Historical moments in the development of language, the formation of a system of norms and rules for the writing and pronunciation of words imply the presence of factors leading to the emergence of certain specific features of pronunciation and stress placement. Language proficiency includes the presence of competent not only written, but also oral speech, which determines a certain control mechanism.
Pronunciation standards
The pronunciation of vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, as well as the placement of stress, is studied by the science of orthoepy. It includes a set of certain rules necessary for competent command of oral speech, maintaining the uniformity of sound design, and the order of implementation of sound units. Orthoepic analysis is an integral part of this science, a tool aimed at maintaining a system of uniform pronunciation standards in a literary language, complementing phonetic analysis, analyzing pronunciation and stress placement.
A feature that complicates this analysis is that in the language there is a discrepancy between the pronunciation of sounds and their designated letters, both higher and lower.
Thus, orthoepic analysis is aimed at identifying the following orthoepic problems:
- accent features;
- features of the pronunciation of consonants and consonant groups;
- features of the pronunciation of borrowed words;
- variants of pronunciation of proper names;
- variations in the pronunciation of some grammatical forms;
- pronunciation of individual combinations of sounds;
- intonation, which is important for oral speech;
- pronunciation styles.
Orthoepic parsing algorithm
To determine the characteristics of a word, it is necessary to analyze it, consisting of the following steps:
- reading the word being analyzed out loud and thinking about possible pronunciation;
- writing down a word, composing its transcription;
- counting the number of syllables and indicating the stress;
- writing a sound transcription for each letter;
- for consonant sounds the designation is: hard or soft, voiced or voiceless, for vowels - stressed or unstressed;
- counting the number of letters;
- counting the number of sounds.
- Transcribe the word, following the rules of spelling. If there are acceptable literary pronunciation options, choose a stylistically neutral option or one recommended by dictionaries as the norm, but in this case, refer to the source of information.
- Describe the accent.
- Highlight such features of pronunciation, determined by the phonetic system of the Russian language, that are specific to the literary language in contrast to dialects and vernacular (for example: explosive character [ G], softness [ h] and etc.).
- Highlight (if this is observed in the word) the pronunciation features determined not by the phonetic system, but by the orthoepic norm. Formulate the appropriate spelling rule, preferably with reference to the source of information (dictionary, textbook, monograph, Internet resource...).
- Give a transcription and full description of each of the acceptable pronunciation options: chronological, stylistic, by area of distribution, by origin.
Examples of orthoepic analysis of words
MOL Ó CHNAYA(porridge)
- [M Λ L Ó Ch’ N Ъ J Ъ]
- The stress falls on the second syllable, it is motionless.
- In the first pre-stressed syllable in place « O" pronounced [Λ] ( akanye), softness is observed [ h']. This pronunciation is determined by the phonetic system of the literary language, which developed on the basis of Central Russian dialects.
- In this variant (stylistically neutral junior norm), pronunciation is not determined by phonetic patterns [ъ] in the last syllable after soft « j » in a post-stress position. The phonetic law of reduction assumes [b] in the second weak position after a soft consonant, and [ъ] pronounced in accordance with the orthoepic rule for the pronunciation of endings of feminine adjectives and pronouns. This pronunciation of endings is considered typical for residents of, for example, Samara; in the faster speech of Muscovites is not recorded and recognized by all researchers.
- [M Λ L OSH N Ъ J Ъ] – “senior norm”, characteristic of Old Moscow vernacular and dominant in literary pronunciation in the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. Pronunciation [shn] in place of phonemes<чн>at the junction of a root and a suffix or two suffixes, it is currently preserved as an older, stylistically marked (at the same time emphatically elitist and colloquial) norm for a number of words ( BULO[ShN] AND I, ME AND[ShN] ICA, PRECHE[ShN] AND I and etc.).
SONNET
- [C Λ N E T].
- The stress falls on the 2nd syllable, it is motionless.
- In the first pre-stressed syllable in place of a hyperphoneme<а/о>, indicated by the letter « O", pronounced [Λ ] in accordance with the phonetic law of reduction ( akanye).
