The moon was destined to become that celestial body, which is associated with perhaps the most effective and impressive successes of mankind outside the Earth. The direct study of the natural satellite of our planet began with the start of the Soviet lunar program. On January 2, 1959, the automatic station "Luna-1" for the first time in history carried out a flight to the Moon.
The first launch of a satellite to the Moon (Luna-1) was a huge breakthrough in space exploration, but the main goal, the flight from one celestial body to another, was never achieved. The launch of the Moon-1 gave a lot of scientific and practical information in the field of space flights to other celestial bodies. During the flight of "Luna-1" the second cosmic velocity was achieved for the first time and information about the radiation belt of the Earth and outer space was obtained. In the world press, the spacecraft "Luna-1" was named "Dream".
All this was taken into account when the next satellite Luna-2 was launched. In principle, Luna-2 almost completely repeated its predecessor, Luna-1, the same scientific instruments and equipment made it possible to fill in data on interplanetary space and correct the data obtained by Luna-1. For the Launch, the LV 8K72 Luna with the "E" block was also used. On September 12, 1959, at 6:39 am, the Luna-2 AMS was launched from the Baikonur RN Luna. And already on September 14, at 00 hours 02 minutes 24 seconds Moscow time, Luna-2 reached the surface of the Moon, making the first ever flight from Earth to the Moon.
The automatic interplanetary vehicle reached the lunar surface to the east of the "Sea of Clarity", near the craters Aristil, Archimedes and Autolycus (selenographic latitude + 30 °, longitude 0 °). As the processing of data on the parameters of the orbit shows, the last stage of the rocket also reached the surface of the Moon. Three symbolic pennants were placed on board Luna-2: two in the automatic interplanetary vehicle and one in the last stage of the rocket with the inscription "USSR September 1959". Inside Luna-2 there was a metal ball consisting of pennant pentahedrons, and when it hit the lunar surface, the ball flew into dozens of pennants.
Dimensions: The total length was 5.2 meters. The satellite itself is 2.4 meters in diameter.
RN: Moon (modification R-7)
Weight: 390.2 kg.
Objectives: Reaching the lunar surface (completed). Reaching the second cosmic speed (completed). Overcome the gravity of the planet Earth (done). Delivery of "USSR" pennants to the lunar surface (completed).
JOURNEY TO SPACE
"Luna" is the name of the Soviet lunar exploration program and a series of spacecraft launched in the USSR to the Moon since 1959.
Spacecraft of the first generation (Luna-1 - Luna-3) flew from Earth to the Moon without first placing an artificial Earth satellite into orbit, making corrections on the Earth-Moon trajectory and braking near the Moon. The spacecraft carried out the passage of the Moon ("Luna-1"), reaching the Moon ("Luna-2"), flying around and photographing it ("Luna-3").
Spacecraft of the second generation (Luna-4 - Luna-14) were launched using more advanced methods: preliminary insertion into orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, then launch to the Moon, trajectory correction and deceleration in circumlunar space. During the launches, the flight to the Moon and landing on its surface (Luna-4 - Luna-8), soft landing (Luna-9 and Luna-13) and transfer into orbit of an artificial lunar satellite (Luna -10 "," Luna-11 "," Luna-12 "," Luna-14 ").
More advanced and heavier spacecraft of the third generation (Luna-15 - Luna-24) carried out the flight to the Moon according to the scheme used by the second-generation spacecraft; At the same time, in order to increase the accuracy of landing on the Moon, it is possible to carry out several corrections on the flight path from the Earth to the Moon and in the orbit of an artificial moon satellite. The Luna spacecraft ensured the receipt of the first scientific data on the Moon, the development of a soft landing on the Moon, the creation of artificial lunar satellites, the taking and delivery of soil samples to the Earth, and the transportation of self-propelled lunar vehicles to the lunar surface. The creation and launch of various automatic lunar spacecraft is a feature of the Soviet lunar exploration program.
