To the question The largest fair in Russia. The era of Catherine II. 18th century. given by the author Neurologist the best answer is Makarievskaya Fair, one of the largest fairs in Russia. It arose in the middle of the 16th century at the Makariev Monastery on the Volga (88 km below Nizhny Novgorod). The auction was held annually in July. The favorable geographical position attracted Russian merchants from the central regions of the state, the Volga region, Siberia and Pomerania, as well as merchants from the Transcaucasus, Central Asia, Iran, India. From the 20s of the 17th century, the Makariev Fair contributed to the formation of the All-Russian market. Furs, fabrics, fish, metal products, grain came true at the fair. At the end of the 17th century, the import of goods reached 80 thousand rubles, by the end of the 18th century - 30 million rubles. In 1816 a fire destroyed the main fair buildings. Since 1817, bargaining has been transferred under Nizhny Novgorod where the Nizhny Novgorod Fair was established.
Answer from Ekaterina Bursova[newbie]
Class....
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Answer from slash[active]
In the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Makaryevskaya fair in terms of trade volume exceeded any other major fair by 20-25%, and its role as a central link in the country's fair system was finally determined. Makarievskaya fair was held from July 10 to mid-August. Many regional and local fairs in Central Russia ended in June so that merchants could send goods to the Makarievskaya fair....
Answer from Zhenya Soldatova[newbie]
Makaryevskaya fair - the largest fair in Russia in the 17th - early 19th century. It was held annually on the left bank of the Volga, near the walls of the Makaryevsko-Zheltovodsky monastery.
Initially, at the Makarievskaya Fair, the sale of local handicrafts was of great importance: canvases from the village. Lyskovo, sheepskin coats, hats, mittens from the village. Murashkino, wooden utensils from the Volga forest regions. Soon, large Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan merchants, then Armenians, Bukharans, merchants from other regions of Central Asia, as well as from Persia and Transcaucasia, attracted by the favorable location of the Makariev Fair, appeared here. Special meaning acquired trade relations with Astrakhan. With the development of Siberia, the emergence of trade contacts with China, the Makariev Fair becomes one of the centers for the exchange of Russian and European goods for Siberian and Chinese goods; communication was carried out along the Kama River, its tributaries and through the Irbit fair. Communication with Little Russia, Belarus, the Commonwealth, the Black Sea region was provided through the Svenska Fair. Western European goods arrived at the Makariev Fair mainly through Arkhangelsk.
In 1641, by the Decree of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, the Makaryevsky Monastery received the right to collect annually in its favor duties from trade at the Makaryevsky fair on July 25; on other days the trade was duty-free. The fair was under the control of the monastic authorities, who monitored the order and sorted out conflicts between merchants. In the second half of the 17th century, the fair operated for two weeks, and by the end of the 17th century, for a month (July 1-30). In 1700, Tsar Peter deprived the monasteries of their privileges. Duties from the fair began to go to the treasury, it came under the control of state bodies. The monastery could charge only for the rent of its premises and the transportation organized by it across the Volga. During the reign of Peter the Great, inspectors appeared at the Makarievskaya fair, designed to monitor the quality of goods, the fair was held from July 8 to 26.
In 1720, the turnover at the fair was over 220 thousand rubles: over a third of the goods came from Astrakhan, among them: silk, morocco, sheepskin, rice, dates, as well as fish and salt; from Siberia, goods worth 27 thousand rubles arrived, among the goods stood out: furs and iron. Fabrics, dresses, haberdashery, paints were brought from Moscow. Among the cities in terms of the intensity of trade relations with the Makariev Fair, Kazan stood out (from where furs, silk, leather came from for 12 thousand rubles), Yaroslavl (for 7.5 thousand rubles), Yarensk (for 4 thousand rubles), Vologda (for 1 thousand . rubles); from these cities Russian and foreign goods purchased in Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and partly in St. Petersburg were brought. In total, the Makariev Fair was visited by merchants from more than 200 cities and villages of Russia. A significant part of the goods purchased at the fair was intended for sale in Little Russia.
In the 1730-40s. More than 400,000 rubles worth of goods were received at the Makariev Fair annually; in 1785, about 6.5 million rubles. Trade was carried out at the Gostiny Dvor, which had about 20 rows, and the "booths" that stood around it. Items sold: tea, fabrics, hats, gloves, haberdashery, buttons, cufflinks, silverware, china and crystal tableware, glass, bells, icons, chests of drawers, armchairs, chairs, chests, iron, copper, wine, vodka, weapons, bakery products, sweets and more.
In the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Makaryevskaya fair in terms of trade volume exceeded any other major fair by 20-25%, and its role as a central link in the country's fair system was finally determined. Makarievskaya fair was held from July 10 to mid-August. Many regional and local fairs in Central Russia ended in June so that merchants could send goods to the Makariev Fair.... Continued in the source
Answer from Natalia Makarenko[guru]
Makarievskaya Fair (Nizhny Novgorod Fair).
In 1816 a fire destroyed the main fair buildings. Since 1817, trading was transferred to Nizhny Novgorod, where the Nizhny Novgorod Fair was established.
abstract
Topic: Fairs and their role in the development of trade in Russia and Europe
Introduction
1 History of the development of fairs
2 Fairs in Russia: their role in the development of trade
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Fairs have a long tradition dating back to the Middle Ages.
"Where there are two, there is a market, three is a market, and seven is a fair." This saying, which has come down to us from the depths of history, may even suggest that the very word "fair" is of Russian origin.
But its German roots are obvious - jahr-markt is an annual market. This is how the places of periodic congresses of merchants and the importation of goods began to be called in Europe from the 10th century.
Such "places of congresses" existed in Germany, Spain, Italy, France, and England. The fairs were interconnected, followed one after another - both in time and in space. Already by the XI-XII centuries. they became not only a place of wholesale trade, but also the main channel of international trade. They retained this role until the end of the 18th century.
Reliable historical evidence of Russian fairs dates back to the 16th century, but most likely they existed even earlier. According to V.I.Dal, "a fair is a large trade congress and the importation of goods at an urgent time in the year, an annual auction lasting for weeks."
Of course, they have been known for a long time, only they were called differently - auctions, auctions. At one of these auctions, on the Mologa River, near the town of Kholop'em, he traveled around Russia at the beginning of the 16th century. German diplomat Sigmund von Herberstein. Then, in his Notes on Moscow Affairs, he called this bargaining with the familiar word “jahrmarkt” - “fair”.
