver the final blow to France and a lasting peace reigned in Europe for a relatively long period. It was after the conclusion of the union treaty that Alexander III began to be called the Peacemaker in official literature. At the same time, this treaty was the first step towards the formation of the Entente (the Anglo-French-Russian military alliance) and, thus. step towards preparing for a world war.
In the most last years During the reign of Alexander III, Russian diplomacy is increasingly striving to strengthen Russian influence in the Far East, Western Turkestan (Xinjiang), Mongolia, to acquire an ice-free port on the Pacific Ocean, etc.
The foreign policy of Nicholas II and the first period of his reign were determined by at least three important factors. First, a sincere intention to continue the foreign policy of his father. Secondly, in order to solve the problems of the country's industrialization, appropriate external conditions- Peace and tranquility in Europe, attraction of foreign capital. Finally, thirdly, tension within the country required the concentration of military and police forces not on external, but on internal “fronts”.
In 1898, all the ambassadors of foreign powers in Russia were given the text of an appeal by Nicholas II, which contained an appeal to convene an international conference to discuss the problems of general disarmament. An international conference was convened in June 1899 in The Hague. It was attended by representatives of 26 countries. And although everyone understood that military clashes were unlikely to be prevented, decisions were made to mitigate their nature. Peace and tranquility in Europe were needed by Nicholas II to facilitate the implementation main goal: Russia's access to non-freezing seas Pacific Ocean. The main obstacle to Russian dominance in the Far East was Japan. Russia took the initiative to create a single anti-Japanese bloc of European states. In 1895, presenting an ultimatum to Japan, supported by France and Germany, Russia forced her to renounce some of her claims.
In 1903, Nicholas II convened a special meeting on the affairs of the Far East. The majority of those present considered it necessary to begin accelerated preparations for war with Japan. A special opinion was expressed by the Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte (Russia is not ready for war).
The Japanese government also firmly set its course for war. Japan was aided by Britain and the United States. In 1904, without declaring war, Japanese destroyers attacked the Russian squadron stationed on the outer roads of Port Arthur. During the war, the advantage was on the side of Japan.
However, the war exhausted both countries. Russia experienced severe internal upheavals, exacerbated by military setbacks. Japan, despite its victories, which were given to it at too high a price, was on the verge of exhaustion. In 1905, Russian-Japanese negotiations began in the small seaside town of Portsmouth (USA). S. Yu. Witte was appointed head of the Russian delegation. Russia recognized Korea as a sphere of Japanese interests. Both sides pledged to withdraw their troops from Manchuria. Russia ceded to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the lease of Port Arthur. She undertook to give the Japanese the right to fish along the Russian Pacific coast.
After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the sphere of interests of Russian foreign policy again moved to Europe. This was due to the strengthening of Germany. Significant changes took place in diplomacy, first of all they affected Russian-English relations.
In 1907, an agreement was reached on the delimitation of interests in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. This treaty finally consolidated the split of Europe into two opposing military-political blocs: the Triple Entente (Russia, France, England), and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).
The beginning of the First World War. On June 15, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne Franz Ferdinand was killed. The direct executor was G. Princip, a Serb by nationality. Austria July 15, 1914 she declared war on Serbia.
On July 18, general mobilization was announced in Russia. Germany demanded that it be stopped. Russia did not respond to the German ultimatum, and on July 19 (August 1), 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. The war immediately acquired a pan-European character, and soon turned into a world war. Each of the countries participating in the war pursued its own goals. Russia decided to improve its strategic position: to become the mistress of the straits and Constantinople and the only patroness of the Balkans, to reunite all Polish lands. From the very first days of the war, two fronts were formed in Europe: the Western (in Belgium and France) and the Eastern (against Russia).
The First World War was perceived by the people with understanding. In the first days of the war, 96% of those subject to conscription appeared at mobilization points. The composition of the Russian army was predominantly peasant. The political moods of the many millions of soldiers in the first years of the war fit perfectly into the formula "For the Faith, the Tsar and the Fatherland."
