Entering the Roman hall of any historical or art museum, we see a number of marble (rarely bronze) heads depicting Roman emperors. They easily recognize Augustus, Nero, Marcus Aurelius, while others - bearded and shaved, shaggy and shorn, gloomy and peaceful - are known thanks to museum plates with signatures. But emperors are not marble heads, but living people with complex characters and a well-established set of habits and passions. In this essay, we have tried to collect the most entertaining moments from the personal lives of the emperors, each of which is known to the general public to varying degrees, which would characterize the rulers of Rome from an unexpected angle.
Emperor Augustus: seals, donkeys and a kaleidoscope of superstitions
Photo: wikipedia.org
One of the main eccentricities of Augustus was the superstitiousness characteristic of all Romans; in the biography of this emperor, she became the source of numerous anecdotes. August was extremely attentive to the phenomena around him. The victories he won during the period of civil wars were always preceded by some kind of visions: on the eve of a naval battle, a fish is thrown out of the water under the feet of Augustus, and before a decisive battle for sole power in the Roman state, he meets a donkey named Winner and a driver Eutychius (Greek - “Lucky ”), who, after the victory, were even honored with a statue. However, such successful omens seem to be an elementary fiction; we will turn to what frightened and alarmed the emperor.
Most of all, the emperor could not stand thunderstorms: somehow lightning killed his torchbearer, after which Augustus sought to hide in a shelter at the very first peals of thunder, armed with a seal skin, which, along with laurel foliage, was considered inviolable for lightning. With great attention, the emperor treated dreams, and one day this helped him. On the eve of the bloody Battle of Philippi, his doctor Artorius, based on the interpretation of a bad dream, warned Augustus against participating in the battle. The next day, in the course of the fighting itself, the camp of Augustus, which he had prudently abandoned, was captured, and his stretcher was cut to pieces. One dream, the content of which we do not know, so frightened Augustus that since then, on a certain day of the year, near his house, he begged with outstretched hand for alms, in order to avert some danger from himself by such humiliation. Small superstitions also played an important role: he considered the dew that fell on the day of departure to be an omen of a safe return, and if in the morning the left shoe was pulled on the right foot, then this was a bad sign.
Growing old, Augustus was expecting death with superstitious anxiety. He succumbed to the Roman belief that the sixty-third year was especially dangerous for the elderly; and having survived it, he immediately informed his grandson Guy by letter on his next birthday - September 23, 1 year. Augustus died on August 19, 14, not having lived a month to 76 years old. The Romans saw off their emperor not without superstitious rumors about various numerical coincidences: they remembered that August 19, the day the emperor died, was the date of the beginning of his political career, at the age of 19 he received his first consulate on this day. The fact that he died in his father's house on the same bed was also noted. In a word, the emperors left, but their superstitions remained.
Plutarch "Biography of Brutus"
Gaius Suetonius Tranquill, Life of the Twelve Caesars: The Divine Augustus
Emperor Caligula: a matter of national importance
Photo: wikipedia.org
Emperor Caligula, of course, went down in world history as one of the most odious rulers. Stories about a horse in the Senate and about the war with the sea and sky stuck in my teeth. The folly of Caligula was characterized by an amazing mixture of ingenuity and scope, while his inventions required colossal funds. Best of all, the nature of the emperor is characterized by his own words: "You must be either modest or Caesar."
Since, by the will of Emperor Tiberius, Caligula was destined to govern the state, then, alas, he had to live on an imperial scale. So, for example, having the intention to travel in a solemn procession, he built a grandiose bridge between Puteoli and Baiami right across the sea: having connected many cargo ships, he poured sand on top, so that the bridge turned almost into a land road, and it was possible to ride a chariot across the sea . According to the philosopher Seneca, the emperor, who used almost all cargo ships to build the bridge, did not take into account that there was nothing to bring bread to the capital of the empire, and famine practically began in Rome. But Caligula continued to invent new ways to ruin the state. One day he was puzzled by the idea of how to eat in one day the amount of ten million sesterces, which was equal to the tax collection from three Roman provinces. The best minds of the Roman administration were to draw up the most odious spending plan in history. Finally, a grand feast was arranged, which became evidence of the combination of "boundless vice and the highest lot."
Lucius Annaeus Seneca "On the Transience of Life"
Lucius Annaeus Seneca "Consolation to Helvia"
Gaius Suetonius Tranquill "Life of the Twelve Caesars: Gaius (Caligula)"
Collection "Extracts on the life and customs of the Roman emperors"
Emperor Vitellius: an emetic for a constant appetite
Vitellius Photo: wikipedia.org Aulus Vitellius was a representative of an ancient (although not without dark spots in history) family that rose during the period of the empire. He began his career as one of the favorites of the aging and depraved Emperor Tiberius, held a number of positions during the reign of Claudius and Nero, and after the death of the latter found himself in the center of a political crisis, the events of which brought him to power, and then overthrew him from her height. On the second day of the new year, 69, he was proclaimed emperor in Germany, and at the end of December he was torn to pieces by a crowd of Romans. In addition to cruelty, he gained fame due to vanity, since he was the first of the emperors to proclaim himself an eternal (perpetuus) consul, as well as gluttony, which we will talk about in more detail. The amounts that Vitellius spent on eating food amounted to tens and even hundreds of millions. Of course, it was simply impossible to overeat on such a scale, therefore, feeling full, the emperor caused vomiting - he preferred taste sensations to saturation, for which it was necessary to try new and new dishes, which forced Vitellius to empty his stomach.
The pinnacle of Vitellius' creative imagination was the preparation of the most grandiose dish ever prepared, in which a wide variety of products from all over the Roman Empire were mixed. A big ship has a big voyage, just like a big dish needs dishes of considerable size. A tray (or better, a plate) for this dish, which the emperor called "the shield of the city guard of Minerva", cost 1 million sesterces. Such was the scope of Vitellius' reign; but after a few months, the brutalized Romans remembered all his antics and, showering him with abuse, killed him.
Dion Cassius "Roman History"
Pliny the Elder "Natural History"
Gaius Suetonius Tranquill, Life of the Twelve Caesars: Vitellius
Guy (Publius) Cornelius Tacitus "History"
Epigraphic collection "Selected Latin inscriptions"
Emperor Vespasian: between avarice and passion
It is Vespasian's decision to levy taxes on public toilets, which caused the indignation of his eldest son Titus, that we owe the famous expression "Money does not smell!" Despite the fact that ancient sources testify to the generosity of Vespasian, and they prefer to characterize his attitude towards money as thrift, nevertheless it was stinginess, more anecdotal in its manifestations, that became an integral feature of the character of this emperor.
Vespasian did not neglect any means in replenishing the treasury: he also collected arrears forgiven by his predecessors, did not shy away from taking bribes and trading positions. Considerable funds were squeezed out by him from the Alexandrians, whose city, by the way, was the first to swear allegiance to him as a Roman emperor. This treatment irritated the sharp-tongued Alexandrians, and relations between Vespasian and the inhabitants of Alexandria deteriorated: the emperor exacted funds from them, and the townspeople, in turn, honed their wits on him. The son of Vespasian, Titus, intervened in the confrontation, who stood up for the Alexandrians and joyfully informed them of the mitigation of the anger of his father and their emperor. The answer of the Alexandrians sounded condescending: “We forgive him, for he does not know how to Caesar!”
There are also cases of unprecedented generosity of this emperor, to whom the same Alexandrians - by analogy with one stingy king of Egypt - gave the nickname Herringman. Once a certain woman told Vespasian that she was head over heels in love with him; the emperor, yielding to her requests, agreed to give her a night, and maybe more. Here, by the way, it would be useful to note that at night the emperor used to deal with state affairs. In a word, the passion of the lady in love was satisfied, and the emperor, in addition, endowed her with a considerable amount of money. When asked by the treasurer how to mark this amount in the account book, he replied: "To the passion for Vespasian."
Eutropius "A Brief History (Breviary) from the Foundation of the City"
Pliny the Younger "Letters" Gaius Suetonius Tranquill "Life of the Twelve Caesars: Vespasian"
Emperor Marcus Aurelius goes back to school
Photo: wikipedia.org
Marcus Aurelius went down in history as an emperor-philosopher; his notes “To Myself”, which are of a private nature and were not intended for publication, still remain one of the most widely read books that we inherited from classical antiquity. In his youth, Marcus Aurelius received an excellent education; the future emperor was on excellent terms with mentors and showed due respect for them. As an adult, he decided to follow the advice of an outstanding Roman thinker and his - in a way - colleague in the philosophical school of the Stoics - Lucius Annaeus Seneca: "You should study while you do not know something, and if you believe the proverb, then study while you live."