Due to historical circumstances, the largest sizes were taken in Russia by two fairs - Makarievskaya, later renamed Nizhny Novgorod and Irbitskaya.
The first of them dates back to the 16th century. and, thanks to a happy geographical position, it soon gained all-Russian fame and began to produce huge turnovers, especially after its transfer to Nizhny Novgorod.
Thus, this topic is quite relevant.
The purpose of this work is to trace the history of fairs in the world and in Russia.
The work consists of an introduction, two parts, a conclusion and a list of references.
1 History of the development of fairs
Fairs arose in Europe in the early Middle Ages under the dominance of subsistence farming and economic disunity, when trade was of a fickle, episodic nature and served mainly the wealthy sections of society, supplying them mainly with rare and expensive imported goods. The narrowness of the market and the insecurity of trade routes prompted merchants to join in caravans for joint trade, concentrating in specially selected and well-protected points (near the walls of a castle or monastery, etc.), where significant masses of people gathered: at the intersection of trade routes and in places where where people's meetings, big church holidays and other public events took place. In the early Middle Ages, especially where cities had not yet developed as centers of crafts and trade, fairs played a significant role as the only major centers of exchange.
The importance of fairs increased in the 10th and 11th centuries. with the emergence and development of cities, the growth of urban handicraft production, the emergence of the domestic market and the strengthening of international trade relations, the development of land routes and means of communication.
Along with large fairs - wholesale trade centers, where the so-called. heavy goods (bread, wine, ore and metals, salt, cloth), there were regional (regional) and small local fairs where seasonal products were sold (in some cases these forms were combined).
The need to regulate fair trade led to the emergence of a special fair law. Fairs gave the owner of the territory on which they were located, large incomes (in the form of trade duties and requisitions). Therefore, the right to arrange or allow fairs became one of the important feudal privileges. It was received (usually from the king) by individual cities, spiritual or secular lords.
Fairs often had a certain specialization. So, Italian fairs were famous for expensive fabrics and oriental goods, French ones for wine and cloth, English ones for wool, coarse cloth, lead, tin, coal, South German ones for wine, Danish ones for herring, Swedish ones for iron and copper.
The largest fairs were centers of international trade. In the 13th - mid-14th centuries. champagne fairs became such fairs, where the trade and monetary transactions of Europe were concentrated. By the middle of the 14th century, fairs in northern France and the Netherlands had gained great fame. At the end of 14-15 centuries. Bruges (Flanders) became the largest fair and warehouse center.
At the beginning of the 15th century, the fairs of Geneva (first mentioned - 1262) received pan-European significance, in the 15th-16th centuries. - fairs in Lyon (where the center of the European money market moved from Geneva; they were arranged from 1420, enjoyed the patronage of the French king).
In the 16th century, an international fair and credit center (especially for the south European countries) became Yen. Medina del Campo, fairs began to be held in Antwerp. In the 18th century Fairs in Leipzig, known since the 13th century, acquire international significance.
Fairs played important role in the development of medieval trade, money circulation, money market and credit. They housed the offices of money changers who carried out loan and credit operations. In connection with the wholesale nature of fair trade, the inconvenience and danger of transporting large amounts of money, and the interest of merchants in trade credit, non-cash trading operations were increasingly carried out at fairs, money loans and letters of trust arose, which gradually turned into bills of exchange.
In the period of the formation of capitalism, fair trade lost its former importance. The direct sale of goods was replaced by sales by samples, and then by standards. In the 19th century, large wholesale fairs turned into exhibitions of commodity samples, where trade was carried out, as in a commodity exchange.
Most famous in Western Europe in the 19th - early 20th centuries. acquired the international Leipzig fairs (spring and autumn), at which great place engaged in the sale of furs and furs. With the development of wholesale trade and the expansion of the regular trading network, fair trade has declined. Seasonal sales (for the purchase of local, mainly agricultural, goods) and local regular auctions have been preserved. Large regional fairs have almost disappeared.
After World War II (1939-45), international fairs developed, which are exhibition events of a commercial nature, where, along with the demonstration of samples of goods, trade deals are concluded in the national and international scale. In their nature and purpose, they practically do not differ from regular commercial exhibitions and salons.
There are universal fairs (in Plovdiv - Bulgaria, in Izmir - Turkey), diversified (in Poznan - Poland and Paris - France), specialized (sporting goods in Munich - Germany, transport equipment in Basel - Switzerland).
The modern fair is characterized by a tendency to move from general universal fairs to sectoral, most often technical, and consumer goods fairs using a variety of technical means to demonstrate exhibits and holding scientific and technical congresses and symposiums.
So, the Leipzig Fair in 1969 was reorganized from a universal to a diversified one and became not only a meeting place for business circles, but also the largest international center scientific, technical and economic information. The main activities of international fairs are regulated by the Union of International Fairs (UIF), created in 1925 (Paris) with the aim of more effective organization work of international fairs (exhibition events) and further development of interstate commodity exchange. The WYU united (1974) 94 members. The average annual number of visitors to the international fair CNW exceeds 50 million people.
The largest international fairs are held in the following cities: socialist countries - Leipzig (GDR), Poznan (Poland), Zagreb (Yugoslavia), Brno (Czechoslovakia), Plovdiv (Bulgaria), Budapest (Hungary), Bucharest (Romania); developed capitalist countries - Hanover (Germany), Lyon and Paris (France), Milan (Italy), Toronto (Canada), Vienna (Austria); developing countries - Izmir (Turkey), Damascus (Syria), Algiers (Algeria), Baghdad (Iraq), Cairo (Egypt), Bogotá (Colombia), Lima (Peru), Casablanca (Morocco).
2 Fairs in Russia: their role in the development of trade
Fair trade in Russia has ancient historical roots. Reliable historical evidence of Russian fairs dates back to the 16th century, however, a number of researchers determine the appearance of fairs as early as the times of Kievan Rus.
In Russia, fairs were usually timed to coincide with church holidays. The most ancient fair is considered - Arskaya (near Kazan) has been known since the middle of the 13th century. In connection with the robberies of Russian merchants by the Tatars Vasily III banned trips to this fair and founded a new one in Vasilsursk in 1524, which was later transferred to the Zheltovodsky (Makariev) monastery (Makarievskaya fair).