MOON RACE
The USSR began the "game" by launching the first artificial satellite in 1957. The United States immediately got involved in it. In 1958, the Americans hastily developed and launched their satellites, and at the same time formed "for the good of all" - this is the motto of the organization - NASA. But by that time, the Soviets had overtaken their rivals even more - they sent the dog Laika into space, which, although it did not return, but by its own heroic example proved the possibility of survival in orbit.
It took almost two years to develop a descent module capable of delivering a living organism back to Earth. It was necessary to modify the structures so that they could withstand already two "travels through the atmosphere", to create a high-quality sealed and high-temperature-resistant skin. And most importantly, it was necessary to calculate the trajectory and design engines that would protect the astronaut from overloads.
When all this was done, Belka and Strelka got the opportunity to show their heroic dog nature. They coped with their task - they returned alive. Less than a year later, Gagarin flew in their footsteps - and also returned alive. In that 1961, the Americans sent only Ham's chimpanzees into the airless space. True, on May 5 of the same year, Alan Shepard made a suborbital flight, but this achievement was not recognized by the international community as a space flight. The first "real" American astronaut - John Glenn - was in space only in February 62nd.
It would seem that the United States is hopelessly behind the "boys from the neighboring continent." The triumphs of the USSR followed one after another: the first group flight, the first man in outer space, the first woman in space ... And even to the natural satellite of the Earth, the Soviet "Luna" got the first, laying the foundations for the method of gravity assist, which is so important for current research programs and photographing the reverse side night star.
But it was possible to win in such a game only by destroying the opposing team, physically or mentally. The Americans were not going to be destroyed. On the contrary, back in 1961, immediately after the flight of Yuri Gagarin, NASA, with the blessing of the newly elected Kennedy, headed for the moon.
The decision was risky - the USSR achieved their goal step by step, systematically and consistently, and still did not do without failures. And the US space agency decided to jump a step, if not an entire flight of stairs. But America compensated for its, in a sense, impudence by carefully working out the lunar program. "Apollo" was tested on Earth and in orbit, while carrier rockets and lunar modules of the USSR were "tested by force" - and did not withstand tests. As a result, the US tactics turned out to be more effective.
But the key factor that weakened the Union in the lunar race was a split within the "team from the Soviet court." Korolev, whose will and enthusiasm kept astronautics, at first, after his victory over the skeptics, lost his monopoly on decision-making. Design bureaus grew like mushrooms after rain on the black soil unspoiled by agricultural cultivation. Distribution of tasks began, and each leader, both scientific and party leader, considered himself the most competent. At first, the very approval of the lunar program was belated - the politicians, distracted by Titov, Leonov and Tereshkova, took up it only in 1964, when the Americans had been thinking about their Apollo for three years. And then the attitude to flights to the moon turned out to be not serious enough - they did not have such military prospects as launches of Earth satellites and orbital stations, and required much more funding.
Money problems, as is usually the case, "finished off" the grandiose lunar projects. From the very start of the program, Korolyov was advised to lower the numbers before the word "rubles", because no one would approve of the real amounts. If the developments were as successful as the previous ones, this approach would justify itself. The party leadership nevertheless skillfully counts and would not close a promising business in which too much has already been invested. But, coupled with a stupid division of labor, the lack of funds led to catastrophic delays and savings on testing.
Perhaps later the situation could be corrected. The astronauts burned with enthusiasm, even asked to be sent to the Moon on ships that could not withstand test flights. Design bureaus, with the exception of OKB-1, which was under the leadership of Korolyov, demonstrated the inconsistency of their projects and quietly left the stage by themselves. The economy of the USSR, stable in the 70s, made it possible to allocate additional funds for the completion of missiles, especially if the military were involved in the matter. However, in 1968, the American crew flew around the moon, and in 1969, Neil Armstrong took his small victorious step in the space race. The Soviet lunar program for politicians has lost its meaning.
Monasticism has always played and continues to play a very important role both in the Orthodox East and in the West and throughout the Catholic world. It can be said without exaggeration that monastic orders created in Europe the soil on which Christian culture grew.