Having reached the imperial title, Marcus Aurelius attended the classes of the philosopher Sextus of Chaeronea (nephew of the Greek encyclopedist Plutarch) and the rhetorician Hermogenes. The proverb “Live for a century, learn for a century” certainly has a positive meaning for us, but the emperor sitting at the school bench is a spectacle worthy of a witty joke. And, of course, the wit was found. When Marcus Aurelius went to study with Sextus, he was met by a certain rhetorician Lucius, who asked where the emperor was going. Marcus Aurelius immediately decided to justify himself: “It’s good for an adult to learn, I’m going to the philosopher Sextus to study what I don’t know yet.” Lucius, raising his hands to the sky, exclaimed: “The Emperor of the Romans has grown old and, armed with a notebook, goes to school; But Alexander the Great died at the age of thirty-two!”
Philostratus "Biographies of the Sophists"
Emperor Lucius Ver chooses between a mistress and a beard
Lucius Ver
Photo: wikipedia.org Lucius Verus was the adopted brother of Marcus Aurelius and his adoptive father, Emperor Antoninus Pius, he was not intended to power, but Marcus Aurelius nevertheless took him as co-rulers. The emperor-philosopher loved his brother, noting in his notes that he was a man who encouraged him to take care of himself and at the same time pleased him with love and respect. Distinguished by all the qualities characteristic of tyrant emperors (a drunkard, a gambler and a voluptuary), he was not cruel, but earned himself the fame of a reckless reveler.
Like all emperors, starting with Hadrian, Lucius Ver wore a lush beard and, unlike his philosophizing brother, liked to flaunt. He sprinkled his curls with gold sparkles, and let his beard grow thick, in a “barbaric” manner - and indeed, we see an extremely long beard in his portraits. It is possible that such a desire to emphasize one's appearance was due to the fact that the emperor was very interested in women. There were rumors about Lucius Verus that he, married to the daughter of his co-ruler Marcus Aurelius, had a relationship with his wife, that is, his mother-in-law. Even if these rumors were slander, there is no doubt that Lucius Ver had many mistresses. The name of one of them, Panthia, is mentioned in his notes by Marcus Aurelius. This Panthia is famous for the fact that she once decided that the famous beard of Lucius Vera simply did not suit. Lucius Ver was forced to choose between a mistress or a beard, and yet he made a choice in favor of Panthia, for which he was ridiculed. The Syrians, known for their wit, found it ridiculous that the ruler of at least half the Roman world shaved his beard at the request of a woman of very dubious reputation. Of course, the joke for the Syrians went unpunished: Lucius Ver allowed himself to open abuse and even fights, but he was not cruel.
Emperor Caracalla and role model
Caracalla Photo: wikipedia.org In general, the son of the emperor Septimius Severus was called Septimius Bassian, and he ruled under the name of Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus. Caracalla - a nickname that the emperor owed to his favorite type of Gallic cloak. Caracalla was the first "soldier emperor" of Rome: continuing, following his father, the policy of flirting with the army, he preferred the meager soldier's life to luxury and enlightened leisure - he himself carried burdens on a campaign and ate simple food. War and life in the field were his element, and, as a military man, he decided to choose a worthy example for himself to follow. Such was the great commander Alexander the Great.
Imitation has become obsessive. Not only was the emperor created a military unit and its commanders received the names of the commanders of Alexander, he also erected many statues in honor of this outstanding figure in ancient Greek history, and in a number of portraits of Alexander, half of the face belonged to him, half to Caracalla. The emperor himself adopted the tilt of the head characteristic of Alexander, becoming more and more convinced every day that he looked like his favorite historical character. Taking advantage of the fact that, according to some rumors, his mentor, the philosopher Aristotle, was to blame for the poisoning (unproven sources) of the great Macedonian, Caracalla began to oppress philosophers belonging to the Aristotelian school. On the contrary, individuals who somehow reminded the emperor Alexander (immigrants from Macedonia, Alexandra by name) enjoyed the highest patronage.
Arrian "Campaign (anabasis) of Alexander"
Herodian "History of imperial power after Mark"
Plutarch "Comparative Lives: The Life of Alexander the Great"
Dion Cassius "Roman History"
Modest Emperor Constantius Chlorine
Photo: wikipedia.org By bringing co-rulers to power in 285-286 and 293, the Roman emperor Diocletian created a new system of imperial power, which is known in Roman history as a tetrarchy (Greek - “four power”). The empire was controlled by two senior emperors (augusts) and two junior co-rulers (caesars), who, twenty years later, rose to the top and received new junior co-rulers. This system helped to control the rapidly disintegrating and experiencing constant blows from outside the empire. One of the tetrarchs, the Caesar of the West, was Constantius, a major military leader and talented administrator, known by later Greek authors under the nickname Chlorus, that is, “pale yellow” (perhaps a hint of a sickly complexion). Unlike his colleagues, who became famous for their tough domestic politics and religious persecution, Constantius left a good memory of himself for his moderate character and gracious rule. Not the last role in the glorification of Constantius was played by his son, the great Roman emperor Constantine.
From ancient sources it is known (even in a somewhat embellished form) that Diocletian, who took over the empire in a state of the most severe economic crisis, sought to replenish the state treasury with the most extraordinary measures. The frugality and stinginess of the emperor gave rise to the well-known historian Theodor Mommsen to reproach Diocletian for being addicted to “thesauring”. Diocletian's co-rulers followed suit, but Constantius had his own point of view. This emperor preferred to keep funds not in his treasury, but in the pockets of citizens; taking care of the well-being of people in the territories under his control, he himself led a very modest lifestyle, so that on solemn occasions, to decorate the table, he, the emperor, had to borrow silver from private individuals. To Diocletian, this behavior seemed evidence of the negligence of Constantius. Then Constantius took the next step: calling friends, he announced that he needed money. In the shortest possible time, his treasury was filled with a variety of riches, after which Constantius showed it to Diocletian, noting that it is better to keep money in people's pockets than in a locked chest. they did not succeed, and the attempts themselves did not serve the glory of the emperors; Constantine simply founded the new capital of the Roman Empire and named it after himself in the Greek manner - Constantinople.
The emperor's ambition found ways to satisfy itself not only in wars and construction, but also in the revision of Roman history. Another anonymous author reports that Constantine, in pursuit of glory, systematically humiliated his predecessors and invented various nicknames for the most famous emperors, including Hadrian, Septimius Severus, Octavian Augustus. The most remarkable was the great Trajan, whose victories were immortalized by numerous solemn inscriptions on Roman stelae and walls of buildings. Konstantin called him "wall lichen", and this sh duck turned out to be so popular that half a century after the death of Constantine, already at the end of IV century, it is cited by Ammianus Marcellinus as an unnamed, folk.
Constantine's dislike of Trajan was not limited to this: in 312 he achieved for himself the title of Optimus ("The Best" - was formerly Trajan's nickname among senators), in the 320-330s, campaigning on the Danube, he built a bridge across the river (more than once built by Trajan). As a result of the campaign of 336, Constantine receives a victorious title - Dacian, which was once honored by Trajan (at the same time, Trajan, however, fought with the Dacians, while the Danube shores of Constantine's time were occupied by the Goths). Finally, in the Constantinople he built, the emperor arranged a square, in the center of which he erected his statue on a high column - by analogy with Trajan's column in the forum of the same name in Rome. The eastern campaign was to be the crown of this competition in glory. - and, having already left for the front line, Constantine died on May 22, 337, was proclaimed emperor by soldiers, attracted his own brother as co-rulers. Valentinian worked hard to establish inner peace, and in his spare time he painted, sculpted and even designed various mechanisms. It would seem that he can be considered a positive emperor from all sides, but Valentinian possessed a completely explosive temperament and often fell into a rage.
The price of the emperor's wrath can be judged by the fact that next to his bedroom there was a cage with two bears with the cries of Baby and Innocence. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus states that the she-bears were "man-eaters", but who exactly they were fed is unknown.