- Only the orthoepic norm determines a feature that extends to a number of borrowed words: the combination of a hard consonant sound with a front vowel [ E]: [NE] SKY– [n’ebʹb]). Fluctuations in the pronunciation of such combinations when borrowing foreign words occur for a number of reasons.
- In the Russian language, the law of syllabic synharmonism operates: the articulation of a merging syllable (consonant + vowel) is so continuous that the softness of the consonant forces even the middle or back vowel to move forward.
- In the Old Russian language, the main thing in this merging syllable was the vowel, therefore in native Russian morphemes and still before the front vowel [ E] only soft consonants occur; the only exceptions are unpaired hard words w, w, c (for example, in the words “pearl”, “six”, “goal”). Now the “power” in the syllable has passed to the consonants: a consonant phoneme can be hard or soft regardless of the vowel, therefore, in morphemes new to the Russian language (i.e., borrowed), the hardness of the consonant is before [ E] allowed by the Russian phonetic system, but contrary to our habits.
- Western European consonants (of the Romance and Germanic languages) are usually perceived by Russian people as hard, but the consonant behind this [e], in accordance with our habits, must be combined with soft consonants. If in the foreign languages from which we borrow a word (for example, “sonnet” from Italian) there is no opposition between rows of hard and soft consonants similar to ours, then each time we have to decide which group to classify a given sound into: hard or soft.
- [DREAM E T]
- In this variant of pronunciation, the characteristic of the literary language does not apply akanye: [O] in the first pre-stress it is not reduced according to the rules of pronunciation of a foreign word. The variant is stylistically marked (characteristic of the bookish, ceremonial style), has limited use (in the speech of the older generation, in stage speech), is “senior”, reflects the early stage of phonetic development of this word.
Orthoepic text analysis
- Transcribe the text, following the rules of spelling.
- Find words in it that have possible pronunciation variations.
- Parse each of these words according to the scheme of spelling word analysis.
- Determine how the stylistic coloring of a given text can affect the choice of pronunciation options.
- If there are words in the text whose pronunciation is often mistaken, comment on them.
Sample parsing
The crimson light was already lighting up in the windows of the palaces and falling down into the darkness, tearing out from it either a sentry, or a bronze monument to the commander, glistening from the rain, or the capital of a column, decorated with unfading acanthus leaves.
[blue light/ already zigΛrals’ in_window γ dvortsof/ i_padl vn’is/ f_t’mnΛtu/ snatching from’_n’I E јo that_future h’I E sΛvov/ that bronze memory пълквоц:у/ pΛbl’o ́sk ’ ivјush':iy Λd_dΛzhd'a/ then kap'itel' clon:y/ decoration:uјu n'yuv'I E daјush':im'i l'is't'јm'i Λkant //]
[bΛgrove th]
1) stress on 2nd syllable, fixed;
2) in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of a hyperphoneme<а/о>, indicated by the letter "A », pronounced [Λ ] (akanye);
3) pronunciation [ th] at the end of adjectives (and all words modified according to this type) m.r. units h. them. etc. contradicts the phonetic law of reduction, according to which the phoneme<о>(big, simple, seventh) in a stressed syllable (second weak position) undergoes a reduction of the 2nd degree and therefore must be represented by the sound [Ъ ]; pronunciation [ th] corresponds to the stylistically neutral younger norm, which arose under the influence of spelling, where the spelling -й reflects the Church Slavonic tradition.
4) [bΛgrove yay], - pronunciation [ YY] at the end of adjectives corresponds to the older orthoepic norm, which is currently considered stylistically marked and has limited use in the speech of the older generation; at the same time, such pronunciation corresponds to the phonetic law of reduction (see above);
5) similar pronunciation options: [bronzv yi] and [bronze ъи].
[sv’ this]
3) the assimilation of consonants in terms of hardness and softness is currently not a phonetic law and is preserved to a limited extent only in combinations of two dental consonants, although even here it is not recognized by all researchers; the absence of assimilation of consonants in terms of hardness and softness is considered a junior norm, stylistically neutral and not limited in use;
4) [s’v’ et] – assimilation of consonants in terms of hardness and softness corresponds to the older orthoepic norm, stylistically marked and limited in use; such pronunciation is generated by an outdated phonetic law and is preserved to a limited extent in the speech of people of the older generation, as well as in common speech;
5) similar pronunciation options are possible in the words [ f'_t' mnΛtu], [ in'n' is], [memory T’n' ik], [pΛ b’l’ oskivјush’:ii].