In the north-west of the territory of Ancient Russia (XI-XII centuries), graveyards (at that time the centers of the rural community were called) served as a place of trade, as well as markets, especially monastic ones, which, in addition to residents of neighboring villages, merchants from distant cities and villages flocked. However, neither the graveyards, nor the markets, nor the bazaars, which attracted the surrounding population with the opportunity to buy and sell, did not even at that time characteristic features fair trade. After all, the fair, as a higher organizational form of periodic trade compared to those listed above, assumed the involvement of not only nearby territories, but also remote areas into its orbit.
At churchyards and torzhkas, trade was, as a rule, of a local, local character. And only later, with the development of broader market relations, with the involvement of agricultural products and products of urban artisans in the trade turnover, the zone of action of local markets, the radius of their influence, expands. Their meaning is like shopping centers begins to extend far beyond the boundaries of the area.
Having had a great influence on the further development of Russian trade, torzhki prepared the transition to more complex forms - the stationary market and the periodic bazaar. The necessary prerequisites were created for the emergence of fair trade, which was distinguished from previous forms not only by the large size of trade turnover, but also by its two tendencies - centrifugal and centripetal.
The fair accumulated a huge mass of various goods brought from different parts of the country. And being, on the one hand, the center of attraction for these goods, it, on the other hand, dispersed them in various directions to local markets within the country and abroad. These two trends determined the active role of the fair and its importance in the development of Russian trade for several centuries.
The first Russian fairs as an organizational form of periodic wholesale and retail trade arose in the XIV-XV centuries, in the initial period of liquidation feudal fragmentation and the formation of a single national Russian state. With the development of trade relations and the formation of Russian centralized state the number of fairs and their turnovers are increasing. The fairs were the centers of the formation of the all-Russian market. Their duration varied (from 1 day to several months). The main items of trade are agricultural products, livestock, horses, handicrafts and industrial products, furs, skins, etc.
To early XVII century process of territorial and political centralization in Russia ended with the merging of regions, lands and principalities into one whole. This merger was caused by an increasing exchange between the regions, gradually growing commodity circulation, the concentration of small local markets into one all-Russian market. Merchants were the leaders and masters of this process.
Merchants - originally any people who bought or sold goods, intermediaries between the manufacturer and the buyer - gradually become "merchants". This word means no longer separate, sometimes random people, and the middle class in Russian medieval society, beginning to play the role of a commercial and industrial mover. The merchant class, as a professionally isolated social class, owes its origin entirely to the development of trade. Having concentrated large-scale domestic and partly foreign trade in their hands, Russian merchants were active participants in the fair trade. They made large trade deals at large fairs, bought up goods, the sale of which to the foreign market did not constitute a tsarist monopoly and therefore was not prohibited by the government.
Fairs were especially widespread in our country in the 17th and 18th centuries. By this time, the emergence of manufactory production in Russia, which had a significant impact on the expansion of domestic, including fair trade, dates back. Peter I, attaching great importance to it, contributed in every possible way to the development of fairs. For example, he believed that this form not only promotes the development of domestic trade, but is also one of the ways to develop trade relations with foreign countries.
In the regulation to the Chief Magistrate in 1721, it was said that the magistrate was obliged “to try to multiply fairs and auctions in cities and counties, in decent places, and more in those to which there is a free waterway, because through these fairs and auctions multiply treasury dues, trade and crafts are developing, and this happens through that contentment among the people. In 1755, with the establishment of a special percentage fee from guild capital, the merchants of the first two guilds received the right to trade duty-free at all fairs in the country, which the merchants of the third guild did not have.
The growth of manufactory production in the first half of the 19th century had a great influence on the development of not only domestic, but also foreign trade in Russia. It was during this period that, in addition to Moscow and St. Petersburg, such large subjects of domestic and foreign trade as, for example, Riga, Odessa, Nikolaev, Novorossiysk, Nizhny Novgorod and some others, acquire especially great importance.
During the same period, there is a rapid increase in the number of fairs in Russia and a significant increase in trade fair turnover. Fairs are becoming the largest wholesale centers. By the end of the first half of the 19th century, there were over 5.5 thousand of them in Russia, and they operated in almost all regions of the country. The vast majority of them (about 5.2 thousand) accounted for counties and rural areas. The turnover of large fairs amounted to tens of millions of rubles, and the share of fair trade in the country's domestic trade increased every year.
They also played an important role in foreign trade. Already the first Russian fairs of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries attracted many foreign merchants who brought here Eastern and Western European goods in exchange for Russian ones. So, for example, in the XIV and XV centuries, Germans, Poles, Lithuanians, Greeks, Italians and Persians came to a large Russian fair in Kholopy town, at the confluence of the Mologa with the Volga. Foreign merchants exchanged sewn clothes, fabrics, leathers, axes and utensils for products of Russian artisans, as well as for raw materials, honey, etc.
In the second half of the 18th and in the first half of the 19th century, the role of fairs in foreign trade especially increased. They contributed to the promotion of Russian goods to foreign markets, and imported goods to the domestic markets of Russia.
We are grateful to the kind Russian statistics, which preserved information about the state of fair business in the country by the end of the last century.
In 1865, there were 6,500 firms operating in Russia, 35 of them with a turnover of more than 1 million rubles. There were 2 groups of the largest fairs - Ural (Irbit, Menzelinsk, etc.) and Ukrainian (Kharkov, Poltava, Rovno, etc.). In 1894, more than 18 thousand fairs were held in Russia with a turnover of 1,100 million rubles. Among them, one-day fairs accounted for more than 64%, lasting 2-7 days - 32.6%, the rest lasted more than a week. Fairs were very different in scope. At the same time, it was precisely small retail stores (importing goods up to 10 thousand rubles) that accounted for the bulk (70%) of the entire fair trade turnover. Medium, wholesale and retail, gave another 25%. The few large wholesale fairs that attracted Special attention, did not matter much in this sense.
With the beginning of extensive railway construction in the 2nd half of the 19th century, the importance of the fair in Russia's internal trade began to decline, their trade turnover decreased. The root fair in Kursk with a turnover of over 22 million rubles. in 1834, in 1911 it had a turnover of only 800 thousand rubles. But in general, the number of fairs in Russia grew. In 1911 there were 16,000 fairs with a total turnover of 1 billion rubles. About 87% of them were small fairs held in the villages during church holidays. Large fairs with a turnover of over 1 million rubles. it was 23.