Keeping mistresses and concubines for the rulers of the Roman Empire was in the order of things, but Valentinian went further in this matter, legalizing double marriage. Here is how it was. In the retinue of his first wife, Empress Marina Severa, there was a young woman named Justina, who was once married to the tyrant and rebel Magnentius. The Empress gradually became friends with her entourage and somehow, while washing in the bath, drew attention to the fact that Justina was unusually beautiful. Delighted, she recommended Justin to her husband, who, without thinking twice, issued a decree on the right to take two wives, after which he married for the second time. Family life in the new format, however, did not work out: soon the first wife became involved in a scandal over the purchase of a rich estate and, feeling the wrath of her husband, was removed from the court. The emperor again lived in a monogamous marriage.
Ammianus Marcellinus "Acts" ("Roman History")
John Malala "Chronography"
Paul Orosius "History against the pagans"
Socrates Scholastic "Ecclesiastical History"
ROMAN
The life of the Romans began and for the most part took place within the walls of their native home. The cult of ancestors was an integral part of the Roman religion. The extreme importance of tribal and family relations in ancient Rome was reflected in many areas of life and culture. This fully applies to the Roman naming system, which is distinguished by its great originality. The full name of a Roman citizen consisted of three main parts: personal name, family name and nickname.
Actually "name"- a generic name transmitted from generation to generation.. The origin and etymology of the Roman "names" is unclear; very often Etruscan sources suggest for them, but it is almost impossible to prove this. Roman potep always ends in - us. It is clear that the number of generic names was historically limited by the number of genera.
personal name stood in front of the generic name, there were no more than two dozen. Most of them also ended in - us or - is. They were usually written in abbreviation (only the initial letter) .
The third component of the name was family nickname , belonging, as a rule, to a separate branch of the genus. Nicknames could arise for a variety of reasons, and therefore were very diverse. Usually, at first, the nickname expressed or emphasized some characteristic feature of its owner. Over time, it lost this purely individual character and was retained as the distinctive name of the whole family.
To denote individual qualities, another one was often used additional nickname . It was awarded for outstanding deeds or abilities in a particular field, as well as to commemorate important biographical circumstances.
It should be noted that the system of Roman names described above is fully valid only for males, full-fledged descendants of their kind, who have not changed their family and family affiliation. In all other cases, different rules apply.
If a person passed from one clan to another (as a result of adoption), he acquired a complete "set" of new generic names. At the same time, as a second nickname, he retained his former generic name with the ending - anus or - inis, which was attached to the full name of the adopter.
The freed slave, who had the legal status of a freedman, bore the personal and family name of his former master, and as a nickname he kept the name he wore when he was a slave.
Women, according to Roman tradition, did not have a special personal name. ; in as such was the feminine form of the generic name . If there were two or more daughters with the same name, the nickname "Elder" or "Younger", "Third", etc. was added to the name.
Property, inheritance and other relations within the Roman family have long been strictly regulated, which has already found expression in the Laws of the XII tables. The head of the family had priority rights over other free household members. There were two main types of family: the one to which a person belongs by birth, and the foster family, which is entered by adoption.
A special legal term was used to denote "adoption" "adaptio", denoting the legal act of ritual "adoption" into the family. When changing tribal and family affiliation, one who entered into a foreign clan inevitably lost part of his rights until a certain time.
The same thing happened as a result of a procedure called "convention in manum" ,- a legal act that fixes the conclusion of marriage and the transfer of the bride to the father-in-law's family. There were procedures of the inverse property, for example, the so-called. "emancipatio" - a legal act fixing the release from the power of the father (i.e. the head of the family) during his lifetime.
Lecture 5. ROMAN SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT. CALENDAR AND CLOCK.
MONETARY SYSTEM
The Roman system of measurement in many areas is completely different from what we are used to.
Primary measure of length served in Rome foot, equal to 29.6 cm. One and a half feet were elbow , five feet - double step . It is clear that these units of measurement are closely related to the daily realities of life and the arrangement of the human body. Used to measure long distances roman mile, equal to a thousand steps , or 1478.8 m. Where it was impossible to calculate the distance in miles, it was measured days of travel.
Starting unit weight measurements was lb. , OK. 327 gr., divided into 12 oz )- OK. 27.2 gr. In addition, in later times, the Romans also used Greek weight units. The unit of volume was "congy" (3.3 liters). The sixth part of it was called "sekstarii"; 24 sextarii were "urn" (measure of liquids), and 16 sextarii - "modius" (measure of loose bodies).
Roman system of chronology was focused on a specific event - the founding of Rome by the legendary Romulus, which was traditionally attributed to 753 BC. Romulus is also credited with dividing the year into 10 months (the so-called year of Romulus), starting from March. This ten-month year, however, did not last long, and was replaced by a 12-month one. The beginning of the year was postponed to January 1 and timed to coincide with the entry of consuls into office. Under Caesar, the calendar was refined and the duration of the months adopted today was established. This calendar, called the Julian, was used in Russia until 1918.
The days of the week (in the era of the empire) were designated by the names of the planets: the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn and the Sun, and the week began on Saturday. Separate days of the month were distinguished by special names. So, the 1st day of the month was called "Kalends", the 5th or 7th day - "Nones", 13th or 15th - "Ides". The remaining days were indicated by counting back from the main days of the month.
The Romans also did not have a firmly fixed system for measuring the day. Roman day divided into two parts: day (from sunrise to sunset) and night (from sunset to sunrise). In theory, each part of the day should be divided into 12 hours, but it is clear that this division was rather arbitrary, since at different times of the year the length of the day and night is not the same. Time was also measured during the night guards ( there were 4 of them, each for 3 hours). This dimension reflected the practice of organizing guard duty in the city.
At the very beginning of Roman history and the Roman state as of money used rough ingots of copper . In the 2nd half of the 4th century BC. from copper (since there was almost no silver in Rome at that time), they began to mint round money. Subsequently, all metallic money received a collective name coins - from the mint, which was originally located at the temple of the goddess Juno-"Coin" ("Warning") in Rome.
The first Roman coin was the so-called. libral ace, weighing 1 Roman pound. Over time, the ass "shredded" and began (by the beginning of the 1st century BC) to weigh only 1/24 of a pound, turning into the smallest Roman coin. The most popular monetary unit in the last decades of the republic and in the era of the empire was sestertius , equal to 4 asses and minted already from silver. Less popular coins were quinary and denarius - equal, respectively, to 8 and 16 asses. These coins were minted from silver.
During the reign of Emperor Augustus, a gold coin was introduced into circulation. aureus , which was equal to 25 denarii. At the beginning of the 4th century AD. golden was introduced solid , in denominations of approximately 13-14 denarii; which became the main monetary unit in the era of the late empire.
The monetary system of the Roman Empire had a strong and direct influence on the formation of monetary systems and the monetary circulation of various states of the Early Middle Ages (the first of them were, of course, the ancient Roman provinces).
IN 1
1 "Father of history" is called:
a) Polybius b) Herodotus
c) Homer c) Caesar
2. Which empire fell later than the others?
a) Egyptian b) Persian
c) Macedonian c) Roman
3.The first alphabet was created:
a) Egyptians b) Romans
c) Phoenicians d) Chinese
4. This religion denies the inequality of people, calls for the rejection of all desires, and preaches the idea of the transmigration of souls. Its founder is Prince Siddhartha Gautama.
c) Islam d) Buddhism
5. Polis was called:
a) runaway slave
b) summer month
c) city-state
d) Persian god of war
6. Mark the term related to the Roman military art:
a) phalanx b) trireme
c) pischal c) legion
7. Mark the name of the founder of the Roman Empire:
a) Romulus b) Cicero
b) Pompey c) Octavian Augustus
8. Paper was invented in the 2nd century BC. in:
c) China d) Japan
9. The commander who led the army of Carthage in the fight against Rome:
a) Hannibal b) Alexander
c) Pyrrhus d) Atilla
10. What events took place in these years 334 - 323 years. BC.? Write the answer.
11. The god of the ancient Egyptians was:
a) Buddha b) Allah
c) Yahweh d) Osiris
12. The descendants of the most ancient inhabitants of Rome called themselves:
a) feudal lords b) knights
c) patricians d) plebeians
13. Read and match the name of the historical figure and his contribution to the history and culture of Greece:
f) Solon 6) statue of Athena
14. Match the "winged words" with their meanings:
15. Select the main rivers from the list: (Euphrates, Ganges, Tigris, Indus, Nile, Yangtze, Yellow River)
16. Choose the correct answer:
17. Read the statements and note the features that characterize the "barbarians" in the 1st - 3rd centuries:
18. A learned archaeologist was asked to determine the authenticity of a sword with the inscription "This gladius was forged by order of Spartacus in 74 BC." The scientist confidently stated that this sword is a fake. Why did he decide so?
