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2.2. Ways - palace executive authorities on the territory of the Grand Duke
The further development of the principalities led to some changes in the system of administration of the principalities. To solve numerous problems and manage the population and lands of the Grand Duke, trusted persons - managers were needed. Princely lands were called ways in the sense of profitable, profitable items. Word way meant good, profit, income. The prince owned personal lands, and management and direction of activity constituted a special "path". The path in the Russian state, in the XIV - the first half of the XVI century - the name of the department of the palace economy, a special direction for solving economic and other managerial tasks that were set by the prince or to provide the princely court with everything necessary. Strengthening of princely power from the second half of the XIV century. led to the appearance of assistants to the prince - worthy boyars, who controlled the sectors of the palace economy. Posts used to complain "with the way". Hence, all the boyars - feeders were usually called "traveling boyars". When appointed (for “correction”) to positions, worthy boyars received the right to inherit the estate and during the entire period of service (and sometimes for life), they were allocated one or another feeding. Officials (traveling boyars) were given the right to turn in their favor part of the trade, judicial duties and other princely income they collected.
"Ways" as the beginnings of individual palace departments in the form of assignments - "feeding" - appeared quite early. Already in the contract letter of the sons of Ivan Kalita (50s of the XIV century), the Sokolnichiy, Konyushy and Huntsman "ways" were mentioned. Subsequently, Stolnichiy and Chashnichy "paths" meet. The “worthy” boyars who led these “paths” had the corresponding names: falconer, stableman, trapper, steward, chalice. Good boyars, occupied separate economic and administrative positions at the princely court. The worthy boyars were subordinate to their servants, who lived in settlements, villages and villages, they had the ranks of stable clerks, sleeping bags, roundabouts, falconers, beaver farmers, gardeners, gardeners, etc.
Good boyars are a special class of feudal lords, boyars who served directly under the princes and formed the basis of princely courts. They, as a rule, performed tasks related to the family or property and economic life of their overlords, delivered mail, and collected taxes. This estate sometimes played a very prominent role in organizing the dynastic succession of princely power, carried out viceroyal and representative functions of princes, actively participated in the organization of government and influenced foreign and domestic policy.
Management by means of roads constituted a special administrative system of the princely palace and was higher than the management of governors and volosts. In cities and rural areas there were settlements, villages and villages assigned to one or another way, which were in a very weak administrative connection with the general administration or even completely separate from it.
With the centralization of the state and the increase in territory, the competence of the palace and patrimonial system began to expand, to go beyond the princely domain itself. The complication of functions led to the fact that numerous states of clerks, clerks, housekeepers, etc. appeared under the control of the “good boyars”. Some subordination of the palace and palace departments was determined: the palace (Great Palace) became the central institution to which the “good” departments were subordinate and, in addition to In addition, they were entrusted with many issues related to local government (the appointment of governors, volostels, the development of texts of statutory letters - documents that determined the rights of local government bodies), with church and secular land tenure (for example, the so-called "use" of service people) and some others. .
In the department of each "way" were lands, villages and villages. Each "worthy" boyar was subordinate to lower officials (keykeepers, villagers). The person who headed the "path" received the right to manage and judge the population of the territory subordinate to this "path"; a part of the income from fees from this population was received in his favor. At the time of their appointment, the worthy boyars were assigned specific tasks, the range of duties was determined.
In the system of "paths" at the end of the XV-XVII centuries. equerry (palace rank) in the management system occupied the highest position. According to the Sheremetevsky list, the 1st award with the rank of "equestrian boyar" refers to 1495 - 1496. The rank was introduced by Tsar Ivan III. Konyushy was one of the most important persons in the state apparatus, therefore, the most prominent of the boyars, representatives of the old Moscow aristocracy, was appointed to this position on the principle of personal devotion to the Grand Duke. The equestrian combined, as a rule, the palace and duma ranks. For a long time they were representatives of the old boyar family of Chelyadnins. The means of providing Konyushy was food collected from the road, that is, an administrative-territorial unit, the population of which was subordinate to the palace administration. The equestrian path controlled the maintenance of horses and the princely stables, the palace lands assigned to it, and all the princely meadows. From the beginning of the XV century. The stable boyar was in charge of a special treasury, which received income from the villages assigned to the department of the stable boy, and kept the archives of the stable order, which had already taken shape at the end of the 15th century. The high position of Konyushy is explained by the special significance of the stable way, later
The stable order, in the system of the palace economy, which was associated with the development of the equestrian local noble militia. In addition, Konyushy's special closeness to the Grand Duke is partly due to the fact that Konyushy in the 15th-16th centuries. was in charge of the grand ducal hunting.
One of the oldest officials of the princely court, known since 1550 - a falconer - was in charge of falconry, and sometimes all institutions of the military - princely hunting. The falconers were usually appointed by unnamed people. The last falconer of the Moscow tsars was Gavrila Pushkin. To falconer's way belonged to falconers and other servants of the princely bird hunting.
The Tsar's beavers and kennels belonged to the hunting path. The most important article of the palace economy was the exploitation of the country's natural resources. Wax and honey, fish and furs were the main wealth of ancient Russia. The princes owned many villages of beavers, beekeepers (beekeepers), and fishermen. On the then deserted rivers of the present Moscow and neighboring territories, beavers were found in large numbers; in places rich in beavers, somewhere along the river. Klyazma or along the river. Vozhe, dozens of villages of Bobrovnikov sat down, distributing beaver ruts among themselves. The villages of beekeepers were divided among themselves by boards (hollow trees with honey) into “board huts”. All along the river The Volga and its large tributaries there were a number of "fish settlements" inhabited by fishermen. A significant part of these beaver ruts, side huts, fish ezes (shutters) belonged to the princes and was divided into management between the palace ways: trapping, bowling, steward.
In Russia at the end of the XV-XVII centuries. - a bed keeper - an official of the grand-ducal, and then the royal court, who was in charge of the "sovereign bed", a bed workshop in which the clothes and linen of the sovereigns were sewn, the management of settlements that made canvases and canvases for the sovereign's household. The bed clerk kept the seal “for quick and secret royal affairs” and was often in charge of the personal office of the sovereign. He was usually among the most close advisers and influenced the activities of the Grand Duke, the sovereign. In the submission of the bedkeeper were sleeping bags, which were on duty in the sovereign's room, undressed him, and accompanied him on trips. Usually sleeping bags were young people of noble birth.