Military operations in 1914 All the belligerent powers expected to carry out their military plans within 3-4 months. However, from the very first days the war went differently. First of all, calculations on its lightning-fast nature collapsed. The war took on a protracted character. Germany was forced to conduct active military operations simultaneously on two fronts.
Military operations in 1915 The German command developed a new military plan for 1915. It envisaged a transition to strategic defense on the Western Front while concentrating forces and resources on the Eastern Front in order to defeat the Russian army as soon as possible and withdraw Russia from the war. As a result, Russian troops were forced out of Galicia, Poland, parts of the Baltic states and Belarus. Territorial losses were accompanied by huge casualties. The morale of the Russian army plummeted. The allies, who received a temporary respite due to the intensification of hostilities on the Eastern Front, were in no hurry to help the Russian army. They did not organize a single major military operation on the Western Front.
Military operations in 1916 Germany was satisfied with the results of military operations in 1915. It seemed to its leadership that the German troops, although they did not completely defeat the Russian army, completely deprived it of its ability to conduct serious offensive operations. Therefore, the German generals expected to spend 1916 under the sign of major victories on the Western Front.
In February 1916, the German army went on the offensive against the French fortified area with the fortress of Verdun.
On May 22, 1916, after a massive artillery strike, the Russian troops went on the offensive and in a number of places immediately broke through the Austrian positions. The front was broken through for 340 km, the depth of the breakthrough reached 120 km. The Austrians suffered heavy losses.
The Brusilov breakthrough put Austria-Hungary on the brink of disaster. However, success Southwestern Front did not give decisive strategic results, as it was not supported offensive operations other fronts. The internal and external situation of Soviet Russia demanded the signing of peace. The country was in a state of extreme economic ruin. The people demanded peace. In 1917, an armistice agreement was signed in Brest-Litovsk, after which peace negotiations began. In 1918, the Soviet delegation signed the Brest Treaty. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (Poland, Lithuania, part of Belarus and Latvia). Total Soviet Russia lost about 1 million km2. Under Article 5, Russia was obliged to conduct a complete demobilization of the army and navy, including parts of the Red Army. The Brest peace restored the extremely unfavorable for Soviet Russia customs tariffs in favor of Germany. On August 27, 1918, a Russian-German financial agreement was signed in Berlin, according to which Soviet Russia was obliged to pay Germany various forms an indemnity of 6 billion marks. The Brest peace, which was a complex of political, economic, financial and legal conditions, was a heavy burden for the Soviet Republic. but Soviet republic retained its independence, emerged from the imperialist war, receiving a peaceful respite necessary to restore the destroyed economy, create a regular Red Army, and strengthen the Soviet state. The November Revolution of 1918 in Germany overthrew the power of Emperor Wilhelm II, and on November 13, 1918, the Soviet government annulled the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
23. "Silver Age of Russian Culture".
Early 20th century - a turning point not only in the political and socio-economic life of Russia, but also in the spiritual state of society. The industrial era dictated its own conditions and norms of life, destroying the traditional values and ideas of people. The Silver Age includes, first of all, two main spiritual phenomena: 1) the Russian religious revival of the beginning of the 20th century, also known as "God-seeking" - a religious philosophical movement. It arose in the atmosphere of social changes brewing in the pre-revolutionary period and became widespread after the defeat of the Revolution of 1905-07. It proposed to rebuild modern forms of civil life and human existence. 2) Russian modernism
The ambiguous nature of Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century. most reflected in the Russian artistic culture of the Silver Age. On the one hand, in the works of writers, the stable traditions of critical realism of the 19th century were preserved. At the same time, the voices of another generation of creative intelligentsia are beginning to sound louder and louder, protesting against the main principle of realistic art - the principle of direct depiction of the surrounding world. According to its representatives, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, can not only "display", but also "transform" existing world to create a new reality.
The initiators of a new direction in art were poets symbolists.
Painting. The main style was called "modern". art is an independent, self-valuable sphere human activity and it should not depend on political and social influences.