19. How would a Roman answer the question: “In what year was Jesus Christ born?” Explain the answer.
20. Could Romulus have heard anything about the Olympic Games and the Greco-Persian Wars? Justify the answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IN 2
1. Select the main rivers from the list: (Euphrates, Ganges, Tigris, Indus, Nile, Yangtze, Yellow River)
a) India ___________________,
b) China ____________________,
c) Mesopotamia _______________ ..
2. Choose the correct answer:
1) biography of Jesus Christ a) Talmud b) Koran c) Gospel
2) association of Christians a) union b) party c) community
3) Jesus was born in the city a) Rome b) Bethlehem d) Jerusalem
3. Read the statements and note the features that characterize the "barbarians" in the 1st - 3rd centuries:
They professed Buddhism - a settled way of life
Pagans - Democratic Governance
They lived in clans and tribes - the emperor ruled
Had slaves - did not know slavery
4. A learned archaeologist was asked to determine the authenticity of a sword with the inscription "This gladius was forged by order of Spartacus in 74 BC." The scientist confidently stated that this sword is a fake. Why did he decide so?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. How would a Roman answer the question: “In what year was Jesus Christ born?” Explain the answer.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Could Romulus have heard anything about the Olympic Games and the Greco-Persian Wars? Justify the answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7 "Father of history" is called:
a) Polybius b) Herodotus
c) Homer c) Caesar
8. Which empire fell later than the others?
a) Egyptian b) Persian
c) Macedonian c) Roman
9. The first alphabet was created:
a) Egyptians b) Romans
c) Phoenicians d) Chinese
10. This religion denies the inequality of people, calls for the rejection of all desires, and preaches the idea of the transmigration of souls. Its founder is Prince Siddhartha Gautama.
a) Confucianism b) Christianity
c) Islam d) Buddhism
11. Polis was called:
a) runaway slave
b) summer month
c) city-state
d) Persian god of war
12. Mark the term related to the Roman military art:
a) phalanx b) trireme
c) pischal c) legion
13. Mark the name of the founder of the Roman Empire:
a) Romulus b) Cicero
b) Pompey c) Octavian Augustus
14. Paper was invented in the 2nd century BC. in:
a) the Inca Empire b) the Roman Empire
c) China d) Japan
15. The commander who led the army of Carthage in the fight against Rome:
a) Hannibal b) Alexander
c) Pyrrhus d) Atilla
16. What events took place in these years 334 - 323. BC.? Write the answer.
______________________________________
17. The god of the ancient Egyptians was:
a) Buddha b) Allah
c) Yahweh d) Osiris
18. The descendants of the most ancient inhabitants of Rome called themselves:
a) feudal lords b) knights
c) patricians d) plebeians
19. Read and match the name of the historical figure and his contribution to the history and culture of Greece:
a) Demosthenes 1) sculpture "Discobolus"
b) Homer 2) fight with Macedonia
c) Miron 3) the creator of democracy
d) Aristotle 4) great philosopher
f) Solon 6) statue of Athena
20. Match the "winged words" with their meanings:
a) Augean stables 1) endless work
b) between Scylla and Charybdis 2) the measure under which they try to fit everything and everyone
c) Ariadne's thread 3) unexpected help, a way out of a difficult situation
d) Penelope's work 4) dirty, neglected place
e) Procrustean bed 5) to be surrounded by dangers
KEYS and EVALUATION CRITERIA
IN 1
Campaigns of Alexander the Great
A-2, B-5, V-1, G-4, D-6, E-3.
A-4, B-5, C-3, G-1, D-2.
A: Indus, Ganges.
B: Huanghe, Yangtze.
B: Tigris, Euphrates.
1-B
2-B
3-B
pagans; lived in clans and tribes; sedentary lifestyle; democratic governance; did not know slavery.
On an object allegedly made in 74 BC. such a date cannot stand, since OUR ERA has not yet arrived.
"Jesus Christ was born in 753 from the founding of our city (Rome)."
Romulus (founder of Rome, 753 BC) could have heard about the Olympiads (started 776 BC) but could not hear about the Greco-Persian Wars (started 490 BC).
Questions 1 to 12 are worth 1 point.
Question 13 is worth 6 points (1 point for each correct correlation).
Question 14 is worth 5 points (1 point for each correct correlation).
Question 15 is worth 3 points (1 point for each country, no errors allowed).
Question 16 is worth 3 points (1 point for each correct choice)
Question 17 is worth 3 points with a complete and correct choice (1 mistake - 2 points, 2 mistakes - 1 point, 3 mistakes - 0 points).
Question 18 is worth 2 points for a complete answer, 1 point for no clear wording, 0 points for the absence of any argument.
Question 19 is worth 2 points for a complete answer, 1 point for indicating only the count of years “from the founding of Rome”, but without a date; 0 points - no answer.
Question 20 is worth 2 points for a complete answer with dates; 1 point for a response without indicating the dates of the start of the Olympics and the Greco-Persian Wars; 0 points - no answer.
Grade "2" - less than 20 points
KEYS and EVALUATION CRITERIA
IN 2
1) A: Indus, Ganges.
B: Huanghe, Yangtze.
B: Tigris, Euphrates.
2) 1-B
2-B
3-B
3) Pagans; lived in clans and tribes; sedentary lifestyle; democratic governance; did not know slavery.
4) On an object allegedly made in 74 BC. such a date cannot stand, since OUR ERA has not yet arrived.
5) "Jesus Christ was born in 753 from the founding of our city (Rome)."
6) Romulus (founder of Rome, 753 BC) could have heard of the Olympiads (started 776 BC) but could not hear of the Greco-Persian Wars (started 490 BC) ).
7) B
8) B
9) B
10) G
11) In
12) B
13) In
14) In
15) A
16) Campaigns of Alexander the Great
17) G
18) In
19) A-2, B-5, V-1, G-4, D-6, E-3.
20) A-4, B-5, V-3, G-1, D-2.
Question 1 is worth 3 points (1 point for each country, no errors allowed).
Question 2 is worth 3 points (1 point for each correct choice)
Question 3 is worth 3 points with a complete and correct choice (1 mistake - 2 points, 2 mistakes - 1 point, 3 mistakes - 0 points).
Question 4 is worth 2 points for a complete answer, 1 point for no clear wording, 0 points for the absence of any argument.
Question 5 is worth 2 points for a complete answer, 1 point for indicating only the count of years “from the founding of Rome”, but without a date; 0 points - no answer.
Question 6 is worth 2 points for a complete answer with dates; 1 point for a response without indicating the dates of the start of the Olympics and the Greco-Persian Wars; 0 points - no answer.
Questions 7 to 18 are worth 1 point.
Question 19 is worth 6 points (1 point for each correct correlation).
Question 20 is worth 5 points (1 point for each correct correlation).
TOTAL: the maximum possible score is 38.
Score "5" - from 30 to 38 points
Score "4" - from 25 to 29 points
Grade "3" - from 20 to 24 points
Grade "2" - less than 20 points
FINAL CONTROL WORK
HISTORY OF RUSSIA
for students of 5 "A", 5 "B" classes of the MOU "Gymnasium No. 17"
2008-2009 academic year
BUT
Agrimensor- land surveyor (lat. agrimensor).
Adversaries- this is how the ancient Romans called books in which merchants and owners in general made preliminary entries about deeds and transactions, something like draft account books.
Asia(Greek Ασία, lat. Asia) - Roman province in Asia Minor. It was formed on the territory of the former Kingdom of Pergamon in 133 BC. e. (Pergamon was annexed to Rome by the will of King Attalus III), in the 1st century. BC e. - 1 in. n. e. its territory was expanded. The provincial device was received in 126 BC. e. From 27 BC e. A senatorial province ruled by a proconsul. Since the time of Diocletian (since 297 AD) it has been divided into 7 separate provinces.
Aquilifer(Latin aquilifer - “eagle-bearer”) is the standard-bearer of the Roman legion.
Aquitaine(lat. Gallia Aquitania) - a province in the Roman Republic with the center in Tolosa. The name comes from the Aquite tribe - the ancestors of modern Basques.
Ala(from Latin ala - lit. "wing", the name comes from the traditional use of legionary cavalry on the flanks) - the cavalry auxiliary unit of the Roman army, later usually consisting of allies (ala sociorum). Prototypes of al appeared under Caesar during his Gallic campaigns, when, apparently, each alu was 10 turmes. Ala with a nominal number of 500 horsemen (total horses - 504, without a prefect) was called quingenaria, 1000 horsemen (total horses - 1090, without a prefect) - milliaria.