First mentioned in 1284 as a court rank - roundabout - and a position in the Russian state of the XIII-XVIII centuries. The initial functions of the roundabout were: arranging and providing for the prince's travels and participating in receptions and negotiations with foreign ambassadors. In the XIV-XV centuries. okolnichiy was a member of the Boyar Duma of the Grand Duke. Okolnichy were appointed heads of orders, regimental governors, participated in the organization of court ceremonies. Award to the roundabout in the XVI-XVII centuries. often was the first step in the rise of royal favorites.
In the acts of the XVI century. at the courts of the great and specific princes, they are introduced to the staff of court officials: the steward and the chalice. Stolnichiy and chalice became exclusively courtiers; but at specific times they belonged to the palace staff, controlled special palace departments, ways; Later in the tsarist period they had no administrative significance. Chashniy - a court position and rank in the household of Russian princes and tsars in the 13th - early 18th centuries. Until the 15th century inclusive, the chalice keeper not only served the prince at festive dinners, but also performed some administrative functions. Chalice way was the department of palace beekeeping and sovereign drinking; villages and villages of palace beekeepers, beekeepers, along with the side palace forests, were subordinate to him.
At the beginning of the XVI century. the stolnik (stolnik's way) in the Moscow principality was still judicial-administrative power for the people, lands and waters of this way. The palace grounds for fishing, as well as palace gardens and orchards with gardeners and vegetable gardens, belonged to the steward's path. When it was necessary to help a private owner to populate his empty lands, on which the duties of this department could fall or which were within the limits of his administrative district, the authorities gave the landowner a charter, according to which neither the governor of that county, nor the stolnik, nor the villager with their tiuns they could neither take their exactions from the settlers of those lands, nor judge them for anything other than murder and red-handed robbery.
The villages of each path were united into volosts, which were ruled by volosts, representatives of the stolnik, cup or other path. These "worthy" stewards acted through elected elders of worthy villages and settlements. In the second half of the XVI century. these departments still bore the old appanage names of the paths, the area of each of them was divided into parts, called by the names of cities or counties in which there were lands and villages that belonged to one or another path: this was the steward's path of Kostroma, Pereyaslav, etc.
All these departments were separated from each other and separated from other institutions. The settlements, villages and villages scattered over the cities and volosts of the principality, assigned to these routes, were either completely isolated from the general regional administration of governors and volosts, or were in a very weak administrative dependence on it.
The boyar, who was in charge of the economic management of certain palace lands, was the chief for all the people who inhabited the lands given to his management. The economy, administration and court were united in the hands of one person. The ancient administration, in complete contrast to the later one, concentrated in one department all matters relating to the subject population.
The treasurer, who was in charge of the prince's treasury: money, all valuable property, golden vessels, chains, crosses, precious stones, furs, etc., should have belonged to a number of rulers of these paths, a horseman, a falconer, a huntsman, a steward. they only kept the prince's treasury, but also managed some of the sovereign's income, mainly customs. But they by no means concentrated in their hands the management of all the incomes of the princes; the butler and the stolnik had a special treasury, and other officials who were in charge of one or another profitable item of the palace economy. The boyar - the treasurer was subordinated to petty officials - treasurers and tiuns; they were in charge of princely property kept in provincial towns. To prevent abuse, these positions were usually entrusted to people who were not free, who were completely dependent on the prince. These serf treasurers, like the tiuns, and other petty officials, also not free, were usually set free according to the wills of the princes.
Above all these palace posts was the position of a thousand. The indicated ranks of this time were preserved, although with a changed meaning, until the tsarist period, while the office of the thousandth was destroyed at the end of the fourteenth century. Tysyatsky, just as in the previous Kiev time, was the leader of the Zemstvo regiments, urban and rural militia. Due to his ties with the regional population, the tysyatsky was a powerful and influential person. This position often passed by inheritance from father to son and, remaining in one clan, greatly enhanced the significance of this clan.
So, the "ways" were palace departments, between which the management of the economic lands belonging to the princely palace was divided. But these departments did not concern the palace lands. Ways could be called fishing grounds, if the right to exploit the free grounds in the principality belonged exclusively to the princely palace. But the acts of specific and Moscow time do not indicate such exclusivity: fishing grounds are a simple property of landed property, and the specific or great prince, transferring his land into the hands of a private owner, along with it transferred the right to use the fishing grounds located on it.
The appointment of boyars to the positions of worthy leaders in the management system of the palace economy was a preparatory step for the creation of a broader management structure - the Sovereign's Court. If at the beginning the worthy boyars worked in parallel with representatives of the Sovereign's Court, and their positions were the same in name, then later the Boyar Duma and the Sovereign's Court came to the fore. The worthy boyars fulfilled their historical mission and opened a new page in the system of governing the principality (state) in the form of the Sovereign's Court.
2.3. Sovereign Court and its role in the formation of the executive power in Russia, in state administration (XII-XVI centuries)
The term "yard" in the pre-Mongolian period of Russian history was used in different meanings. In the second half of the XI and until the middle of the XII century. so called the residence of the prince, the place of implementation of his judicial and administrative functions, the center of receipt (and then redistribution) of state taxes, court fines, i.e. the place where the prince solved state-financial issues. In the second half of the XII century. the core of the princely squad, consisting of its junior members, was transformed into the Court. The prince was surrounded by two types of courtiers - "free servants" and "servants under the court". The courtier - the manager - obeyed both free and dependent people. All of them specialized in different areas of activity, as they were military people, and served in the princely economy (for example, artisans, managers, hunters, youths, children, swordsmen). The younger warriors were now called the generalized term "nobles", that is, employees at the princely court.