[z'gΛrals']
- stress on 3rd syllable, fixed;
- [z ъ G Λ rals’] the pronunciation of vowels in 1st and 2nd unstressed syllables is determined by the phonetic law of reduction of non-upper vowels;
- [z'gΛrals' ъ] – the pronunciation of the vowel sound in the last unstressed syllable, conventionally designated [Ъ], contradicts the phonetic law of reduction ([b] after a soft consonant) and is determined by the orthoepic norm of pronunciation of the phoneme<а>in a post-stressed position at the end of a word; a similar case in the word [vyrа́ј ъ];
- [z'gΛral Withъ] – the solid pronunciation [s] in the reflexive affix is an orthoepic variant, stylistically marked and having limited use in stage and ceremonial speech, in the speech of the older generation.
[iz’_n’I E Yo]
- stress on the third syllable, ending, mobile (cf. “to her”);
- the pronunciation of the vowel phoneme in the first pre-stressed syllable is determined by the phonetic law of reduction of non-upper vowels;
- the assimilation of consonants by softness ([з’н’]) is determined by the phonetic law, which has almost lost its force for all combinations of consonants, except for the combination of two dental ones; however, judging by the contradictory assessments of researchers, the assimilation of dental consonants is not preserved in all regions;
- [iz’_n’ E IИо́] – an orthoepic variant that has limited use in the territorial (“St. Petersburg ekanye”) and social (singing pronunciation) aspects;
- a similar pronunciation option is also possible in the word [ch’I E sΛvóv] - [h’ E I svoʹv].
[pΛbl’osk ’ јјуш’:Ий]
- stress on the second syllable, fixed;
- vowels in the I and IV syllables in accordance with the law of reduction (akanye);
- the lack of assimilation of consonants [bl’] in terms of softness is determined by the younger norm, generally used and stylistically neutral;
- [pΛ b'l' osk ’ јјуш’:Ий] – assimilation of consonants by softness – a variant corresponding to the “senior” norm, coming from the so-called. “Old Moscow vernacular” and the phonetic law of assimilation in the Old Russian language; has limited use in the speech of older people;
- [pΛbl’os k'i vјush':ii] – the pronunciation of the combination [k'i] (as well as [kh'i] and [g'i], for example, [t'ikh'iy]) corresponds to the phonetic laws of the modern Russian language, because in Old Russian all [ky], [gy], [hy] (kysly, gybk, khytr) turned into [k'i], [g'i], [kh'i];
- [pΛbl’os kвјуш’:Ий] – pronunciation [ k], [гъ], [хъ] in the stems of verbs with the suffix -iva- (-ыва-) and in the masculine singular forms of adjectives ([l’oh k j]) – a stylistically colored version, a feature of the “Old Moscow vernacular” and the older orthoepic norm; the variant is stylistically colored, “elite”, having limited use in stage speech, the speech of highly educated people and people of the older generation;
- [pΛbl’osk ’ ivyu w’h’ii] is a variant that has limited use in the territorial aspect (the speech of the older generation of residents of St. Petersburg) and in the aspect of the sphere of use (stage speech). Modern researchers (L.A. Verbitskaya) argue that the features of the “St. Petersburg norm” in living speech have practically disappeared; a similar option is also possible in the word “unfading” - [n’yuv’I E daʹush’ch’:im’i].
[Λд_дΛжд]́
- stress on the last (third) syllable, movable;
- the pronunciation of vowels in the first and second syllables is determined by the law of reduction of unstressed vowels of non-high rise;
- the pronunciation [zh'] in this word corresponds in modern Russian to both the phonetic law and the stylistically neutral, junior orthoepic norm, which has no restrictions in use;
- [Λд_дΛж’:а] – pronunciation [ж’:] in this word – a widespread orthoepic variant, which has the status of a “senior norm” and originates in the “Old Moscow vernacular”, more precisely in the Old Russian (as opposed to the Old Slavonic) palatalization of the phoneme<д>under the influence of j (dj > zh’d’zh’ > zh’zh’ > zh’:).