Alba Longa(Alba Longa), an ancient Latin city southeast of Rome. Alba Longa is said to have been founded around 1152 BC. e. Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, who later took the name Yul and became the ancestor of the Julius clan. Around the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. was the center of the Latin Union, in the VII century. BC e. (under King Tullus Hostilius) was destroyed by the Romans, its inhabitants were resettled in Rome, but the sanctuary of Jupiter Latsiaris located in Alba Longa remained the sacred center of the union.
Appian Way(via Appia) - the road from Rome to Capua, and from 244 BC. e. - to Brundisium, laid under the censor of Appia Claudius Caeca in 312 BC. e.
Apulia(lat. Apulia, in honor of the apules) is a historical and administrative region in southeastern Italy, a traditional bread producer in ancient Rome.
Arausion(Aravzion, lat. Arausio) - an ancient Roman city in Narbonne Gaul, in the lower reaches of the Rodan (Rhone) (now the city of Orange in the department of Vaucluse). Population during the heyday - approx. 110 thousand people
Assyria (lat. Assyria) is a province of the Roman Empire, located approximately on the territory of modern northern Iraq.
Africa(lat. Africa Proconsularis, Africa Vetus) - a province of the Roman Empire with a center in Utica, occupying the territory of modern northern Tunisia and the Mediterranean coast of modern western Libya along the Little Syrt Bay.
Achaea(Achaia; other Greek Ἀχαΐα, transcription in Latin Achaïa or Achaia; lat. Achaea) - a province of the Roman Empire with a center in Corinth, occupying the territory of the Peloponnese, bordering the province of Macedonia in the north.
B
Middle Spain(lat. Hispania Citerior) - a province of the Roman Republic on the Iberian Peninsula, located in the northeast of modern Spain and in the valley of the Ebro River (lat. Iberus), according to which the entire peninsula was called Iberian.
AT
Vexillary(from lat. vexillarius, from vexillum - banner, standard) - the name of the standard bearer in the Roman army. A vexillary could be an aquilifer (carrying a golden or silver eagle) and an imaginifer (with some other image).
Vexillation(lat. vexillatio, from vexillum - “banner”, “standard”) - a special, relatively small, detachment of the legion, less often cohorts or numbers, allocated to participate in hostilities when the legion itself performed other tasks or carried garrison or patrol service.
vicar(lat. vicarius "deputy") - after the Roman emperors Diocletian and Constantine the Great, the ruler of the diocese (region) of the Roman Empire, subordinate to the prefect; in the Orthodox Church, a bishop who does not have his own diocese and helps in managing the diocesan bishop; in the Catholic Church, a bishop who does not have of his diocese and assisting in the management of the diocesan bishop; also a priest without a parish who assists the parish priest (Polish wikarjusz, wikary, Lit. vikaras, Eng. vicar.
War against the Nabis or Laconian War- the war of 195 BC between the Spartans and the coalition of Rome, the Achaean League, Pergamum, Rhodes and Macedonia.
Freedmen(Libertines lat. libertini) - in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, as well as in the Western European states of the period of early feudalism, freed or redeemed slaves.
Wolski(Volsci) - a people of Umbro-saber origin, who lived next door to the Latins. The militant and freedom-loving Volsci were engaged in agriculture, fishing and maritime robbery; their capitals Suessa-Pomezia (now Sezze) and Privernum (now Piperno) were famous for their crowds and wealth; the first was on the edge of the Pontine marsh, and the second on a high, almost inaccessible mountain.
G
Gaius Octavius(lat. Gaius Octavius, c. 101 BC - 59 BC) - Roman senator. He came from an ancient, wealthy equestrian family Octavius, for the first time in the family rose to the rank of senator. Father of Emperor Augustus.
Gaul(lat. Gallia) - the historical region of Europe, which included the territories between the Po River and the Alps (Cisalpine Gaul - Gallia Cisalpina) and between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean (Transalpine Gaul- Gallia Transalpina) - the territory of modern Northern Italy, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, part of the Netherlands, part of Switzerland.
Hastati(from lat. hastati - lit. "spearmen", from hasta - "gasta") - warriors of the vanguard of the heavy infantry of the Roman legion in the 4th-2nd centuries. BC e. (together with the principles and the triarii, they acted approximately from 350 to 107 BC).
Gergovia(Gergovia) (modern Clermont) - a fortified point in Gaul, in the region of the Arvern tribe, 6 km. south of Clermont-Ferrand in Auvergne (France) and covered an area of 75 hectares.
Herculaneum(lat. Herculaneum, modern Italian name - Ercolano) - an ancient Roman city in the Italian region of Campania, on the shores of the Gulf of Naples. As well as Pompeii and Stabia, ceased to exist during the eruption of Vesuvius on August 24, 79. It was buried under a layer of pyroclastic flows. Herculaneum, along with Pompeii, is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List under number 829.
Gladiator(from Latin gladius - "sword", "gladius") - the name of the fighters in ancient Rome, who fought among themselves or with animals for the amusement of the public in special arenas.
Chariot racing(or chariot racing) was one of the most popular sports in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire.
civil crown- the second most important military award in ancient Rome. It was a wreath of oak leaves. The civil crown was awarded for the contribution to the preservation of the lives of soldiers.
D
Far Spain(lat. Hispania Ulterior) - a province of the Roman Republic on the Iberian Peninsula, occupying the territory of modern Andalusia, the Guadalquivir and Galicia valleys in Spain and Portugal.
decurion(Decurio) 1) a representative of the decuria, mainly the head of the decuria of horsemen (decurio equitum); 2) a member of the municipal council (curial). In the IV century. by R. X. D
ekuriya (Decuria) - in general, a department of 10 people.
Delatorium- In ancient Rome, informers (Roman word: "delatores" - informer) were a key part of the judicial system.
Decimation(from Latin decimatio, from decem - “ten”) - the execution of every tenth by lot, the highest measure of disciplinary punishment in the Roman army.
Dominat(lat. dominatus, from dominus - lord) - a form of government in ancient Rome that replaced the principate, established by Diocletian (284-305), which is an open slave-owning dictatorship. The period of tetrarchy is included in the dominant.
ancient roman army(Latin exercitus, earlier - classis) - one of the deeply studied, mainly in specialized circles, aspects of the history of Ancient Rome. The Roman army became a decisive factor in the development of the power of their state.
ancient roman kings(lat. Reges Romae) - the legendary rulers of Ancient Rome before the founding of the Republic. Roman primary sources (including Titus Livius) mention seven kings:
Duumvirs(Duumviri or Duoviri) - this is how two persons were called in ancient Rome, to whom the state jointly entrusted some business; the name of the assignment was added to the word duumvirs.
Z
Zela(Greek τά Ζήλα, Ζήλα, now known as Tur. Zile) - a fortress inside the Pontic kingdom, at a distance of four reinforced daytime marches southeast of Amasia.
And
Idistaviso- the valley near the river Weser, famous for the victory of Germanicus over Arminius.
Illyricum(lat. Illyricum) - a province of the Roman Republic based on the site of the Illyrian kingdom. It stretched from the Drin River in modern Albania to Istria in the north of modern Croatia and the Sava River in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The center of the province was the city of Solin (lat. Salonae), located near the modern city of Split in Croatia.
Imperial provinces- provinces in the Roman Empire, the governors of which were appointed by the emperor. Basically, these provinces were of strategic importance. The division into imperial and senatorial provinces was adopted shortly after Augustus came to power.
Interrex(Interrex - inter-king) - a temporary magistracy in ancient Rome.
intercession(lat. Intercessio - intervention, resistance) - in the Ancient. In Rome, this was the name of the veto (veto), which the Roman magistrate could impose on the decisions and actions of another magistrate who had equal or lesser power with him.
And prices- the Celtic people of ancient Britain, who inhabited one of the southeastern regions of the island (now Norfolk and Suffolk).
To
Caduceus(Latin caduceus), Kerikion (Greek κηρύκειον) - the rod of heralds among the Greeks and Romans; the name of the rod of Hermes (Mercury), which had the ability to reconcile.
Calidium(lat. Marcus Calidius) - Roman orator.
Camille(Camilli, Camillae) - in ancient Rome, boys and girls who served at sacrifices.
Cassia- an ancient patrician family, in Rome, which later became plebeian.
Quaestor(from Latin quaestor, from quaerere - lit. "question", "investigate") - one of the Roman ordinary magistrates.