During the period of feudal fragmentation on the territory of most principalities at the end of the 15th century. independent executive bodies were created in the form of princely courts. At the end of the XV century. there was also the Courtyard of the wife of Ivan III Sophia Paleolog. The princely courts did not represent such a complex management structure as in the Novgorod Republic, but they were the prototypes, the beginnings of the Sovereign's court. History has preserved to this day the description of other Courts as territorial management structures. First of all, the Court of heirs to the Grand Duke's throne enjoyed a special status. It is known, for example, that Prince Ivan the Young had a court. Own Court existed under Prince Vasily Ivanovich, the future Vasily III. Later, in 1500, Prince Vasily Ivanovich received the "principality of Novgorod and Pskov." Obviously, it was from that time that a special Novgorod court began. In favor of the assumption of the existence of a special Novgorod court is the mention in the Novgorod cadastral books of some positions typical of the Sovereign's court. In addition to the butlers appointed from Moscow, stablemen, nurseries and hunters were also known in Novgorod. Novgorod stables, nurseries and huntsmen initially, most likely, served at the Novgorod court. Obviously, at the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. Novgorod also had its own boyars, more precisely Moscow boyar children, who spoke at diplomatic negotiations as successors to the Novgorod boyars. It is no coincidence that the Yard Notebook described only the yard service people of the "Moscow Lands". It is likely that in the Novgorod land until the middle of the XVI century. nominally, a special Novgorod court was preserved. Special children of the boyars were later also in the service of Tsarina Anastasia Romanova. In particular, notes in the Dvorovaya notebook indicate that about three dozen boyar children were in her service.
There were special Yards of the Tver land (until the middle of the 1540s). The activity of the Tver chancellery was connected with the existence of the Tver Palace. The Tver Palace continued to function even in the middle of the 16th century. In connection with the dissolution of the Tver Boyar Duma, the Court of Tver was included in the Sovereign's Court between 1513 and 1518. By the middle of the XVI century. there were at least 44 separate territorial courts, not counting the family princely courts, in which they served according to separate lists. After the thousandth reform, this number increased even more due to the involvement of the landowners of the North-West of the country in the yard service.
The evolution of princely administration and the creation of the Sovereign's Court reflected the process of centralization of the Russian state and developed as new principalities and lands were annexed to the territory of the Moscow principality proper. The structure of the Sovereign Court also grew due to the creation of new local government structures, which included service people resettled from other counties.
The Sovereign Court in the medieval history of Russia was an administrative association of service people "in the fatherland", who were directly involved in the leadership of the country, in the execution of the decisions of the prince, sovereign. Members of the Sovereign's Court were key figures in central and local government, participated in campaigns, embassy missions, legal proceedings, palace and court services, i.e. representatives of the Sovereign's Court actually performed the functions of executive power in its modern sense. There were no more perfect management structures at that time. During the period of the formation of the unified Moscow state, the "princely court" began to be called: in the broad sense - the organization of various ranks of service feudal lords, delegated by the "county-territorial organization", in the narrow sense of the term - the closest circle of the prince. Further, the structure of the territorial division of the court was transformed in the direction of the “estate-bureaucratic structure”.
In the history of the evolution of the Sovereign's court, the following stages can be distinguished.
The first stage - IX - the end of the XI centuries. - the formation of the foundations of the princely court, i.e., the appointment of service personnel from among the boyars to the highest positions and from among the servants of the courtyard to lower positions to solve management functions on the lands of the Grand Duke, the entire Old Russian state and vassals, as well as to serve the princely family. During this period, these employees could satisfy the needs of the prince and his family and solve management problems. However, it was far from perfect mechanism of executive power.
The second stage - XII - the first half of the XV centuries. - the birth of the institution of the Sovereign Court (princely court), the creation of the Grand Palace - there is a merger of the princely courts with the Grand Duke. In the last decade of the reign of Ivan III, the importance of the Court as an administrative social institution increased. At this time, the traditional tripartite structure of the grand ducal court was formed, which included princes, boyars and boyar children.
The third stage - the second half of the XV - the middle of the XVI centuries. In the second half of the XV century. the sharp quantitative growth of the service population led to the allocation and design of the Sovereign's own court, a change in its class structure, and the way of life of the courtyards. During this period, the tasks of management become more complicated, and the development of the structure of the Sovereign Court occurs due to the allocation of new court posts, related by the nature of their activities with the Boyar Duma, the Palace and the deacon environment. The sovereign's court becomes one of the key links in the system of general government, the executive power of the prince, the king. The sovereign's court has turned into a closed organization, where access to new faces has almost ceased. The Sovereign Court begins to act as a special force, as a nationwide executive structure that inherited its status from the former court of the Moscow princes. The Sovereign of All Russia appointed the nobles as military leaders, diplomats, governors in the center and in the field. The successful career of the courtier was determined not only by his official zeal, but also by family ties and the patronage of influential friends. This management system was based on the territorial principle of service organization.
From the end of the XV century. The sovereign's court took an active part in all the significant events of the Moscow prince. All governors, volostels, ambassadors and military leaders of various levels were appointed to their positions exclusively from among the persons who were part of the Sovereign's court. Most often, they also produced land descriptions of individual counties and conducted legal proceedings. The category of the Novgorod campaign "peace" in 1495 singled out the following categories in the composition of the Sovereign's court: boyars, rounders, butlers, nurseries, bed-keepers, clerks, princes and boyar children. The development of the grand ducal office led to the separation in the second half of the 15th century. positions of treasurer and printer. In fact, treasurers and printers were occasionally mentioned in sources of an earlier time, however, from the end of the 15th century. these positions are permanent. In addition to them at the end of the XV century. equables, treasurers, printers, falconers and hunters also acquired the character of special court positions. The position of a groom was first encountered in the category of the Novgorod trip of Vasily III in 1510. However, it is likely that this position existed in the Russian state during the reign of Ivan III in the 60s. 15th century Falconers and hunters had fairly close functions and, most likely, their duties were performed by the same persons. All these positions were presented in the categories of trips of the Grand Duke in 1510, 1513 and 1522. Further development of the structure of the Sovereign's court is recorded in the records of the Courtyard notebook. In the second half of the XVI century. in the Dvorovaya notebook were recorded: boyars, okolniki, butlers, treasurers, bedkeepers, printer, large clerks, yard clerks, falconer (and hunter), gunsmiths (squires, rynds - bodyguards as part of the tsar’s court guard), nurseries, service princes, tribal princely corporations of the princes of Obolensky, Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Starodub and Mosalsky, as well as boyar children from various cities of the Russian state. The allocation of the positions of equerry, butler, treasurer, printer, gunsmith, nursery, bedding, trapping and falconer in the composition of the Sovereign's court was an indicator of the process of incorporating the Grand Duke's Sovereign's Court into the system of general state administration and a certain unification of the former worthy system.