[kap'itel']
- stress on the third syllable, fixed;
- the pronunciation of the vowel phoneme in the first syllable is determined by the phonetic law of reduction of non-upper vowels;
- Only the orthoepic norm determines a feature that extends to a number of borrowed words: the combination of a hard consonant sound with a front vowel [ E]: [TE], which is not typical for the Russian phonetic system (cf. SHADOW– [t’en’]). See the commentary on the word "SONNET".
Transcription marks reflecting the sounds of the first weak position are given here in a larger size for technical reasons.
The question “T is a suffix or the ending of a verb?” Both ordinary people and eminent philologists have been asking this question for decades. The modern approach to studying the Russian language allows for the existence of two points of view, each of which has its own pros and cons.
Is t' a suffix or an ending?
School grammar has long considered “t” and “ti” as endings or formal indicators of the infinitive. The majority of manuals intended for higher educational institutions adhere to the same position to this day. Among linguists, the opinion that “t” is an ending is shared by Shansky N.M., Baranov M.T., Kuznetsov G.S.
Defending their version, scientists argue as follows: an infinitive means that it can have an ending. This explanation cannot be called satisfactory; moreover, it leads to contradictions. This is due to the fact that the infinitive in modern linguistics is considered an unchangeable word, and, accordingly, cannot have an ending.
Is th a suffix or ending for verbs?
New school textbooks support another point of view, according to which “t” and “ti” are suffixes on verbs. This theory was developed by linguists such as V.V. Babaytseva, N.S. Valgina. Answering the question: “T is a suffix or an ending?”, scientists, first of all, tried to prove the inconsistency of another position that reveals this problem. They argued that the “t” of a verb cannot be inflected, since it does not express the grammatical meaning of the word and is not preserved in forms formed from the infinitive.
This approach seems convincing, but it has also caused a lot of controversy in linguistic circles. “If “t” is a suffix, then why is it not part of the word?” - this question became one of the main ones for everyone who became familiar with the new theory. It’s easy to answer if you remember the basics of morphemics. In modern Russian, suffixes are divided into formative and word-forming. Morphemes of the first type are not included in the stem. This is what we see in the infinitive.
What about "whose"?
Do not forget that in the Russian language there are examples of the initial form of the verb that end in “ch”. How to deal with such cases? What is the “whose” in such words: an ending or a suffix?
There are also several answers to these questions:
- Is a suffix.
- Represents inflection.
- Goes to the root.
The first two points of view are outdated. “Whose” was defined as a suffix or ending by analogy with “t” and “ti.”
Modern linguistics believes that this combination is part of the root. You can prove that this opinion is correct by changing the verb: oven-bake. In forms formed from the infinitive, “whose” is retained, which means it is part of the root.
What is the result?
It is impossible to unambiguously answer the question: “Is T’ a suffix or an ending?” Both points of view described above are considered valid in modern Russian. Each of them has its supporters. However, at present, the school curriculum gives preference to the position according to which “t” is a formative suffix. In higher education institutions, it is common to consider both theories.
1. The spelling of personal endings for verbs of the present or future simple (if the verb is perfect) tense differs depending on the type of conjugation:
1) verbs of the first conjugation have the endings: -у(-у), -ест, -ет, -ем, -ет, -ут(-ут):
I carry, I carry, I carry, I carry, I carry, I carry;
2) verbs of the second conjugation have endings: -у(-у), -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -at(-yat):
sitting, sitting, sitting, sitting, sitting, sitting.
Verb conjugation is determined in two ways:
According to the personal ending, if it is stressed:
sing - I ref. (sing - by Yu T); sit - II resp. (sit - sit I T)
By the suffix of an indefinite form (infinitive), if the personal ending is unstressed.
For ease of memorization and understanding, I propose to neglect morphology a little and simply list the verbs that are conjugated according to conjugation I, and those that are conjugated according to II.
So, according to rules II the conjugations will change:
Verbs, indefinite form ending in it(its):
wither, cook, ride, sting, coy, fuss, mow, circle, feast on, beckon, measure, pray, dress up, be unwell, please, nurse, foam.