Architecture. In the second half of the XIX century. new opportunities opened up for architecture. This was due to the general technical progress. The rapid growth of cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, changes in public life constantly required new architectural forms and solutions. Stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and bank buildings were built not only in the capitals, but also in hundreds of provincial cities. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions, and estates continued. The main problem architecture began to search for a new style. And just like in painting, a new direction in architecture was called "modern style". One of the features of this trend was the stylization of Russian architectural motifs - the so-called neo-Russian style.
24. The revolutionary process of 1917 and Civil War in Russia. Politics of "War Communism".
The history of the October Socialist Revolution is one of those topics that have attracted and continue to attract most attention foreign and Russian historiography After all, it was precisely as a result of the victory of the October Revolution that the position of all classes and strata of the population, their parties, radically changed. The Bolsheviks became the ruling party, leading the work on the creation of a new state and social order.
On October 26, a decree on peace and land was adopted. In the wake of the decree on peace, on land Soviet authority adopted laws: on the introduction of workers' control over the production and distribution of products, on the 8-hour working day, the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia." The Declaration proclaimed that from now on in Russia there are no dominant nations and oppressed nations, all peoples receive equal rights to free development, to self-determination up to secession and the formation of an independent state.
October Revolution marked the beginning of profound, all-encompassing social change throughout the world. The landlords' land was transferred free of charge into the hands of the working peasantry, and factories, plants, mines, railways into the hands of the workers, making them public property.
Background of the revolution: difficulties and crises.
1) The more the country changed, the clearer it became that its supreme ruler was losing the ability to correctly assess the situation and make the necessary decisions. It even seemed to many that he lives in some kind of illusory world and does not always act, guided by reasonable considerations. The inclination of Nikolai and - especially - his wife Alexandra Feodorovna to mysticism, their gullibility to various kinds of "seers" were known before; many gradually formed the conviction that the views and actions of the crowned family were determined not at all by the state interests of Russia, but by irrational dreams and hopes.
3) In the protracted war, fewer hardships fell on the share of the Russian population than in any of the other warring European powers: the percentage of human losses was less than in France or Germany (the country's population even increased during the war years); due to the cessation of grain exports, food supplies were sufficient (while in Germany, for example, famine raged). material resources enough to continue the war. But the devastation in transport, the fall of the ruble by 5 times, food shortages in the capitals - Petrograd and Moscow - threatened with popular indignation.
4) The latent ripening of a new turmoil was felt by many. In Duma and court circles, attempts were made to prevent an explosion from below: the monarchists killed Rasputin, a conspiracy was organized to remove Nicholas II from the throne, but the conspirators were too late.
5) Some political forces of the West also influenced the attitude towards royal power. The allies in the Entente - England and France - trusted Nicholas II less and less and sought to find a new, more decisive leader for Russia to end the war. Germany, on the contrary, secretly supported those political forces in Russia that could conclude a separate peace with her and withdraw Russia from the war.
6) In addition, Russia faced tasks that had not been solved by the revolution of 1905-07. (cm.)
From " Union of the Three Emperors to the Franco-Russian alliance. By the end of the 70s Union of the Three Emperors' has clearly outlived its usefulness. Austria-Hungary and Germany did not support Russia at the Berlin Congress. In turn, Russia refused to guarantee German benevolent neutrality in the event of a war with France. This circumstance three times (in 1875, 1885 and 1887) prevented Germany from taking a decisive step. Austria-Hungary expanded its expansion in the Balkans, and Russian-Austrian relations became more and more tense. In 1879, Austria-Hungary and Germany secretly entered into an alliance against Russia and France. Italy joined in 1882. So arose The Triple Alliance is a military group in the center of Europe.
Since the beginning of the global agricultural crisis, Germany has imposed high duties on grain imported from Russia. In response, Russia raised duties on goods from Germany. A customs war broke out between the two countries. The Russian public has long been worried that Germany, steadily building up its military power, began to claim the role of a leading European power. It has been suggested in the press that an alliance with France can guarantee the security of Russia. This idea was preached by the influential publicist M. N. Katkov. It was also accepted by K. P. Pobedonostsev. but Russian Ministry Foreign Affairs continued attempts to overcome differences with Germany. Pro-German sentiments were strong in court circles. Many grand dukes were married to German princesses.