Quinarius- a small silver coin that circulated in ancient Rome and had a denomination of 8 asses.
Quirites(lat. Quirites) - in ancient Rome of the era of the republic, the name of Roman citizens (cives), usually used in official appeals (Populus Romanus Quiritium).
Cyrene- an ancient city in Libya, the capital of Cyrenaica.
Cyrenaica(Cyrenaïca) - a country on the northern coast of Africa, between B. Sirte in the west and Egypt in the east, on the site of the current Barca plateau (500-700 m), in the eastern part of the Tripoli vilayet.
Cleopatra VII Philopator(Greek Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ, 69 - 30 BC) - the last queen of Hellenistic Egypt from the Macedonian Ptolemaic (Lagid) dynasty.
Cohort(lat. cohors, lit. "fenced place") - one of the main tactical units of the Roman army, from the end of the 2nd century BC. e. which formed the basis of cohort tactics. Since that time, there were 10 cohorts in the legion. In the Third Punic War, one cohort included 2 maniples, so each row was not 10 maniples, but 5 cohorts with appropriate intervals.
Colchis(ancient Greek Κολχίς; cargo. კოლხეთი, Kolkheti) - a region in Western Georgia, the current territory of Abkhazia, on the eastern and southeastern coast of the Black Sea, named after the local tribe (Kolkhs), whom Herodotus for dark skin color, curly hair and circumcision considered the descendants of the Egyptians.
Consistory or imperial council ( lat. consistorium) - in ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire - an administrative and advisory body under the emperor. The Council arose under Emperor Hadrian as an advisory body for discussing laws.
Corsica and Sardinia(lat. Corsica et Sardinia) - a province of the Roman Republic, and then the Roman Empire, which included the territory of two large islands: Corsica and Sardinia.
Cottian Alps(lat. Alpes Cottiae) - a province of the Roman Empire, one of three small provinces hidden in the Alps on the border of modern France and Italy. The main purpose of these provinces was to maintain in order the roads through the Alpine passes.
L
Lombards, Pawnshops(German Langobarden, literally - long-bearded) - a Germanic tribe.
latifundia(Latifundia) - in ancient Rome, the so-called vast estates, cultivated by the labor of slaves.
Legate(from lat. legatus, legare, “prescribe, appoint, delegate”) - the envoy of the Roman Senate. Later - the imperial governor in the Roman province. Also, a legate is the highest position in the Roman legion (legion commander or senior naval officer in command of a fleet unit).
Leptis Magna(also Lepsis Magna, Lpqy or Naples is an ancient city in Libya that flourished during the Roman Empire. Its ruins are located 130 km east of Tripoli in the place of Al-Khums.
Lictor(lat. lictor) - one of the lowest government positions in ancient Rome. Mentioned in history since the reign of the Etruscan kings in Rome (VII century BC).
Licinia(lat. Licinii) - a Roman plebeian family, one of whose representatives in 493 BC. e. was among the first people's tribunes. Of the following, Guy Licinius Calv Stolon (lat. Gaius Licinius Stolo) is especially famous.
Lorica segmentata(lat. Lorica segmentata, segmented lorica) - armor used mainly in the Roman Republic and the empire, but the name "lorica segmentata" arose only in the 16th century, its ancient name is unknown.
Lorika hamata(lat. Lorica hamata, "lorica with hooks", from lat. hamus - "hook") - a type of ancient Roman mail armor. It served as the standard armor of auxiliary troops (Auxilia) in the last centuries of the existence of the Roman Republic and in some periods of the history of the Roman Empire.
Lugdun Gaul(lat. Gallia Lugdunensis) - a province of the Roman Empire with a center in the city of Lugdunum (modern Lyon), which occupied the territory of modern northern France.
Lupanar(lupanar, lat. lupanar) - a brothel in ancient Rome. The name comes from the Latin word "she-wolf" (Latin lupa) - this is how prostitutes were called in Rome.
M
Mauretania- an ancient area in northern Africa on the territory of modern Western Algeria and Northern Morocco. Before colonization by the Phoenicians, the main population of Mauretania was the Berbers.
Macedonia(lat. Macedonia) - a province of the Roman Republic, and then the Roman Empire.
Maniple(from Latin manipula - lit. "handful", from manus - "hand", as the image on the standard, under which maniples were assembled) - the main tactical unit of the legion during the existence of manipulative tactics, each of which was originally divided into 2 centuries.
Manipulars(lat. manipularii), later liburnaria (lat. liburnarii) - Roman marine boarding infantry. Unlike the Greek military tactics of using a ram, the Romans preferred to board enemy ships.
Mark Antony(Marcus Antonius) (January 14, 83 BC, Rome - August 1, 30 BC, Egypt) - Roman Caesarian politician and military leader, triumvir 43-33 years. BC e., consul 44 BC. e., quaestor 51-50 years. BC e.
Mark Furius Camillus((lat. Marcus Furius Camillus), about 26 BC - about 38 AD) - an ancient Roman military leader and politician from the time of Emperor Tiberius.
The monetary system of ancient Rome- the ancient monetary system that developed on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula starting from the second half of the 4th century BC. e. in the Roman Republic and subsequently spread throughout the Mediterranean.
Municipality(lat. municipium from munus - “gift, obligation, service” and capio - “I take”) in the Roman state - a city whose free population received full or limited rights of Roman citizenship and self-government.
Gaius Mucius Scaevola(lat. Gaius Mucius Scaevola) - a young Roman who was part of a group of young men who during the siege of Rome by the Etruscans in 507 BC. e. tried to kill Lars Porsenna.
H
Naumachia(naumachia, from the Greek. Ναυμαχία - sea battle) - a gladiator sea battle in ancient Rome or a show with an imitation of a sea battle.
Narbonne Gaul(lat. Gallia Narbonensis) - a province of the Roman Empire with the center in the city of Narbo-Martius (lat. Narbo Martius), modern. Narbonne, located on the territory of modern Languedoc and Provence in southern France.
Germania Inferior (lat. Germania Inferior) is a province of the Roman Empire centered on the city of Colonia Agrippina, located on the left bank of the Rhine, south and west of the modern Netherlands and entirely containing modern Belgium and Luxembourg, part of northeastern France and western Germany.
"New person"(lat. homo novus) - in ancient Rome - an ironic, often derogatory name for a person from an obscure and little-known family or from the plebs who received the highest magistracies. Among the "new people" are Gaius Marius, Cicero, Mark Porcius Cato, Mark Vipsanius Agrippa, Gaius Flaminius, Gnaeus Mallius Maximus.
O
Odoacer(Odovakar, lat. Odoacer, Ottokar) - a German leader from a tribe of Rugians or Skirs who lived in the Danube Valley.
Optimates(lat. optimus - the best) - an ideological and political trend in ancient Rome in the II - I centuries. BC e. They expressed the interests of the Senate aristocracy, the so-called. nobility. Popular opponents.
P
Palla(palla, πέπλος) - an ancient Roman women's attire, which had the shape of a square or oblong quadrangular plaid, sometimes with embroidery. Initially, Palla served as underwear, like a Doric tunic, but in the early days of the Republic it was replaced by a tunic, and Palla became outerwear for going out.
Penates(lat. Penates) - in Roman mythology, the guardian gods and patrons of the hearth, and then of the entire Roman people. Each family usually had two Penates, the images of which were placed near the hearth.
Pennine Alps(lat. Alpes Poenninae) - a province of the Roman Empire, one of three small provinces hidden in the Alps on the border of modern France and Italy.
Pilum(pilum, pl. pila) - a throwing spear, which was in service with the legions of Ancient Rome. The length with the tip is about 2 meters, the tip is 60-100 cm, the diameter of the tip is about 7 mm. Weight - 2-4 kg.
Plebs(lat. Plebs - commoner) - the ignoble population of Ancient Rome, initially did not enjoy political rights, unlike the patricians.
Polybius(Рολιβιος, lat. Polybius,? 201 BC, Megalopolis, Arcadia -? 120 BC) - Greek historian, statesman and military leader, author of "General History" ("History") in 40 volumes, covering events in Rome, Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor and other regions from 220 BC. e. by 146 BC e.
Polybius (Rολιβιος, lat. Polybius,? 201 BC, Megalopolis, Arcadia -? 120 BC) - Greek historian, statesman and military leader, author of "General History" ("History") in 40 volumes , covering events in Rome, Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor and other regions from 220 BC. e. by 146 BC e.
populary (lat. populares from populus - people) - an ideological and political trend in the late Roman Republic at the end of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. opposing the optimates and reflecting the interests of the plebs, primarily rural.