By the middle of the XVI century. the main principles of separation and the main signs of the class status of such groups as stolniks, solicitors and (apparently, no later than the 50s) nobles were formed. This, however, did not yet mean a complete break with the former territorial structure of the court. The growth of crisis phenomena within the Sovereign's Court stimulated a series of reforms of the Court at the end of this period.
The fourth stage - the second half of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. - characterizes the final design of the structure of the Sovereign Court as a result of the reforms of Ivan IV and Boris Godunov. The essence of the revision of the composition of the court was to bring its bureaucracy into line with the existing service-parochial relations and the “breed” of a service person on the terms of his faithful service to the monarch.
The fifth stage is the second half of the 17th century. - civil service reforms are being carried out, aimed at turning the service people of the Sovereign's Court into employees. The gradual merger of the Moscow ranks into a separate top of the Sovereign's court, called courtiers, led in the second half of the 17th century. to the emergence of administration in the modern sense. The formation of the bureaucratic - hierarchical structure of the Sovereign's court was due to its new functions. One of the tasks of the grand duke's power was the creation of a single all-Russian apparatus of power. The dominance of traditional forms of administration and the general underdevelopment of office work led to an increase in the importance of the Sovereign's Court as a special administrative executive structure.
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At the end of the 12th century, the Sovereign Court was formed in Tsarist Russia. This definition in Europe initially determined the circle of people who served the royal family in a personal residence. But in Russia, the list of people included not only servants. It was a privilege to get a position in the Sovereign's court. Since over time, the entire political system of government was concentrated in it.
Life before the Sovereign's Court
From the 11th century, the Russian state became more and more isolated, but steadily developed. The positive side of isolation was the economic and cultural development of the regions. The population increased, the economy became stronger, the cities became richer.
The Russian lands were united by only a few factors:
- princes and boyars recognized the power of the Kyiv prince;
- a single religion and language was preserved in the regions;
- the obedience of the norms described in the adopted code of laws "Russian Truth" was controlled.
Reasons for fragmentation
Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned from 1113-1125, tried to stop the process, but died. His son Mstislav took the throne after the death of his father, but did not rule for long, only 7 years.
A prerequisite for the fragmentation of the state was the resettlement of people from those lands that were periodically raided by the Polovtsy. The eastern and southwestern cities of Vladimir, Suzdal, Galich and Volyn took over the main flow of refugees.
The princes and boyars who owned the lands were not satisfied with subordination to Kyiv. After all, in order to maintain order in their lands, they had sufficient power and were strong. In addition, the local boyars and the princely retinue provided each prince with the necessary protection and assistance, supporting the idea of not being dependent on the capital.
Fragmentation of the Old Russian state
Due to the princely civil strife, the defense capability of the state weakened. In the XII - I half. 13th century The ancient Russian state turned out to be completely fragmented.
By the end of the XII century, 15 lands became independent, independent of the capital. The largest of them were the Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities, and the Novgorod Republic. In 1132, the fragmentation of Russia reached its climax.
The centralization of the state has become conditional. Each prince ruled on his own land independently, taking into account the boyars and retinue close to him - those forces on which his power depended.
A historically significant person in that period was Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. He ruled in the Vladimir-Suzdal lands and led an active foreign policy in order to give himself the title of king. But in 1174 he was killed and power passed to his brother - Vsevolod the Big Nest. It was the Vladimir-Suzdal principality that became the center, which later rallied the state.
Reasons for the emergence of the Sovereign's Court
Let's look at the definition of history, what is the Gosudarevchfhiio yard. Historians date its origin to the second half of the 12th century. It included representatives of the princely squad. But at that time, submission was based on the principle "the vassal of your vassal is not my vassal." Then the Sovereign's Court appeared. This is a structure that, over time, on the basis of voluntary subordination, included boyars, "free servants" and servants who were subordinate to the "dvor-majordomo". Over time, the number of willing vassals grew.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. each prince had his own "Tsar's court". These are all vassals in the structure: squad, boyars and their descendants, hired workers, slaves. They were all called nobles.
Sovereign's Court
At the end of the 16th century, during the reign of the Rurikids in Russia, the Moscow Sovereign Court was fully formed. It was a local system, which included people from three classes: the upper and middle classes constituted the residence of the king, the lower - his servants.
The upper class included people with large landholdings. The top of this class also had ranks in the Boyar Duma. The rest occupied various positions at court: a printer, a stableman, a sleeping bag, a gunsmith, and so on. The middle class included cavalrymen who were called up for service in the capital: district landowners (nobles and children of boyars). The total number of people eventually reached 1200. The role of the royal court in governing the country was great. The people included in the structure influenced foreign and domestic policy.
Palace ranks
The ranks of the Moscow Sovereign Court are palace and Moscow positions. The list included:
1. The groom - after the death of the king, if he had no heirs, he was the first contender for the throne. He was in charge of herds and cavalry, participated in military and diplomatic activities.
2. Butler - served at the table, was in charge of the exchange between the palace servants, carried out distribution, surveying, judged.
3. The treasurer of the royal court kept the valuables and the archive.
4. Gunsmith - was in charge of the gunsmith's room.
5. The bed clerk was in charge of the sovereign's bedroom, personal treasury and jewelry, office, formal clothes.
In addition to these positions, there were ranks of huntsman, falconer, kravchey, keykeeper, stoker.
The royal court also consisted of Moscow officials. They were assigned to the nobles, whose activities were connected with the army. These were stewards and solicitors.
The fragmentation of the Russian state served as a prerequisite for the emergence of the royal court. The role of the Sovereign's court in governing the country was great. People close to the king, who held ranks in this structure, could influence the political and economic spheres. What is the Sovereign's Court (definition in history), this article told you.