In 1887, Russian diplomat Pavel Shuvalov (brother of the chief of gendarmes under Alexander II) negotiated with German Chancellor Otto Bismarck on the conclusion of an alliance. During the negotiations, the chancellor read out to the astonished Shuvalov the most important articles of the secret Austro-German agreement. So Russian diplomacy was convinced of the existence tripartite alliance, about which there were previously vague rumors.
The main creator of the Triple Alliance was " iron chancellor» Bismarck. He tore the veil of secrecy from him. The chancellor hoped that this alliance, ceasing to be secret, would further strengthen Germany's political weight and give it the opportunity to dictate its will to its neighbors. And those, in turn, Bismarck believed, could never unite among themselves. Indeed, it was hard to imagine that autocratic-monarchist Russia would agree to an alliance with republican France. As for England, she was in " shiny insulation”, considering herself strong enough not to join any military blocs. In addition, relations between Russia and England have been strained since the time of the Crimean War.
However, to the considerable surprise of contemporaries, what seemed impossible happened. Started Franco-Russian rapprochement. The first to enter into a dialogue were the military, and Russian diplomats continued to seek mutual understanding with Germany. Having not achieved success, they were forced to change their position. In the years 1891-1893 took shape Franco-Russian alliance. In 1891 French warships visited Russia. Meeting the guests, Alexander III listened to the French anthem "La Marseillaise" with his head uncovered. The leaders of both powers, having shown state wisdom, decided to neglect ideological differences.
Formation of the Franco-Russian Union was a response to the creation tripartite alliance. The conclusion of an agreement between Russia and France helped to restore the balance in Europe, disturbed by the strengthening of Germany and the collapse of " Union of the Three Emperors».
However, the formation in Europe of two opposing military blocs spurred an arms race. In 1898, Russia made a proposal to convene international conference on arms limitation. In 1899, the first disarmament conference in history met in The Hague. It was not possible to reach an agreement on the main issue, but some international rules waging war.
Politics Russian government in the Far East until the end of the 19th century. was not intrusive. The sparsely populated lands along the Amur and Ussuri included in Russia did not actually belong to any state before. But at the end of the 19th century. Russia joined other powers that had earlier begun expansion into China and Korea. Here Russia collided with Japan, whose military power and importance in world politics grew rapidly.
In 1894-1895, the Sino-Japanese War took place. China has suffered a severe defeat. Peace conditions were harsh. In particular, China was to cede to Japan the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress of Port Arthur, which covered the approaches to the coast of Manchuria. Under pressure from Russia, Germany and France, the Japanese government had to abandon this clause of the peace treaty. After that, Russia, taking advantage of the strengthening of its influence on China, concluded an agreement with it on the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway.
In 1898, Russia leased the Liaodong Peninsula from China with Port Arthur. She received the right to create a naval base in Port Arthur and conduct railway from Port Arthur to CER.
In the same year, an uprising broke out in China against foreign domination (the Yihetuan uprising). The rebels almost completely destroyed the CER under construction. In response to the uprising, England, the USA, Japan, France, Russia, Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary organized a punitive expedition. Russian troops occupied Manchuria and participated in the capture of Beijing. True, they were soon withdrawn from the Chinese capital and did not take part in further operations against the rebels.
The uprising was crushed, but the Russian government was in no hurry to withdraw its troops from Manchuria. On the contrary, it tried to obtain from China the right to their long-term residence. At the court, a group of people was formed, headed by A. M. Bezobrazov, who demanded more active penetration into China and Korea. This group included the king's relatives, dignitaries, and financial dealers. Influence " bezobrazovskaya clique” intensified.
In Europe, Russian diplomacy pursued a balanced and prudent policy, maintaining the balance of power and striving to maintain peace. On the contrary, in the Far East, the policy of the Russian government was not so well thought out and insufficiently correlated with the country's financial capabilities.