Lars Porsenna, (Porsena) (lat. Lars Porsenna) - Etruscan king and commander, ruler of the city of Clusius.
Praetorian Guard I (praetorians, lat. praetoriani) are the personal bodyguards of the emperors of the Roman Empire. The Praetorians were among the most skilled and celebrated warriors of the ancient world.
Prefect- a Roman official who headed the management of a separate part of the administration, court, state economy or army.
Primipil(Latin primus pilus or primipilus - "first spear") - the highest-ranking centurion of the legion, who was at the head of the first century of the first cohort. In the 1st - 2nd centuries, he could rise to the equestrian position, under the dominance he turned into a position at the food department.
Maritime Alps(lat. Alpes Maritimae) - a province of the Roman Empire, one of three small provinces hidden in the Alps on the border of modern France and Italy.
Principles(from lat. princeps) - in the army of Ancient Rome - warriors of the second line of heavy infantry of the Roman legion in the 4th-2nd centuries. BC e. They consisted of men under the age of 40 who had already been in battles.
Propraetor(propraetor or pro praetore) - this was the name, lately of the republic, of the governor of the praetor province, who was elected from praetors who had completed their one-year term of service.
five good emperors- five successively ruling Roman emperors from the Antonine dynasty: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.
R
The Roman Empire
(lat. Imperium Romanum) - from 30/27 BC e. to 491, one of the most important periods in the history of Ancient Rome, when it achieved the greatest prosperity in most areas.
"Roman history"
("Römische Geschichte") - the fundamental work of Theodor Mommsen, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Based on a corpus of historical sources found by the author during his travels in Italy.
Roman province
(lat. provincia, pl. provinciae) in Ancient Rome - a unit of administrative-territorial division of lands outside the Apennine Peninsula. Before the reforms of Diocletian (c. 296), it was the largest administrative unit, later it was part of the diocese.
Republic
- the historical era of Ancient Rome, distinguished by an aristocratic-oligarchic form of government, in which supreme power was concentrated mainly in the senate and consuls. Sometimes conditionally subdivided into Early and Late. The Latin expression res publica means common cause.
Rostrum(lat. rostra, plural from lat. rostrum, ship's nose) - in ancient Rome, an oratory on the forum, decorated with the noses of enemy ships captured by the Romans in 338 BC. e. under Antium during the Latin War 340-338 BC. e.
With
Sabrafa(Arabic صبراتة) - an ancient city in Libya in the Zawiya region in the north-west of the country, was part of the union of three cities (Tripoli) as the westernmost city.
Salii(lat. Salii, from salio - I jump, dance) - in ancient Rome, a priestly college, consisting of 12 priests of the god Mars and 12 priests of the god Quirinus. Only patricians could be salami. The salii got their name from the military dance performed by them during the annual festivities in honor of Mars.
Saltus(lat. saltus) - in ancient Rome, large estates, the same as latifundia, as well as large areas of forests, pastures and novi on state land, leased to private individuals.
Senate(Latin senatus, from senex - old man, council of elders) - one of the highest state bodies in ancient Rome.
Senate provinces- provinces in the Roman Empire, whose governors were appointed by the Senate. These provinces were far from the borders of the empire, and the risk of revolt in them was minimal.
Sicily(lat. Sicilia) - the name given to the first acquired province of the Roman Republic, formed in 241 BC. e. as territory ruled by a proconsul after the First Punic War with Carthage. The provincial capital was the city of Syracuse.
Scorpion(lat. scorpion) - the ancient Roman name for a small arrow-thrower.
Scribonia Libo (lat. Scribonia Libo) (c. 70 BC - 16) - the second wife of Octavian Augustus, the mother of his only daughter Julia the Elder.
Allies in Roman history- in relation to Rome to its allies, we can distinguish three periods: 1) the Latin alliance, until its termination after the Latin war of 340 et seq. gg. BC; 2) the Italian union, until all the allies obtain the rights of Roman citizenship, through the lex Julia de civitate sociis donda of 90; 3) allies in the last years of the republic and during the empire.
Battle of Actium(lat. Actiaca Pugna; September 2, 31 BC) - the last great naval battle of antiquity between the fleets of Ancient Rome.
Stabiae- an ancient Italian city on the coast of the Gulf of Naples, 15 km from Vesuvius. The ruins of the Stabiae are located near the modern settlement of Castellammare di Stabia.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla(Happy? from? 80 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla,? 138 - 78 BC) - Roman statesman and military leader, dictator (82 BC -80 BC. ), the founder of the Sullan party and the main rival of Maria, the organizer of bloody proscriptions.
T
tabular(tabularium) - the state archive in ancient Rome, which kept popular decrees and other state acts.
taurobolium(lat. Taurobolium) - a ritual of bull sacrifice, introduced in Rome under the Antonines in connection with the spread of the cult of Syrian and Persian deities and, in particular, the Persian god of the sun - Mithra - and the Phrygian Cybele.
taps(lat. Thapsus) - a city in the region of ancient Carthage, to the south of it, on the seashore, south of present-day Tunisia. Known for the battle between Julius Caesar and the Pompeians on April 6, 46 BC. e.
Tarraconian Spain(lat. Hispania Tarraconensis) - the province of the Roman Empire Tarraco (lat. Tarraco), modern. Tarragona in Catalonia, one of three in the Iberian Peninsula.
Tenza(lat.) - among the ancient Romans, a chariot, artistically decorated, which served to transport images of the gods during festive processions; fussed with white horses, bulls, mules, elephants and the people themselves.
Tentorius(lat. tentorium) - a camping tent among the Romans. These tents were made of leather and were fastened with ropes to wooden stakes. The tents of senior officers were not called tentoria, but tabernacula.
Terentine games(or Tarentine, Ludi Terentini or Tarentini) - in ancient Rome they celebrated on the Field of Mars, on the so-called Tarentum or Terentum, above the underground altar, which was dedicated to Ditus and Proserpina.
Togatus- in ancient Rome, a man dressed in a toga. Often the name of the Romans, since the toga is the national Roman clothing and an attribute of a full-fledged Roman citizen.
triarii(from lat. triarius) - in the army of Ancient Rome - warriors of the last, third line of heavy infantry of the Roman legion in the 4th-2nd centuries. BC e. They consisted of veterans of the Roman army, made up its reserve and had the best weapons.
Triumvirate- an alliance between three equally powerful political or military leaders. As a rule, they do not exist for a long time.
Triumph(lat. triumphus) in Rome - the solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning after the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory.
Turma- subdivision of the squadron (alas) of the Roman army. During the imperial period, the cavalry was separated from the legion and recruited exclusively from non-Romans.
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Umbra- an ancient Italian tribe that lived in Northern and Central Italy.
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Fabia- the famous Roman patrician family, the ancestor of which the legend called Hercules.
Forum(from lat. forum) is an area for mass thematic communication. The word comes from the original Roman Forum, in the likeness of which forums then appeared throughout the Roman Empire; the word is also often used to refer to places of public communication - in particular Internet forums.
Fustuary(from lat. fustuarium) - one of the types of executions in the Roman army. He was also known in the Republic, but came into regular use under the principate, was appointed for serious violation of guard duty, theft in the camp, perjury and escape, sometimes for desertion in battle.
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Julius Caesar(lat. Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar - Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar (Gaius Julius Caesar)) (102 or 100 BC - March 15, 44 BC) - an ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer.
Centurion(centurion) - a member of the junior command staff, commander of the centuria (centuria) in the Roman army. After the reforms of Gaius Marius, there were 60 centurions in the legion, 6 in each cohort.
Century(lat. centuria, from centum - one hundred) - a unit of property and age classification of citizens in ancient Rome, on the basis of which the Roman army was completed.
Cisalpine Gaul(lat. Gallia Cisalpina) - a province of the Roman Republic with a center in Mediolanum, enclosed between the Alps, Makra, the Apennines and the Rubicon. Also called Middle Gaul (lat. Gallia Citerior) or Gaul Togata(lat. Gallia Togata), because its inhabitants, like the Romans, wore togas, unlike other Gauls.
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus(lat. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, c. 519 BC - c. 439 BC) - ancient Roman patrician, consul 460 BC. e., Roman dictator of 458 and 439 BC. e.
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Caesar's cipher one of the oldest ciphers. When encrypting, each character is replaced by another character that is separated from it in the alphabet by a fixed number of positions. The Caesar cipher can be classified as a substitution cipher, with a narrower classification - a simple substitution cipher.