The first place in terms of turnover was occupied by the Nizhny Novgorod Fair, the 2nd was the Irbit Fair, the 3rd was the Menovnicheskaya Fair near Orenburg. Great importance especially in the 19th century. had Ukrainian fairs, among which Kharkiv ones stood out - Epiphany, Trinity, Assumption and Pokrovskaya, which lasted 3-4 weeks. In 1834 their total turnover reached more than 22 million rubles, in 1913 - about 36 million rubles. In the North, the largest fair was Margaritinskaya in Arkhangelsk with a turnover of about 2 million rubles. in 1911.
There were also special horse, cattle, forest fairs. The Kyiv Contract Fair, which arose at the beginning of the 19th century, had a special character. It concluded transactions (contracts) for the wholesale purchase and sale of sugar, bread, metals, coal, etc. There was a special fair legislation, fair committees were created to manage trade at major fairs.
By the beginning of the XIX century. Russia has developed an extensive network of fairs. The fairs contributed to the development of the country as a single economic organism. The most important in this regard was the Nizhny Novgorod fair, which in the 1820s was the largest in the world in terms of its turnover. It was established by the Highest order on February 15, 1817. At that time, merchants from many countries of the East and West came to Nizhny Novgorod with their goods, so the local fair was called the “exchange court of Europe and Asia”, to which “up to fifty tribes” flocked to sell their goods. At the same time, the Nizhny Novgorod fair was also called the “All-Russian marketplace”, where merchants arrived from all over Russia, Siberia, Central Asia, Persia, and the Caucasus.
European merchants supplied cloth, paper and silk fabrics, linen and hemp products, paints, textile goods, coffee, mahogany and sandalwood, various drinks, corals, watches, silver and haberdashery, cosmetics, steel products, various tools, fashionable clothes. They also purchased a wide range of goods here. Bread and agricultural technical raw materials - flax, hemp, hemp, leather, and bristles were in special demand. Thus, the Nizhny Novgorod fair in the first half of the 19th century was the main supplier of agricultural raw materials for Western European and domestic textile factories.
Europeans were also attracted by goods delivered to the fair from the East. Merchants from Asian countries brought mainly colonial goods and products of oriental craftsmen. Tea was supplied from China, cotton yarn, carpets and various fabrics were supplied from Bukhara. Large quantities of silk, pearls, dried fruits were brought from Persia. Turkish merchants sold shawls at the fair, gems, tobacco.
Most of the goods exported to Asian markets also passed through the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. Special interest Asians showed to Russian cotton fabrics, which in the 30s of the XIX century were the main subject of Russian export to the countries of the Middle East. The most active role in this was played by the Bukhara merchants, who occupied the first place among the Central Asian merchants who traded with Russia.
The first and especially the second quarter of the 19th century are characterized by rapid growth number of large enterprises in Russia. In connection with this, an increase in output in almost all industries, both heavy and light industry It was also reflected in fair trade, especially in the trade of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair, which was considered a barometer of the country's economic life. It becomes one of the major centers of wholesale trade.
Among other fairs at which major trade deals with foreign merchants took place, the Irbit fair in the Perm province, established in 1643, was also famous. In my own way economic importance and in terms of turnover, it rightfully occupied the second place in Russia. The main significance of this fair was that it served as the main center of trade in the Urals and Siberia. Here, merchants stocked up on fabrics, haberdashery and groceries for the whole year.
In turn, they delivered Siberian goods to the fair - furs, leather, fish, bristles, honey, wax, cow butter, hemp and flax-seed. Goods from China and Central Asia also sold here, and sugar, coffee, cloth came here through Arkhangelsk and Moscow. grape wines. Here, merchants sold for resale to the hunting population of personal consumption items and fishing accessories - weapons, gunpowder, hunting and fishing gear, etc.
In the 18th and especially in the 19th century, the Irbit fair acquired great importance as a major center for the fur trade. From here went to North America, European and Asian countries in significant quantities of ermine, sable, beaver, silver fox, arctic fox and squirrel fur. The turnover of the Irbit Fair in the 30s of the 19th century amounted to 10 million rubles, and by the end of the second half of the 19th century it reached 85-90 million rubles. With the overall growth of turnover in Irbit, there was an increase in purchases of furs for export abroad.
Among other major fairs that operated on the territory of Siberia in the 19th and early 20th centuries, one should name Krestovsko-Ivanovskaya (Perm province), Menovnicheskaya (near Orenburg), Menzelinsky (Ufa province) and Kyakhta (Buryatia). In particular, the Exchange Fair specialized in the trade of cattle, horses, camels, as well as salable Asian goods. Menzelinsky was considered the largest horse fair in Russia. There were other specialized fairs .. forest (on the Volga, Lena, and other rivers), raw materials, livestock fairs (in the Kharkov and Voronezh provinces, the region of the Don army).
The Margaritinsky Fair in Arkhangelsk became a major fair in the north of Russia, where they traded mainly in fish, textiles, handicrafts and household items. The Kursk fair gained popularity, where merchants brought Ukrainian glass, lard and tar, sheepskin and lambskin, brought cattle and horses from the Urals and Moscow region factories. It should be noted that according to the law of 1862, all Russian fairs were divided into five classes regarding the payment of a special trade tax. Moreover, the last class was exempted from this fee. And according to the law on trade tax of 1898, petty bargaining and clerk's trade were excluded from it at all fairs lasting less than 14 days. For other trade, taxes of the previous sizes were left.
During their operation, fairs became centers not only of trade, but also of social and cultural life. Parade festivities, theatrical and other spectacular performances, including bear fun, were organized on their territory. There was a special fair legislation, as well as traditions and ritual of their opening and closing. Special committees were created to manage trade, establish rules and order at major fairs. Higher supervision, for example, of the Nizhny Novgorod fair, was entrusted to the governor, who received emergency rights for the duration of its work. To maintain public order at fairs, large detachments of police and units of Cossack troops were sent there.
The history of fairs in Russia ended with the revolution. With the outbreak of World War I (1914-18), the number of fairs decreased and their turnover decreased. During the years of the Civil War of 1918-20, under the conditions of "war communism", no fairs were held in Soviet Russia. With the transition to the new economic policy, fairs begin to revive. By 1927 there were about 7,500 fairs in the RSFSR, 15,200 in the Ukrainian SSR, and 417 in the Byelorussian SSR. They were divided into all-Union, republican, regional and local ones. The All-Union fairs included the Nizhny Novgorod and Baku fairs. The main turnover of the Nizhny Novgorod fair was sales by samples and contract transactions. The Baku fair played a big role in trade with the countries of the East. Cash sales at these fairs did not exceed 1/3 of the turnover.