GOSUDAREV DVOR, an institution of social organization under the monarch of the highest and privileged strata of society in the Russian principalities and lands, the Russian state and Russia in the middle of the 12th - early 18th centuries. The origin of the sovereign's court is connected with the princely retinue - in historical sources, both terms (similar in essence to the phenomena they describe) coexisted for about a century and a half. The sovereign's court replaced the squad during the fragmentation of the Old Russian state in the 12th - 1st third of the 13th century into independent principalities (the latter - into specific principalities) led by representatives of various branches of the Rurik dynasty. The spread of sovereign (princely) courts took place as the functions of princely power became more complex, in the process of integration in the principalities of combatants and the local elite into the class group of boyars.
The sovereign's court of the sovereign prince consisted of members of the council under him (the Boyar Duma), persons who headed the branches of the prince's economy (ways) and individual princely possessions, all the service boyars of the principality (united into territorial corporations according to the "urban settlement" and retained until the end of the 14th century an autonomous Institute of Thousands), as well as nobles (princely servants of the ministerial type with certain privileges, who constituted the lowest stratum of the sovereign's court and evolved into princely "free servants" in the course of anonymization). Directly with the monarch (in the capital city, on trips) there was constantly only a part of the members of the sovereign's court, which ensured the safety of the prince and his family, the exercise by the monarch of power prerogatives and representative functions, and the work of other authorities. Military campaigns mobilized all members of the sovereign's court.
In the era of the formation of the Russian state in the 15th - mid-16th centuries, important changes took place in the number and genealogical composition, structure and forms of registration of the sovereign's court, the nature of the services of its members. Not later than the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, the status division of all princes, boyars, boyar children into yards and "townspeople" took place. At the same time, the genealogical composition of the sovereign's court of the Grand Dukes of Moscow (from 1547 tsars) consisted of more than 100 princely and old boyar (Moscow, Tver, Ryazan) surnames, representing titled and untitled aristocracy, as well as minor nobility. They numerically prevailed in various strata of the sovereign's court. Representatives of 8 princely houses of Rurikovich and 4 clans of Gediminoviches (formerly independent or sovereign princes in ancestral possessions) by the end of the 15th century became serving princes of the Moscow monarch as part of the sovereign's court according to the lists of territorial-clan groups (only individual princes had an individual service status). Among the people who served in orders and palace departments (see Palaces, Treasury) clerks who entered the sovereign's court, the majority were relatively ignorant people. The structure of the sovereign's court at the end of the 15th - the middle of the 16th century was mixed - status-bureaucratic and administrative-territorial. The documentation has always highlighted the "dumny rank" - boyars, roundabouts, "big clerks" from the 2nd quarter of the 16th century, later - duma clerks, persons who headed palace departments and services, as well as clerks. The remaining members of the sovereign's court (stewardesses, solicitors, bed-keepers) were recorded by status and official groups only during their periodic stay at the court and performing various court services (at the residences of the monarch or on the sovereign's trips and campaigns). At the same time, the administrative-territorial principle remained the main principle of their structuring within the sovereign's court, while maintaining certain service and land ties with "city" corporations. Special ("autonomous") parts of the sovereign's court were also preserved: separately and according to an abbreviated scheme, the courtyard children of the boyar Novgorod pyatins, the Pskov district (until the 1st quarter of the 17th century), the Smolensk district, the Middle Volga region, as well as the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485- 1542; initially in full ranks and strata of the sovereign's court, from the 1510s - according to an abbreviated scheme). During the liquidation of the Moscow appanages, a special account was maintained of the appanage princes from the Moscow Rurikovichs - members of the sovereign's court. The leading trend was towards the consolidation of “autonomous” household members within the sovereign court of the Moscow monarchs, with the growing demarcation of all members of the sovereign court with provincial boyar children, with an increase in the number of status and bureaucratic groups within the sovereign court and a reduction in the role of its administrative-territorial structuring. In the middle of the 16th century, numerous yard children of the boyars were actually excluded from the number of real members of the sovereign's court. The design of the sovereign court of Moscow monarchs (about 1.1-1.2 thousand people in the middle of the 16th century) changed the system of political life: ruling circles under the monarch and palace "parties" were formed within the framework of the sovereign court, government programs were formed, members of the sovereign's court constituted the overwhelming most of the secular participants in the first Zemsky Sobors of the mid-16th century. Members of the sovereign's court (mainly from its upper and middle strata) occupied all the highest and middle command positions in the army, central and local authorities and courts (locally until the abolition of the feeding system in the 1550s), in the diplomatic sphere.
Under the Grand Dukes of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich and Vasily III Ivanovich, the Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt as the capital residence of the Moscow monarchs and the seat of the central authorities, as well as palace departments; near (village of Vorobyov and others) and distant (Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda and others) grand ducal residences were formed in accordance with the annual rhythm of court life. The way of life of the members of the sovereign's court has changed significantly. Permanent or periodic stay at the court was associated with the presence of a courtyard-estate in Moscow and estates near Moscow to provide for one's own needs, a change in family "prayers" (monasteries), the expansion of marriage and family ties, etc.
The introduction of the oprichnina in January 1565 led to the division of the sovereign's court into oprichnina and zemstvo, and after its abolition in 1572, until the death of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible in 1584, the zemstvo sovereign's court and the special court of the tsar functioned. In general, the total number of all courtyards increased, in the 1560s and 70s the appearance of duma nobles and duma clerks was recorded, and the status rank of Moscow nobles and elected nobles finally took shape. The genealogical composition of the oprichny and special courts did not differ fundamentally from the zemstvo. Mass executions and repressions during the oprichnina and later led to the death of many aristocratic families, to the loss of consolidation in the political elite of the Russian state and within the sovereign's court as a whole.