Verb "measure" and its derivatives (to measure, to measure, to measure, etc.):
measuring, measuring, measuring, measuring, measuring, measuring;
The forms “measure, measure, measure, measure, measure, measure” are formed from the colloquial verb “measure” and are considered non-literary.
According to rules I, the conjugations will change:
Exceptions:
shave (shave, shave, shave, shave, shave, shave);
to be founded (used only in two forms: to be founded - to be founded;
four verbs in at(at): drive, hold, breathe, hear;
seven verbs for eat: see, twirl, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure.
- Other verbs ending in the indefinite form to "at, eat, ut" , as well as verbs in "ot" with unstressed personal endings.
Here are some of them:
mutter, recover, warm, enslave, harden, click, waver, prick, sway, blush, babble, babble, grind, adore, darken, solder, cry, flog, count, pour, melt, trample, pull, whisper.
Verbs "to lay" and "to lay" and derivatives from them (to cover - to lay out, to cover - to lay, to lay - to lay, to re-lay - to re-cover):
spread, spread, spread, spread, spread.
Verbs like “to recover, to become frosty, to become disgusted, to become disgusted, to grow moldy” :
get well, get well, get well, get well, get well.
In the indefinite form and past tense of verbs “bayat, bleat, winnow, repent, bark, lie, toil, hope, soar, sow, melt (not to be confused with the verb to conceal), find fault, teat, smell” suffix -yat, therefore:
melting, melting, melting, melting, melting.
!!! But: hide from conceal.
Offtopic
Vaevsky will personally kill anyone who “hides the snow” or “melts the mystery”
Verbs want, run, dream belong to heteroconjugates,
those. They have endings of I and II conjugations .
Thus, the verb “want” in the singular changes according to the I conjugation (you want, wants), and in the plural - according to the II (want, want, want);
the verb to run in the 3rd person plural has the ending -ut (run), in the rest - the endings of the second conjugation: run, run, run, run;
the verb to brezzhit has only two forms: the 3rd person singular - brezhit (II conjugation) and the 3rd person plural - brezhut (I conjugation).
From the verb "to torture" forms are used both I and II conjugations :
torment, torment, torment, torment, torment, torment and torment, torment, torment, torment, torment.
The II conjugation forms are preferred, while the I conjugation forms are considered colloquial, they go back to the obsolete verb “to torture”.
Many verbs prefix you- takes on the stress, resulting in difficulty in writing. In these cases, a dubious ending is recommended check with an unprefixed word :
they will reprimand - they say (to reprimand - to speak), if you get enough sleep - you sleep (to get enough sleep - to sleep), if you cut your hair - you will cut your hair (to cut your hair - to cut your hair).
2. There are similar-sounding forms of the 2nd person plural of the imperative mood (determined by “do it quickly!”) and forms of the 2nd person plural of the present or future (for perfect verbs) of the indicative mood (determined by “you will do it”) ")
For example: knock(first option) and knock(second option)
The imperative mood is formed using the suffix -i- and the ending -te : sit, write, jump;
in the indicative mood, the verb has an ending depending on the conjugation: -ete or -ite. Let's compare:
I conjugation Write more carefully! (imperative mood) - You write carefully, so the work is easy to read (indicative mood)
II conjugation Hold the pen correctly! (imperative mood) - If you hold the pen correctly, your handwriting will turn out beautiful (indicative mood).
The letter "ь" in verb forms
b is written:1) in the infinitive form of the verb (does everyone remember what an infinitive is?):
burn - burn, entertain - have fun, read;
2) at the end of the 2nd person singular of the present or future tense (that is, in those verbs that answer the question “what are you doing? What will you do?”):
if you burn, you get burned, if you entertain, you have fun;
3) in the imperative mood after consonants:
throw, throw, dress, leave, hide, cut;
When forming the imperative mood of the plural “b” the following is preserved:
throw, throw, dress, leave, hide, cut.
+ Exception: lie down - lie down - lie down.
"b" is not written:
In forms like “let’s go, start, do”;
In personal forms of verbs with the root “da-”:
will be given (indefinite form - to be given), will be given (to be given), will be given (to be given), will be given (to be given), will be given (to be given), will be given (to be given);
But! in the infinitive of this group of verbs “b” is retained.