In the early 1930s, fairs in the USSR were abolished, as the first edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia says, “as the planned start in trade strengthened and with the development of the trade apparatus of the socialized sector, all-Union and republican fairs lost their significance as centers for the sale and purchase of goods ".
And only in the post-war period they were restored as one of the forms of state and cooperative trade. Since 1958, inter-district and inter-republican fairs have been periodically held with wholesale and the conclusion of commercial transactions on samples. The USSR participates extensively in the work of international fairs. But, apart from the name, they had little in common with traditional Russian ones, since they were, in essence, the place of conclusion of transactions between state-owned enterprises producing goods and state-owned trading organizations.
Traditional Russian fairs - auctions and markets with indispensable folk fun, seemed to have sunk into oblivion. With them, people not only lost their usual ways of satisfying their economic needs.
At the same time, the environment of initiation to folk customs, holidays with games, fun, songs. As a result, irreparable damage was done to national traditions.
Thus, the fairs, on the one hand, were a clearly organized and structured event in accordance with the law, designed to ensure the conditions for the exchange of goods. However, the other side of the fair was its spontaneity: the fair lived own life, in accordance with the traditional ideas of the population, and contained a mechanism for satisfying all its basic needs.
The fair was a model, a "microworld" of Russian reality, which included economic, social, cultural and religious elements, and became a universal means for the integral and multilateral development of not only individual regions, but the entire country.
The results of the study show that the fairs of Russia bore the stamp of all the political and socio-economic changes that took place in the country. However, fairs not only reflected historical reality, but also shaped it. Having originated as a result of historical necessity, fairs have become a progressive phenomenon that performed the function of uniting individual regions and the whole country into a single economic, information and cultural space.
Conclusion
Thus, summing up, we note that the liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the beginning of the process of creating a unified Russian state had a beneficial effect on the economic development of the country. Significant changes are taking place in agriculture and trade, there is an intensive development of crafts and crafts, the formation of market commodity-money relations, and the revival of foreign trade relations.
The separation of craft from trade leads to the emergence of shopping arcades, markets, markets and fairs in major cities: Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, Ryazan. Foreigners were amazed at the size of Moscow auctions. The English traveler Chancellor was struck by the size of the Moscow fair and noted in his notes: “A long convoy carries up to 700-800 sledges with bread to Moscow every day. Cattle are brought from Kolmogor to Novgorod, Vologda and salted fish. Leather, lard, bread and wax are brought from Vologda to Yaroslavl.
AT old Russia many fairs were held every year. They differed in profile (forest, hop, horse, steppe, so-called bestial), in duration (from 1 to 30 days or more), and in value.
During the XVI-XVIII centuries. The development of Russia's trade was characterized by a gradual expansion of the domestic market. The catalysts for this process were fairs, the number and trade turnover of which was steadily increasing. I must say that the St. Petersburg "Commercial and Industrial Newspaper" (1893-1918) - regularly published forecasts of its experts on the largest branches of fair trade, followed its course, summed up the season, revealed "abnormalities", reported on new trends. The focus of this government publication has always been on the three largest fairs: Irbit (January 25 - March 1), Kyiv contract (February 1 - March 1) and, of course, Nizhny Novgorod (July 15 - August 25).
It is important to take into account that fairs, in addition to their main function (places of trade), played an important role in the exchange of information, knowledge and experience of people who came from different regions of the country - and this function dominated just at the largest fairs. Very often, exhibitions, especially large ones, were fairs at the same time, and vice versa. Therefore, the richest fairs left such a mark in the history of the country.
List of used literature
1. Agapova I.A. Thematic holidays on the history of Russia / I.A.Agapova, M.A.Davydova. - M. Creative Center Sphere, 2004. - 144 p.
2. Bogoroditskaya N.A. Geography of trade relations, the composition of traders and the number of participants in the Nizhny Novgorod Fair / N.A. Bogoroditskaya. - Novgorod: NGU, 1997. - From 33.
3. Vladimirova A. A history of five centuries // Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 2006. - No. 22. – P.12.
4. Godunsky Y. Went to the fair merchant uhar... [Electronic resource]: Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation "Partner" 12.06.2006. - Access mode: http://www.tpp-inform.ru/partner/arhive_215.html?Number=1206, free
5. Zherebtsova I.I. Fair as a microcosm of Russian reality / I.I. Zherebtsova // Abstracts: In 2 volumes / XV Komi Republican Youth Conference. - T.1. - Syktyvkar: Komi Publishing House scientific center Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2004. - S. 262-263.
6. Zherebtsova I.I. Fairs: knowledge of the phenomenon through the analysis of the structure / I.I. Zherebtsova // Problems of the history of material and spiritual culture of the peoples of Russia and foreign countries: Abstracts. / IX All-Russian Scientific Conference of Students and Postgraduates. - Syktyvkar: Publishing House of Syktyvkar University, 2005. - S. 90-91.
7. Kazarezov V.V. The Peasant Question in Russia late XIX first quarter of the 20th century) / V.V.Kazarezov. - M.: Kolos, 2000. T.1. - 472 p.
8. Leiman I.I. Fair trade in Russia XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century through the eyes of contemporaries / I.I. Leiman // Proceedings of the Society for the Study of the Komi Territory: Popular science journal of local lore. - No. 1 (7). - Syktyvkar: Publishing house: GOU DPO KRIROiPK, 2006.- S. 15-24.
9. Filatov N.F. Makaryevsko-Nizhny Novgorod Fair / N.F. Filatov - Nizhny Novgorod: UNN named after. N.I. Lobachevsky, 2003. - 512 p.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, fairs in Russia were not only for trade, but also for entertainment. Therefore, in the festive bustle, one could meet tents with miracles and puppet shows, and craftsmen with whatever came to hand, and acrobats on high poles, and strong men capable of lifting a whole bull. But the key figures of the fun fair were acrobats on horseback and equestrians. Soon they were to become the highlight of theaters and circuses.
Craftsmen on horseback
Before the 18th century, performances involving horses were very rare. This shortcoming was corrected in the 1960s by Price and Johnson, then by Bates. They arranged whole equestrian scenes with unprecedented tricks in all major cities of that time: in Paris, London, St. Petersburg.