During the reign of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, the institutional unity of the sovereign's court was restored and its status and bureaucratic structure finally took shape: it was divided into a "duma rank", including the highest court and palace ranks (boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles and clerks; butler, treasurer, kravchiy, bed-keeper, yaselnichiy, huntsman, falconer, etc.), Moscow ranks (stewards, solicitors, great nobles, clerks, as well as tenants) and elected nobles. Representatives of the titled and untitled aristocracy almost completely prevailed among the boyars and roundabouts, as well as among the stewards (they were young aristocrats who then carried out almost exclusively court service) and great nobles. From these ranks there was usually an award to the Boyar Duma. In 1588-89, the sovereign's court consisted of about 1.2 thousand courtyards (more than 60% fell to the share of elected nobles from 47 cities), and by 1605 - about 1.6 thousand people (with an increased share of elected nobles already from 56 cities). In 1586-87, the norms of estates near Moscow for members of the sovereign's court were unified and reduced (with the deduction of boyars and okolnichy) in comparison with the "use" of thousands (members of the sovereign's court) by decree of 1550, and at the end of the 16th century more than half of the courtyards received estates. The practice of increased monetary and local salaries for members of the sovereign's court was established (primarily for Duma and Moscow officials, with the exception of residents). Monetary salaries were paid to members of the sovereign's court from orders - quarters, in fact, annually. Members of the sovereign's court numerically predominated at the elective zemstvo sobor of 1598 and other zemstvo sobors of the early 17th century.
During the Time of Troubles, the socio-political unity of the sovereign's court was destroyed. At the same time, two, and at times three sovereign courts coexisted under various carriers or applicants for supreme power. The restoration of the sovereign's court under Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich in the 1610-20s was accompanied by a sharp increase in its total number (up to 4 thousand people in 1630) with uneven growth rates of various status and official strata. Compared with 1605, the Duma stratum slightly decreased, the number of clerks and elected nobles slightly increased, the number of stolniks (more than 4 times), solicitors (more than 3 times), Moscow nobles (more than 5 times, in most cases at the expense of elected nobles, and partly of county ones) and residents (more than 3 times). In parallel, there were changes in the status and bureaucratic structure of the sovereign's court: after 1630, the elected nobles ceased even to periodically serve on the list of the sovereign's court, finally turning into the highest layer of county corporations of provincial boyar children. From the mid-1620s until 1633, there was a special status rank - the "patriarchal" steward (about 490 people in 1630). These changes were caused by powerful shifts in the genealogical composition of the sovereign’s court during the Time of Troubles, the promotion of new faces and surnames to the forefront of the political and military confrontation (including those from old clans, but the former ones “in stagnant”), the widespread use of awards to the court rank as effective measures in the political struggle and domestic politics. The characteristics of a number of strata also changed: stolniki and solicitors almost became equal with the Moscow nobles in terms of age, and most importantly, in terms of the nature and level of official appointments (voivodship positions and heads of orders). Even during the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, room stolniki actually stood out as a separate stratum; in the middle of the 17th century, room solicitors also stood apart.
During the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the growth of the sovereign's court was generally insignificant: its number varied from 4 thousand to 4.5 thousand people. After the exclusion from the composition of the sovereign's court in 1630 elected nobles, the number of other status ranks noticeably increased. Especially significant was the growth of duma and higher court officials (almost 2.5 times by 1675 compared to 1630), as well as solicitors (almost 5 times by 1667), the number of stewards, clerks (by orders and policemen) and tenants increased moderately , the number of Moscow nobles either increased or decreased (due to the relative decline in the prestige of the group). In general, the ruling "boyar" environment was consolidated, controlling in various ways the replenishment and renewal of the composition of the duma and higher strata of the sovereign's court (in the 1610-1620s, various status ranks were updated by 30-35% and up to 77%, in the 1640s - by no more than 20-25%), and, accordingly, the development and implementation of the domestic and foreign policy of the country. Within the boundaries of this layer of the sovereign's court (which included not only duma ranks, but wider circles of a number of its strata), "palace" parties were formed, and from the victorious - ruling circles ("government"). After the Time of Troubles, the proportion of administrative and judicial appointments of members of the sovereign's court to central departments, special commissions (including for the preparation and implementation of reforms), and to the positions of city governors increased noticeably. Military service, due to the increase in the number of regiments of the new system in the 1650s-70s, lost its primary importance for members of the sovereign's court.
In material terms, members of the sovereign’s court from among the “boyar class” belonged to the richest people of their time (princes Vorotynsky, Golitsyn, Khovansky, Cherkassky; boyars Miloslavsky, Morozov, Streshnev, etc.), who owned inhabited estates and estates in several counties and had significant cash income (including from trade), including high salaries. In the 1640s-80s, new cultural trends in icon painting, stone architecture, literature, domestic life and interpersonal communication spread among the members of the Sovereign's court (primarily the royal relatives and inner circle); a court theater was created; education developed (training of royal children and sons of the nobility; the emergence of schools and the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy), historical science and other branches of knowledge. Through a change in fashion in the royal environment, “Western influence” also manifested itself among authoritative and wealthy members of the sovereign's court.
The sharp aggravation of the political struggle at the end of the 1670s and 80s, the generally unsuccessful attempts at reform led to a new sharp increase in the number of the sovereign's court, in 1681 it consisted of more than 7.1 thousand people; all his status ranks (with the exception of clerks) increased by 1.8-2.2 times (compared to 1650). About 1/3 of the children of the boyar district corporations (“hundred service”) were members of the sovereign’s court, which was a sign of a crisis in the class organization of the ruling strata of Russian society and, above all, of the court itself. The number of the sovereign's court fluctuated (in 1701 there were about 6.5 thousand people in the sovereign's court), at the beginning of the 18th century it began to fall sharply. The sovereign's court ceased to exist after 1713, during the reforms of Tsar Peter I. Later, in accordance with the regulation of ranks and services by the Table of Ranks of 1722, the imperial court was formed.
The number and personnel of the sovereign's court were recorded at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th century in various documents. At first, these were boyar lists and books, in the 1st half - the middle of the 16th century, perhaps, such as the Yard Notebook. The surviving fragment of the earliest boyar list dates back to 1546, from the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century one almost complete and several fragments of boyar lists have been preserved. Since 1626, two lists were formed annually in the Discharge Order - “genuine” (indicating the entire composition of the sovereign’s court, including those who were on distant services or on vacation) and “cash” (members of the sovereign’s court who were in Moscow). Depending on the specific goals, special lists of members of the sovereign's court were also compiled. salaries; 14 books have been preserved for 1615-1691. Lists of residents from the late 1610s were recorded in special "residential lists".