The goal of Catholic monasticism: observing the three basic vows of obedience, chastity and non-covetousness, strive for their own spiritual improvement and moral health of the people through the fulfillment of all the precepts of Christ the Savior and the feasible imitation of Him. But since Jesus Christ is infinitely holy and gave us an example of all perfections, and people are limited in their capabilities, then monastic orders are of different "rules", depending on what form of piety and service to their neighbor those called to monastic life feel more gracious attraction and have more abilities.
Distinguish between the orders "contemplative" and "active". The former mean the sanctification of oneself and others mainly through prayer and ascetic deeds, the latter through selfless service to one's neighbor. The difference, of course, is only in a certain ratio of the types of asceticism, for prayer without interest in the salvation of one's neighbor is just as little pleasing to the Lord God as "activity" that is little supported by prayer. There is a great deal of variety in the types and ways of serving fellow Catholic monks and nuns.
There are many monastic orders, and we do not even have the opportunity to even list here the names of the various now existing Catholic monastic communities. All the Catholic monks and nuns in the world are about 1,500,000, while some orders have only a few hundred members.
In our short essay, we will not talk about the numerous monastic monasteries of local importance, established in a particular diocese and closely associated with it. Let's just say a few words about some orders of world significance, super-diocesan in their tasks and therefore directly dependent on the Holy See. However, with regard to the pastoral ministry, preaching and performing Sts. sacraments, all hieromonks are directly dependent on the local bishop.
Trappists, Camaldules, Carthusians, and other "contemplative" type monks live rather secluded in their quiet monasteries, observing a strict fast, praying a lot day and night and doing hard work, mostly physical, but also mental.
The Benedictines are the oldest monastic order in the West, founded in the 6th century by St. Venedict - they are engaged in scientific and historical research, they care a lot about the purity and decency of the ritual, live "liturgical piety", sometimes they contain hostels for the education of youth. Their services in spreading and deepening Christian culture in medieval Europe are undeniably enormous.
The Dominicans, whose spiritual ancestor was St. Dominic (+ in 1221), are distinguished by the accuracy and purity of their theological teaching and the severity of life. Eminent preachers, they did much to protect Catholic countries from heretical teachings.
Followers of St. Francis of Assisi, contemporary of St. Dominic, formed several monastic orders, of which the Capuchin order is perhaps the most famous; by the severity of their life, hospitality, simplicity in dealing with people and great non-covetousness, the Capuchins have always had a beneficial effect on the masses; not a few remarkable archpastors emerged from their midst.
The Jesuit Order was founded by St. Ignatius Loyola in the 16th century. They are engaged in youth upbringing, secondary and higher education for youth, scientific research, missionary activities and, in particular, teaching "spiritual exercises", a kind of retreat based on deep reflections on the purpose of man and the teachings of the Savior. For their ardent devotion to the Holy Father, they have always been the subject of exceptional hatred, slander and persecution from all enemies of God and the Church.
The activities of the Redemptorists (Redemptor - the Redeemer), whose order was founded in the 18th century by St. Alphonse Liguori, is mainly directed at "internal" missions, at preaching the Gospel among languid Catholics.
Monks of several orders care for the sick in innumerable hospitals, sanatoriums and orphanages founded by them or only serviced by them. St. John the "Man of God" (XVI century) gave impetus to the formation of such a world-famous order. Almost simultaneously, St. Camille Lellis founded another order with a similar purpose. Since the XIV century, the Order of St. Alexis, whose members were first engaged in caring for the sick with the plague, and now devote themselves especially to alleviating the suffering of the mentally ill. Other monks serve lepers in Asia, Africa and Australia. Catholic monks also founded thousands of different charitable institutions for sick, mutilated, or abnormal children, especially orphans.
In the 19th century, several new orders appeared with the goal of preaching the gospel to the pagans of the overseas countries. They work with superhuman dedication in incredibly difficult conditions in the polar countries of Northern Canada, in the mountain gorges of America, in the tropical regions of Africa, in the Malay Islands, in Oceania, in Tierra del Fuego. To them, in particular, we can apply Pushkin's enthusiastic review of Catholic missionaries (see "Journey to Erzurum", chapter one).