The progenitor of the modern circus
And in 1772, he first entered the circus arena. He learned horseback riding during seven years war in which he succeeded. And after graduation, he began to give riding lessons to those who wished, sometimes demonstrating bold tricks. This aroused admiration among others and prompted the "teacher" to the first performance. And it was a success! Since then, Astley has regularly performed acrobatic performances on horseback.
Within 10 years, his "Riding School" in London turned into the "Astley Amphitheater". And the program that was going on there was so popular that its creator had no choice but to open another such circus, but already in the suburbs of Paris, in the city of Temple. He received the name "English Theater" and, like his friend, was wildly popular.
A program for every taste
I must say that Astley showed the public not only horses. Both, and, and athletes, and panopticons (people with deformities) worked in his circus. He skillfully alternated all these numbers with performances of horses. There were also a dozen dressed-up horses dancing the minuet to the music and playing scenes of military battles and jumping over obstacles. A poster of 1786 has been preserved, according to which everyone was invited to:
- "Payzan Transformation": equestrian-plastic and equestrian-mimic numbers;
- "English ports, or the triumph of Harlequin": number-pantomime;
- "The Death of Captain Cook": a heroic battle scene.
In addition, trained monkeys, dogs and piglets entertained the audience.
The circus existed until 1793. But the revolution in France forced Astley to flee and abandon his circus to its fate. Antonio Franconi took advantage of this, but that's a completely different story.
MAKARYEVSKAYA FAIR - the largest fair in Russia in the 17th - early 19th centuries.
Voz-nik-la in the 1620s at the walls of the Holy Trinity-ts-ko-go Ma-ka-rie-vo-Zhel-to-vod-sko-th monastery (now-not in the village of Ma-kar -e-vo), on se-re-di-not tor-go-in-go along the Vol-ga River, according to some-ro-mu from ancient-le pro-ho-dil tor- go-vy exchange me-zh-du Asia-she and Ev-ro-sing. For the first time, the Makariev Fair upo-mi-na-et-sya in the mouth of the gra-mo-te of the tsar Mi-hai-la Fe-do-ro-vi-cha igu-me-nu Ma-ka -rie-vo-Zhel-to-vod-sko-th monastery of Av-raa-miya dated September 19 (29), 1627. Ofi-tsi-al-no uch-re-g-de-na-decree-zom Mi-hai-la Fe-do-ro-vi-cha dated June 10 (20), 1641.
Yar-ma-roch-naya trade-gov-la was held once a year, trade first-to-first-but was conducted one day - July 25 old style, on the day of pa-mya-ti os-no-va-te-la Ma-ka-ri-evo-Yel-to-vod-th monastery of the Saint Ma-ka-riy Zhel-to-vod-go and Un-women-sko-go, in 1667 the term for pro-ve-de-niya yar-mar-ki was increased to two, in 1681 - to four-you-ryoh not-del and pro-dol -sorry to change in the future.
In the 2nd half of the 17th century, yar-ma-roch-naya trading-la hour-tich-but re-re-not-se-na on the right bank of the Volga, to the village of Lys-ko- in. At the end of the 17th - the beginning of the 18th centuries, the Makarievskaya fair gained a wide-ro-kuyu fame not only in Russia, but also abroad, on it tor-go- wa-whether every year-but up to 60 thousand people. The Makariev Fair would be closely connected with all the major trade centers of the country. Western-Ropean to-va-ry in a stu-pa-li to the Makariev Fair first-in-first-out of Ar-khan-gel-ska, in the XVIII - early XIX centuries - from St. Peter-ter-burg-ha. AT late XVIII- at the beginning of the 19th centuries, the Makarievskaya Fair began to fulfill the role of “me-no-in-the-court of Europe with Asia”.
The main domestic to-va-ra-mi, pro-da-vav-shi-mi-sya at the yar-mar-ke, would it be salt, fish, bread, honey, flax and pre-weaving fabric-ni, zhe-le-zo, Siberian furs, lo-sha-di and cattle, ko-lo-ko-la, from de-lia kus-tar-nyh pro-we-words . From Europe-ro-py to yar-mar-ku in-stu-pa-li Dutch steel and copper, English souk-but, Swedish weapons, German from de-liya from gold-lo-ta, boo-ma -ha, so-so-yes, from Vos-to-ka - Indian pearl-chug and precious stones, Chinese faience, silk, bar-hut, Central Asian cotton-cha- then-bu-mazh-nye fabrics and carpets, oriental spices.
In the years of the Kon-ti-nent-tal-noy block-ka-dy of Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii and the Patriotic War of 1812, more zen-nyh at the Makariev fair, then-va-ditch was-ta-va-lis not sold-dan-us-mi.
Yar-ma-roch-ny to-va-ro-obor-rot at the end of the 17th century amounted to 80 thousand rubles, in the middle of the 18th century - 490 thousand rubles, at the end of the 18th century - 30 million rubles as-sig- na-tsiya-mi, in 1814 - 44 million rubles as-sig-na-tsiya-mi. In its own way, the Makarievskaya Fair in the late 18th - early 19th centuries was the largest in Russia (its you are the Ir-bit-yar-mark-ki by 20-25%) and in Ev-ro-pe, trading-la on it with-ob-re-la bir-same-howl ha-rak-ter ( at the Makaryevskaya fair, dey-st-vo-va-li "bir-zhe-vaya for-la", as well as a "reference table" for making deals-lok su-do- vla-del-tsev and traders-gov-tsev bread-bom). The leading role at the Makarievskaya fair was given to the merchants of Mo-sk-you, Ka-za-ni, Yaro-slav-la, Nizh-not-go Nov-go-ro- yes, As-t-ra-ha-ni, St. Peter-ter-burg-ha.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Makariev Fair was annually attended by up to 170 thousand people.