Lit .: Nazarov V.D. On the structure of the "Tsar's Court" in the middle of the 16th century. // Society and state of feudal Russia. M., 1975; he is. "Courtyard" and "nobles" according to Novgorod and North-Eastern chronicles (XII-XIV centuries) // Eastern Europe in antiquity and the Middle Ages. M., 1978; he is. Untitled nobility according to the marching list of the court of Ivan III in 1495 // Russian state in the XIV-XVII centuries. St. Petersburg, 2002; Crummey R. O. Aristocrats and servitors: the boyar elite in Russia 1613-1689. Princeton, 1983; Zimin A. A. Formation of the boyar aristocracy in Russia in the second half of the 15th - the first third of the 16th century. M., 1988; Pavlov A.P. Sovereign court and political struggle under Boris Godunov (1584-1605). SPb., 1992; Lukichev M. P. Boyar books XVII century M., 2004; Russian elite in the 17th century. Hels., 2004. Vol. 1; Stanislavsky A.L. Works on the history of the Sovereign's court in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. M., 2004; Sovereign court in the history of Russia in the XV-XVII centuries. Vladimir, 2006; The ruling elite of the Russian state in the 9th - early 18th centuries: Essays on history. St. Petersburg, 2006; Sedov P.V. Sunset of the Moscow kingdom. SPb., 2006.
M.A. Tsvetkova, 2005
WAYS OF FORMING THE STATE'S COURT
M.A. Tsvetkova
The Boyar Duma and the Sovereign's Court were the most important institutions of Muscovite Russia in the 15th-17th centuries. Extensive scientific literature is devoted to their study, but the Boyar Duma was primarily studied. Much less attention is paid to the Sovereign's Court2.
The Sovereign Court was a special military-political and military-administrative association of service people, which played a crucial role in the life of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries. Its origin began in a period of fragmentation and was associated with the peculiarities of the boyar service in North-Eastern Russia. The court carried out the functions of the state apparatus of power. The central governing body of the Russian state - the Boyar Duma was the upper chamber of the Sovereign's court.
The boyars were the highest stratum of the Sovereign's court and played a huge role in the political life of the country. Reconstruction of the composition of the Duma people is a difficult task, since the sources were preserved in an incomplete volume and often contradicted each other3.
The main complex of sources on the history of the Sovereign's Court is made up of bits and genealogical materials of official origin. Early court documents have not been preserved. But their loss can be made up for with the help of the Dvorovaya Notebook, where almost all the people who were part of the 50-60s were represented. 16th century to the Sovereign Court and the Boyar Duma. The difficulty lies in the fact that the princely lists from the Dvorovaya notebook have come down to us in a faulty form. The Thousand Book of 1550 and court documents help to reconstruct the original text.
Among the records that have come down to us, the Rank of 1495 deserves special attention. The researchers who worked with him did not pay attention to the fact that this Category included, along with other records, lists of princes. Comparison of these lists with court documents of the 16th century. reveals the identity of surnames and, no less important, a stable time [email protected] dock of their location. This observation gives
The reason to assume that the Rank of 1495 is an early court document, and allows us to get an idea of the initial stage of the formation of the Sovereign's court. Having reconstructed the Rank of 1495, it is possible to establish which princely families were represented there.
[Princes of Starodubsky]
Book. Ivan Likhach yes Yuri yes Boris Ramoda-noes,
Ivan Obrazets and Andrey Pestrukha, Prince Fedorov's children of Motley,
Alyoshka and Fedor and Semyon Priimysh Krivoborsky,
Book. Ivan Starodubsky Black,
Vasily Kover Starodubsky.
\Klyazya Rostov]
Book. Andrey Ivanovich Rostovsky Khokholek, his children Yushko and Alexander,
Book. Alexander Volodimerovich Rostovsky, Prince. Vasily yes Prince. Semyon prince Ivanov children of Yanov-Rostov.
[Princes of Yaroslavl] Konstantin Prince Semenov, son of Rama-novich,
Book. Konstantin Ushatoy,
Book. Andrey prince Dmitreev son of Kurbsky, Prince. Semyon prince Fedorov son of Kurbsky, Prince. Mikhail Prince Lvov, son of Ramanovich,
Book. Dmitri Prince Fedorov, son of Yukhotto, Prince. Andrey Prozorovsky,
Book. Fedor Sitsky,
Book. Dmitry Solntse and Davyd Zasekins,
Book. Ivan Kargodomsky,
Book. Ivan Sheleshpansky,
Grigory and Pyotr Fedorov, children of Davydovich,
Book. Ivan Sholukha Kubensky.
[Princes of Suzdal]
Book. Michael Shuisky,
Book. Boris prince Ivanov son of Humpbacked, Prince. Vasily Andreevich Nokhtev, and his son Ivan,
Book. Ivan Alexandrovich Barbasha.
The princely lists show that the nobility of Vladimir-Suzdal origin retained its political power. This is explained by the fact that their principalities fell under the influence of Moscow already in the 14th century, and the annexation took place without a bloody struggle, as was the case in Novgorod.
When comparing the Rank of 1495 with the Dvorovaya Notebook, it is clear that there are much fewer surnames in the Rank, that is, only the most noble ones were entered there. In the Dvorovaya Notebook, a wider range of surnames is already found, which are absent in the Rank. According to the category books, it is possible to establish the names of the princes who served successfully in 1552-1564, but were not included in the city lists of the Dvorovaya notebook. Consequently, they served according to the lost princely list. Such, for example, are S.D., V.D. and F.D. Paletsky.
It can be noted that the list of princes of Rostov is incomplete. In the Thousand Book of 1550, under the heading "Rostov", it is indicated that the princes I.B. and N.B. The Lobanov-Rostovskys served on the princely lists of Rostov, which means that they retained their ancestral lands within the boundaries of the former Rostov principality. In this regard, it is difficult to agree with V.B. Kobrin, who believes that the land was taken from all the Rostov princes. In fact, the richest managed to keep them, judging by the fact that their names were included in the princely lists.