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Equities(lat. equites, from lat. equus, "horse") - riders - one of the privileged classes in ancient Rome.
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juvenalia- stage games, established by Nero in 60 BC. e. on the occasion of their reaching adulthood. These were a kind of amateur performances, staged not in a public circus, but in private houses or gardens and taking place before a small audience.
yogurt(Jugurtha) (160-104 BC) - king of Numidia until 117 BC e. Military leader and diplomat. Masinissa's grandson. Educated in Rome, in 134-133 participated in the Numantian War (143-133). After the death of the king of Numidia, his uncle Mitsipsa (118), in the struggle for the throne, he killed one son of Mitsipsa (117), another - Adgerbal - expelled.
In ancient Rome, names and their meanings were taken very seriously. The Romans believed that the fate of man lies in them. They believed that if the ill-wisher knew the name, he could take away the life of a person with the help of magic. That is why slaves were forbidden to pronounce the name of their master.
Rome is one of the oldest cities in the world, it was once the capital of the glorious Roman Empire. The inhabitants of the city of that time can be conditionally divided into two groups: free and slaves. Meanwhile, each of these groups consisted of many other smaller communities. Free citizens could be both native inhabitants of Rome, they are called patricians, and visitors from other areas of the empire - plebeians. Slaves, on the other hand, received their status based on their origin and place of service. They could be private, public, prisoners of war, bought in special markets or born in the master's house. And what is most interesting, Roman names were given depending on the status of a person, his origin and belonging to the family tree.
Structure of ancient Roman names
The history of the emergence of Roman names was quite confusing, because it evolved over many centuries. Finally, the system of names and their assignments, which were entrenched in ancient Rome for a long time, were formed around the 2nd century AD. e. - at the height of the mighty Roman Empire.
In those days, Roman names had a clear structure by which it was possible to determine to which genus a person belongs. Moreover, the Romans were honored to give full names only to men, the situation is different with women. For a full understanding of these traditions, the division must be studied in more detail.
Roman names, male and priestly, consisted of three parts. This system is a bit like our modern one: the first name is a prenomen (personal name), the second one denotes belonging to a certain genus - a nomen (something like a surname) and, finally, the third name is a cognomen, a person received it due to some signs in his appearance. Let's study each of them in more detail.
Origin of male names
There were few personal male names in total: there are no more than 20 of them. The thing is that the Romans had a tradition of naming their eldest sons in honor of their father. It turns out that all the first-born of the same kind had the same names. A prenomen is a personal name given to boys on the ninth day after birth. By a decree of the Senate - the main authority in ancient Rome, in the period of the 200s BC. e. it was decided to call all the eldest sons the prenomen of the father. That is why many emperors bore the names of their great-grandfathers, grandfathers and fathers. Their children also continued the glorious tradition and were named in honor of their ancestors with the same names. But Roman names (female) were given to daughters with some changes in the endings to indicate that it belongs to a woman.
generic names
The history of the origin of the second name is very interesting. Nomen is a generic name that denoted a person's belonging to a certain genus. The total number of generic names exceeds one thousand, according to the Roman encyclopedist and writer Marcus Varro. Nomens, unlike prenomens, were never abbreviated in writing, with the exception of only the most famous generic names. For example, the nomen Antonius could be written as Ant. or Anthony.
Perhaps the most mysterious element is the cognomen (third Roman names) - male, which were considered optional. That is, they could be absent in some men. The essence of the Roman name in this case is that the Roman received a nickname for some personal qualities in character or appearance. Later, new branches began to appear in the family genus, which received their names in honor of the cognomen of their progenitor. The most famous are the genera Probus (in translation - honest, a nickname received for the truthfulness and purity of a person), Rufus (red, it is obvious that it was received for external qualities), Severus (merciless) and Lucro (glutton).
Beautiful names: Roman and Greek
It is not surprising that the composition of the Roman population was heterogeneous, because people of different classes came to the capital of the empire from all territories. Over the centuries, the inhabitants mixed with each other: the Romans intermarried with the Greeks, as a result, new names appeared, which over time were firmly entrenched in Roman society. Greek and Roman names have many similarities, because their culture is based on a common belief in the existence of ancient gods and similar mythology. However, despite these facts, Greek names are very different from Roman ones. For example, the Greeks called their children exceptionally good names that had a certain meaning. They believed that then the child receives the protection of the gods. It is almost impossible to trace the history of the emergence of each of them, therefore it is believed that many ancient Greek names may also be of Roman origin. Here are the most beautiful and famous Greco-Roman names: Alexandros - defender of the motherland; Andreas - warlike, brave; Archimedes - thinking, wise; Vasilis - royal blood; Gregorios - vigilant; Giorgios - economic; Doraseos - the gift of the gods; Ioannis - kind; Konstantios - strong, unshakable; Nikias, Nikon - victorious.
Female Roman names: origin and features
In principle, the social system of the Romans can be classified as patriarchal with elements of some amendments in favor of women. The fact is that the position of a resident of Rome was determined by the social status of her father. If the girl was from a noble and wealthy family, then those around her treated her with respect. Such a person had relative freedom: she could appear in society, had the right to physical inviolability, that is, even her husband could not force her to love.
And even despite this, for some reason, women were deprived of a personal name. They were called only by the generic names of the fathers, however, slightly changing the ending to get other Roman names (the female forms were formed using the ending -ia). For example, the favorite of the daughters of Gaius Julius Caesar was called Julia, and the eldest daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio was named Cornelia. That is why all women of the same genus had the same names, which differed only in prenomens.
According to tradition, when other daughters were born in the family, a prenomen was added to their family name - nomen, which was determined depending on her age. Sisters were called by their personal name in order of birth, for example, Major was called the eldest, Secunda was the second, Tertila was the third, and Minor is the prenomen of the youngest sister.
Names of married women
When a girl got married, the cognomen (nickname) of her husband was added to her name. Everyone addressed a married woman, calling her full name. For example, Julia (father's nomen - Julius), who married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, received the name Julia, daughter of Julia, (wife) Gracchus.
The writing also indicated the full name of the woman. The most famous inscription "Caeciliae, Q(uinti) Cretici f(iliae), Metellae, Crassi (uxori)" is carved on the tomb of the wife of the triumvirate Marcus Licinius Crassus.
Women from very noble families who married an influential person had the right to inherit not only the family name, but also the cognomens of their fathers. For example, the full name of the wife of the commander Crassus was Cecilia Metellus, received from her father, whose name was Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmatica. He was a military leader who defeated the Dalmatians, for which he subsequently received his fourth name from the Senate - agnomen.
Archaic form of slave names
The system of names for slaves was formed as a result of the extensive spread of slave ownership: in official documents, which were invariable attributes of the political structure of Ancient Rome, it was necessary to enter all the names of slaves.
Slaves usually had names of Greek origin, such as Antigonus, Philonikos, Deadumene, or Eros. Slaves were considered property, therefore legally they were not subjects, but objects, this explains their complete lack of rights and dependence on masters. Many of them received Roman names, consisting of the prenomen of the master, the nomen or cognomen of the fathers and the additional word puer (son, boy).
In the Roman Empire, the fate of slaves was very difficult, but this did not affect their names in any way: on the contrary, many received nicknames that sounded positive, for example, Felix - happy, joyful.
Modern names
Over time, the names have changed under the influence of changing historical eras. Most of the ancient Greek names have survived to this day. True, many of them have a slightly different form, which differs only in endings. The root of modern European names and ancient Greek ones is the same.
Many converted Roman names are still used in some European countries. It is believed that Latin, the language in which the Romans wrote, has died out. However, this is not entirely true, because almost all European languages are successors of Latin. Here is a complete list of Roman names (male and female) that are still relevant today:
- Alexander and Alexandra;
- Augustine and Augustine;
- Aurelius and Albina;
- Benedict and Bella (Belus);
- Hector and Gella;
- Gasper and Hermione;
- Gommer and Gaia;
- Dimitri and Daphne;
- Hippolyte and Irena;
- Castor and Cassandra;
- Leo and Laida;
- Maya, Melissa and Melanie;
- Nestor and Nika;
- Penelope;
- Rhea and Selena;
- Timofey, Tikhon and Tia;
- Theodore, Philip, Frida and Florence (Flora).
These Roman names have almost lost their original meaning, now people call their children this way, guided mainly by aesthetic whims. After all, these names sound very beautiful and have an interesting history of origin.