Do-ho-dy from or-ga-ni-za-tion yar-ma-roch-noy tor-go-whether first-in-first-but in-stu-pa-whether in favor of the Holy -Tro-its-ko-go Ma-ka-ri-evo-Zhel-to-vod-sky monastery. Since 1667, the right-vi-tel-st-vo-pa-ta-moose on-right-wit ta-mo-wife-ny fees from deliveries-tav-len-nyh to yar-mar-ku then-va- ditch in the state treasury, however, due to co-op-le-tion of the mo-on-styr-sky authorities, this process was completed only in 1700 -Zom of Tsar Peter I of July 19 (30). Yar-mar-ka on-ho-di-losed in the ve-de-nii at-ca-call of the Bolshoy kaz-na and Kazan-sko-go, since 1718 - Com-merz-kol-le- gii, since 1804 - yar-ma-roch-noy con-to-ry under the governor-ber-na-to-re of the Ni-zhe-go-rod-sky province. Since 1804, the Society of Ma-kar-ev-skih trade-go-go-s-tey (consisting of three selected trade-traders from ka-zh -to-th row-yes), representing-becoming-lyav-neck in-te-re-sy of tor-gov-tsev yar-mar-ki before pra-vi-tel-st-vom.
First-at-the-initial-but yar-ma-roch-nye in-rooms-would it be time-men-us-mi. Every year, but on the middle of the mo-na-sta-rya on wooden-steel-lahs, rows of wooden times-boron-nyh ba-la-ga -new, composed of the Gos-ty-ny yard (for the first time mentioned in 1683), someone ok-ru-stinged wooden cre-po-st-nye walls with four pro-e-mi-towers and one deaf. Behind the pre-de-la-mi of the Gos-ti-no-go yard, chao-tich-but, there were separate shops, khar-chev-ni, ka-ba-ki and ba-la - Mrs.
In 1755, the de-boring Gos-ti-ny yard on the middle of the treasury for-me-nyon in a hundred-yan-ny; it consisted of 8 tor-go-th rows and 830 large ba-la-ga-nov, which is so-s-s-ve-no-but-you-si-lo in-la-voch- ny income from the fair mark.
In the years 1805-1809, the treasury built a new og-rum-ny Gos-ti-ny yard (architect A.D. Za-kha-rov), someone co-sto-yal out of 32 tor-go-y cor-pus-owls, including up to 2 thousand two-story la-woks. In the center of the Gos-ti-no-go yard on-ho-di-moose, there is a single-st-vein-noe stone-m-noe construction of a yar-mark-ki - the first in Russia's tor-go-vy pass-soot with an area of 5.5 thousand m2. Near the Gos-ti-no-go courtyard there were commodity warehouses, a mosque, an Armenian church, te-atr, ba-la-ga-ny, tractor-ti-ry, ba-ni. From all sides of the tor-go-vy rows, a deep ditch 19 m wide was dug, ter-ri-to-ri.
The state yard of the Yar-Mar-Ki was destroyed by the women in the fire on August 18 (30), 1816. In connection with the impossibility of expanding the yar-ma-roch-ter-ri-to-riyu and from the day-st-we-em convenient per-re- right-you through the Vol-gu near Lys-ko-vo yar-mark-ku in the same place re-she-but not in-goiter-new-lyat, she would-la re-re-ve -de-on to the Nizh-niy Nov-go-rod [you-so-tea-she approved on February 15 (27), 1817 ].
History of Origin Fair trade in Russia in the early Middle Ages was extremely developed. As we are informed by the Dictionary of Fairs Established in Russia, published at the end of the 18th century, “fairs in Russia began in ancient times. Established in honor of idols during idolatry at their temples, as in Biarmia, or today in Kareli. Noble auctions were also established throughout Russia.
What is the Fair Fair (Polish jarmark, German Jahrmarkt annual market) is an annual recurring sale of goods, sometimes with restrictions on a certain season, product (for example: wine, honey, vegetables and fruits) or themes (for example, Orthodox fairs). Fair (Polish jarmark, German Jahrmarkt annual market) an annual recurring sale of goods, sometimes with restrictions on a certain season, product (for example: wine, honey, vegetables and fruits) or themes (for example, Orthodox fairs).polsk. German market for sale of wine honey vegetables fruits german marketwine fair
In total, by the middle of the XVIII century. in Russia, there were up to 800 fair trade points, in which fairs were held from one to several times a year; their duration ranged from several days to several months. In total, by the middle of the XVIII century. in Russia, there were up to 800 fair trade points, in which fairs were held from one to several times a year; their duration ranged from several days to several months.
Major Fairs. The largest Russian international fair of the XVII-XVIII centuries. was Arkhangelsk; in the pre-Petrine period, Arkhangelsk was the largest port, a kind of Russian Antwerp. Officially, the fair here began in June and ended in early October, however, de facto trade has been carried out since May, with the arrival of ships with goods from the inner Russian regions and foreign ships from the sea. The largest Russian international fair of the XVII-XVIII centuries. was Arkhangelsk; in the pre-Petrine period, Arkhangelsk was the largest port, a kind of Russian Antwerp. Officially, the fair here began in June and ended in early October, however, de facto trade has been carried out since May, with the arrival of ships with goods from the inner Russian regions and foreign ships from the sea. Russian, Chinese, Persian, Turkish and other Asian and other foreign goods were brought to the fair by water and land: French, Portuguese, Spanish and German wines, rum, vinegar, Dutch, English, Hamburg cloth, brocade and ribbons, tin in dishes, plates and ingots, sheet iron, needles, knives, forks, scissors and other goods made of iron; alum, mercury, combustible sulfur, raisins, coffee, tea, peppers, sugar, lemons and other fresh fruits and in wine. Russian, Chinese, Persian, Turkish and other Asian and other foreign goods were brought to the fair by water and land: French, Portuguese, Spanish and German wines, rum, vinegar, Dutch, English, Hamburg cloth, brocade and ribbons, tin in dishes, plates and ingots, sheet iron, needles, knives, forks, scissors and other goods made of iron; alum, mercury, combustible sulfur, raisins, coffee, tea, peppers, sugar, lemons and other fresh fruits and in wine.
Fairs of international significance A large number of Fairs were also held in the southern regions of Russia. A large number of fairs were held in the southern regions of Russia. These were: These were: 1. Epiphany 2. Assumption 3. Pokrovskaya fair in Kharkov 4. Ilyinskaya in Poltava 5. Holy Cross in Krolevets, Chernihiv region and some others.
Development trends Firstly, individual fairs acquire the character of constant bargaining. So, for example, four fairs were held in Kharkov, each of which lasted 3-4 months a year, at the same point, by the same merchants and goods. That is, it was a single permanent fair. And most of visiting merchants in Kharkov had permanent warehouses and premises. And many contributed capital to the Kharkov Duma in order to have the right to keep their shops open throughout the year. Other fairs, due to limited demand, were in in constant motion, transferring trades from one point to another, being a permanent mobile market.