Rostov and Suzdal princes formed the most influential stratum of the Sovereign's court, but this did not happen immediately. The princes of Yaroslavl, in contrast to the princes of Rostov and Suzdal, retained their sovereign rights in the old possessions. The ties of those princes who did not have these rights were also strong. None of the Yaroslavl princes became boyars, but some rose to the rank of okolnichi under Vasily III. Thus, it is clear why the owners of patrimonial estates from among the Suzdal princes served in the Sovereign's court according to separate princely lists. Persons who lost their patrimonial estates were recorded with other nobles in the lists of those cities where they had estates.
The list of the princes of Starodubsky has been preserved only partially. Its reconstruction is also helped by the Thousand Book of 1550. A.A. Zimin published it according to a faulty list, and therefore the list of the Starodubsky princes is not highlighted at all in the Dvorovaya Notebook. In court documents, there were about 60 of them, of which 35 served on the princely lists.
The Suzdal princes were not as numerous as the princes of Yaroslavl, Staro-Dubsky, Rostov. But in the Boyar Duma they had the greatest representation. At
A. Adasheva, five of them bore the boyar rank and three served according to princely lists4.
It should be noted that in the Dvorovaya notebook in the heading “boyars”, Prince Ivan Dmitrievich Velsky is in the first place. However, he received the boyar rank only in 1560. Therefore, it was entered there later, that is, this is a postscript. In the first place is Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Shuisky. Opposite his name in the text of the Yard Notebook it is written that he is truly blackened. Apparently, he was already advanced in age.
It should be noted that the service on the princely lists gave great privileges: first of all, it opened the way to the Boyar Duma, appointment to the highest positions.
At the end of the XV century. a number of cities were taken by Russian troops, as a result of which their former sovereign princes were included in the princely lists. In the Dvorovaya notebook in the middle of the 16th century. new princely lists appear, which are absent in the Rank of 1495. For example, for the first time we discover the princes of Mosalsky. The Belozersky princes, on the other hand, are out. Thus, the circle of princely surnames is changing, but only slightly.
[Princes of Mosalsky]
Book. Vasily Koltso, and Andrey, and Pstrok, Prince Semyonov's children of the Old Mossad. Peter is dead.
Book. Vasily Mustache, yes Fedor, yes Ivan, yes Mikhailo, Prince Semyonov children of Mosalsky. Book. Vasily, yes Ivan, yes Mikhailo in full, die.
Book. Vasily, yes, Prince. Ivan and Mikhailo Prince Vasiliev children of Litvin Mosalsky. Book. Alsksandro, yes Osif, yes Ivan Mens-coy prince Dmitriev children of Mosalsky princes Alexandrov children of Prince. Danilo - die - yes Semyon.
Book. Danilo, and Leo Prince Ivanov Klubukov-Mosalsky. Novik 67th.
In memory dated August 11, 1500, Ivan III named Ivan Mamonov, who was sent as an ambassador to the Crimea, among the Princes Trubetskoy with the city of Trubetskoy and volosts and Mosalsky with the city of Mosalsk and volosts 5 who passed to him. This message is confirmed by an annalistic entry: “The same in the summer (7000), August, the prince of the great Vorotyn princes, prince Dmitrov and prince Semyon, was sent to the Lithuanian land to the city of Mosayask; they took the city that was walking and took it and fought the land”6. Unfortunately, it is not known whether these princes went over to the side of Ivan III before the battle on the river. Bucket or after it.
After the oprichnina, the lists of princes from the Boyar lists disappear, only to reappear for a short time in the first years of the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich in the Boyar list of 1588/9. and the List of nobles scheduled to participate in the campaign of 1589-15901. Then, after the election of Boris Godunov to the kingdom, the princely lists disappear, since their main feature was kinship with the dynasty, and under Boris Godunov a new zemstvo dynasty appears, the princely surnames mentioned above were no longer the closest relatives of the monarch.
From the 14th century Duma ranks were persons representing about a dozen noble families. These clans sought to secure the right to possess Duma ranks8. During the reign of Ivan III, the Sovereign's Court retained the status of his personal court. Promotion on the ladder of ranks of individuals and families depended on their official merits and was determined by the Grand Duke himself. At the end of the XV century. there was a tendency to consolidate individual names in their positions. This trend affected all layers of the Sovereign's court and was strengthened by the developing parochial system. By the middle of the XVI century. The sovereign's court turned into a closed corporation. The consequence of this was an increase in the number of the Sovereign's court, which led to the separation of most of its members from court service. Ivan the Terrible, having introduced the oprichnina, divided the court, which weakened state power as a whole9.
The development of the Sovereign's Court, apparently, should be associated with the formation of the local system. The main difference between the State
the roar of the courtyard of the XVI century. from the court of the era of fragmentation lies in the fact that all adena of the Sovereign's court were provided with estates for the first time. The approval of the local system and the dominance of state land ownership on this basis formed the Sovereign Court, which became the main political pillar of the autocratic monarchy. This relationship has not yet been studied in the literature.
NOTES
"Klyuchevsky V.O. History of estates in Russia: Works: In 9 vol. -164.
2 Pavlov A.P. Sovereign court and political struggle under Boris Godunov (1584-1605). SPb., 1992; Bentsianov M.M. Sovereign court and territorial corporations of service people of the Russian state at the end of the 15th - the middle of the 16th centuries: Abstract of the thesis. dis.... cand. history Sciences. Yekaterinburg, 2000.
3 Bochkareva Z.N., Bychkova M.E. Rare sources on the history of Russia. M., 1977. S. 2.
4 Zimin A.A. The composition of the boyar duma in the XV-XVI centuries. // Archaeographic Yearbook, 1957. M., 1958.
5 Collection of the Russian Historical Society. M., 1885. T. 41. S. 318.
6 Resurrection Chronicle // Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles (PSRL). T. 8. St. Petersburg. 1859. S. 255.
7 Stanislavsky A.L. Works on the history of the Sovereign's court in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. M., 2004. S. 194-202,212-216,321-322.
8 Marshall T. Poe. Russian elite in the 17th century. T. 1: Duma and ceremonial ranks of the Sovereign's court. 1613-1713 M., 2004.
5 Bentsianov M M. Decree. op.
M. A. Tsvetkova. Ways of the formation of the Sovereign's court