The Augustines are engaged in scientific research, the distribution of instructive and edifying books ("Bonn Press" in Paris), missionary activities; the Sulpicians - by educating the clergy in special seminaries; lazarists - missionary work and the education of seminarians; oratorians - the spiritual guidance of believers.
Of the orders that have now lost their significance, we note the Order of Mercedarii, founded in 1223 by St. Peter Nolyasko [Nolasco. - ed.]. In past centuries, these monks ransomed the captives of Christians from the Moors, and when it was impossible to redeem the unfortunate prisoner for money, one of the monks gave himself up in captivity in exchange for the liberated one.
Women's monastic orders are more numerous than men's, the variety of their special vocations is even greater.
The Ursuline Order, founded in the 16th century by St. Angela Merici, educates girls and women. The Ursuline women run about 400 boarding schools in different countries, where exemplary secondary education is given.
The Order of Our Lady of Zion, founded by the miraculously converted Jew, Ratisbonne, also aims to educate female youth.
The nuns of the Most Holy Hearts of Christ maintain about 160 female gymnasiums with adjoining boarding schools.
The nuns of "Mercy" (there are about 53,000 of them) serve 5,410 charitable institutions in all parts of the world, especially hospitals and orphanages. The charm of their compassion for all suffering is so great that during the French commune of 1870, when the communards killed all priests and monks, none of the revolutionaries dared to kill the nuns of Mercy. Let us note by the way that the Russian Catholic ascetic, sister Natalia Naryshkina (+ in 1874) belonged to this order.
Franciscan women of various denominations (about 80,000 nuns in total) have over 6,000 hospitals and orphanages in their care; they help a lot the missionaries working among the savages of Asia and Africa.
The nuns of the "Good Shepherd", founded by St. Euphrasia (+ in 1868) orders, devote themselves in 340 institutions to the re-education of 250,000 mostly morally fallen girls; one can imagine what feats of self-denial and patience it is worth!
The "Sisters of the Beggars" on the daily alms they collect from the faithful provide the full maintenance and quiet life of 60,000 poor old men and women.
In general, a lot of nuns work in countless orphanages, nurseries, sanatoriums for the poor, etc. Much is being done for the blind, deaf-dumb, feeble-minded, terminally ill ...
Clarisses, Carmelitanians, and nuns of several other orders never leave their seclusion and live in the exploits of an extremely austere contemplative life and constant prayer.
There are quite a few nuns who, for Christ's sake, are engaged in the sciences, printing, social issues, etc.
There are several monastic orders of different oriental rites, male (Basilians, Studites) and female.
If we can talk about "Christian communism", then it was realized in Catholic monastic monasteries. Here, in fact, there is no private property, any personal property, even very modest ones, is definitely prohibited; everyone, from the supreme abbot to the last serving brother, usually uses the same food, clothing, and room; It is very difficult to distinguish an abbot from a simple monk, for according to the Catholic "idea", the abbot is serving the brothers in Christ, just like sweeping stairs or washing dishes.
Over time, some orders decline, turn out to be untimely and disappear, others imperceptibly appear, grow, flourish. They are created not "at the command of the authorities," but at the free personal, grace-filled initiative of God's chosen ones. Popes and bishops only monitor the correct course of monastic life, check the statutes, suppress, when necessary, abuses, support and approve viable good undertakings.
In Russia, almost no one knows this huge, peculiar world of Catholic asceticism, since, with very rare exceptions, Catholic monks in Russia (and now in the USSR) were not allowed.
In addition to the monastic orders, the Catholic Church has many brotherhoods and sisterhoods dependent on them, to which millions of pious laity of both sexes belong; they lead a strictly Christian life, have their own statutes, engage in all kinds of deeds of mercy and apostolate, but are not bound by monastic vows. The role of these brotherhoods in the life of the Church is enormous.