Continued development The second important trend in the Russian fair trade was the purchase and sale transactions for a period and for samples. So, at the Root Fair held in Kursk region, there was a trade in such "future" goods as tobacco, livestock, lard. The second important trend in the Russian fair trade was the purchase and sale transactions for a period and for samples. So, at the Root Fair held in the Kursk region, there was a trade in such "future" goods as tobacco, livestock, lard.
But this is not the end Trading in medieval markets was strictly regulated due to the fact that the markets brought significant income to the state treasury; trade outside the cities was strictly prohibited. City fair trading took place on days and hours specially designated for each product, on certain squares and streets or trading houses. This regulation is closely related to the public nature of the whole organization of trade in the Middle Ages. Trade in medieval markets was strictly regulated due to the fact that the markets brought significant income to the state treasury; trade outside the cities was strictly prohibited. City fair trading took place on days and hours specially designated for each product, in certain squares and streets or trading houses. This regulation is closely related to the public nature of the whole organization of trade in the Middle Ages.
Traders were served by special officials - sworn brokers, weighers, measurers, porters. The beginning and end of the auction was indicated by special signals - the sounds of a trumpet, bells, or they were announced by heralds. Traders were served by special officials - sworn brokers, weighers, measurers, porters. The beginning and end of the auction was indicated by special signals - the sounds of a trumpet, bells, or they were announced by heralds. Gradually fairs became the center of wholesale trade. Of course, not all of them have acquired a wholesale and international character; Most of the fairs retained the properties of free, retail trade, timed to coincide with a certain time - usually a church holiday. Gradually fairs became the center of wholesale trade. Of course, not all of them have acquired a wholesale and international character; Most of the fairs retained the properties of free, retail trade, timed to coincide with a certain time - usually a church holiday.
Difficulties and Costs At the same time, the difficulties and costs associated with the transportation of goods to the place of auction forced the merchants to refuse to trade in large quantities of cash goods. It was cheaper and safer to organize trade in varieties or product samples. The ever-increasing number of fair trade participants required new forms of organization of commodity and money circulation. In particular, in order to avoid wasting time searching for a trading counterparty for a certain type of goods, it was necessary to allocate specialized sections at fairs (or arrange specialized fairs). The need has increased for intermediaries to provide money exchange services and search for counterparties of the transaction, information and legal services, purchase and sale of bills, warehousing of goods, translation services from foreign languages. At the same time, the difficulties and costs associated with the transportation of goods to the place of trading forced the merchants to refuse to trade in large quantities of cash goods. It was cheaper and safer to organize trade in varieties or product samples. The ever-increasing number of fair trade participants required new forms of organization of commodity and money circulation. In particular, in order to avoid wasting time searching for a trading counterparty for a certain type of goods, it was necessary to allocate specialized sections at fairs (or arrange specialized fairs). The need has increased for intermediaries to provide money exchange services and search for counterparties of the transaction, information and legal services, purchase and sale of bills, warehousing of goods, translation services from foreign languages.
Conclusion Thus, the noted facts indicate that to early XVIII in. Russia already has certain prerequisites for creating initial forms commodity exchange trading, although the stage of its formation largely lagged behind the developed European countries. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the regularities of the transformation of fair trading into exchange trading in Russian and European economic practice are of an identical nature, including with regard to the assistance of authorities state power development of exchange activity. Thus, the noted facts indicate that by the beginning of the 18th century. In Russia, certain prerequisites have already been formed for the creation of the initial forms of commodity exchange trading, although the stage of its formation to a large extent lagged behind the developed European countries. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the patterns of transformation of fair trading into exchange trading in Russian and European economic practice are of an identical nature, including the assistance of state authorities to the development of exchange activities.
Background images On most of our slides, the background images are the works of the famous artist Kustodiev Boris Mikhailovich. For example: On most of our slides, the background images are the works of the famous artist Kustodiev Boris Mikhailovich. For example: 3 slide - Vegetable vendor 1920 3 slide - Vegetable vendor 1920 6 slide - Shrovetide 1916 6 slide - Shrovetide 1916 7 slide - Fair in the village 1916 7 slide - Fair in the village 1916 9 slide - Fair 1908 9 slide - Fair 1908
On the remaining slides we can see the View of Bolshaya Mikhailovskaya Street of the 19th century - 1 slide. On slides 2 and 8 - Nizhny Novgorod. The 10th slide is decorated with a work called Arrival of merchants in Kazan of the 15th century. The 11th slide shows the work of Vasnetsov Appolinaria Mikhailovich Novgorod bidding. And on the 12th slide - the Novgorod fair, where the fair house is presented in the center. On the remaining slides we can see the View of Bolshaya Mikhailovskaya Street of the 19th century - 1 slide. On slides 2 and 8 - Nizhny Novgorod. The 10th slide is decorated with a work called Arrival of merchants in Kazan of the 15th century. The 11th slide shows the work of Vasnetsov Appolinaria Mikhailovich Novgorod bidding. And on the 12th slide - the Novgorod fair, where the fair house is presented in the center.
References Article 1- Galkina V.V. Fair trade in Russia Article 1- Galkina VV Medieval trade. Fairs and their role in the development of the stock exchangeMedieval trade. Fairs and their role in the formation of the exchange Textbook Smetanina S.I. – History of Economics. Zherebtsova I.I. Fair as a microcosm of Russian reality / I.I. Zherebtsova // Abstracts: In 2 volumes / XV Komi Republican Youth Conference. - T.1. - Syktyvkar: Publishing House of the Komi Scientific Center of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, - C
Bogoroditskaya N.A. Geography of trade relations, the composition of traders and the number of participants in the Nizhny Novgorod Fair / N.A. Bogoroditskaya. - Novgorod: NSU, - C 33. Bogoroditskaya N.A. Geography of trade relations, the composition of traders and the number of participants in the Nizhny Novgorod Fair / N.A. Bogoroditskaya. - Novgorod: NSU, - C 33. Agapova I.A. Thematic holidays on the history of Russia / I.A.Agapova, M.A.Davydova. - M. Creative Center Sphere, - 144 p. Agapova I.A. Thematic holidays on the history of Russia / I.A.Agapova, M.A.Davydova. - M. Creative Center Sphere, - 144 p.
