Language is created by the people and serves them from generation to generation. In its development, the language goes through several stages and depends on the degree of development of the ethnos (Greek ethnos - people). At an early stage, a tribal language is formed, then the language of the people and, finally, the national one.

The national language is formed on the basis of the national language, which ensures its relative stability. It is the result of the process of the formation of a nation and at the same time a prerequisite and condition for its formation.

By its nature, the national language is heterogeneous. This is explained by the heterogeneity of the ethnos itself as a community of people. Firstly, people unite on a territorial basis, place of residence. As a means of communication, rural residents use a dialect - one of the varieties of the national language. A dialect, as a rule, is a collection of smaller units - dialects that have common language features and serve as a means of communication for residents of nearby villages and farms. Territorial dialects have their own characteristics, which are found at all levels of the language: in the sound system, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, word formation. The dialect exists only in oral form.

The presence of dialects is the result of feudal fragmentation during the formation of Ancient Russia, then the Russian state. In the era of capitalism, despite the expansion of contacts between speakers of different dialects, and the formation of a national language, territorial dialects remain, although they undergo some changes. In the 20th century, especially in the second half, in connection with the development of the mass media (press, radio, cinema, television, intervision), the process of degradation of dialects, their disappearance, is underway. The study of dialects is of interest:

- from a historical point of view: dialects retain archaic features that are not reflected in the literary language;

- from the point of view of the formation of the literary language: on the basis of what main dialect and then the national language did the literary language develop; what features of other dialects it borrows; how the literary language influences the dialects in the future and how the dialects influence the literary language.

Secondly, social causes contribute to the unification of people: common profession, occupation, interests, social status. For such societies, the social dialect serves as a means of communication. Since the social dialect has many varieties, in the scientific literature, the terms are also used to name them. jargon, slang.

Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people. It is used by sailors, electronics engineers, computer scientists, athletes, actors, students. Unlike territorial dialects, jargon does not have phonetic and grammatical features peculiar only to it. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology.

Slang vocabulary is rethought, abbreviated, phonetically modified words of the Russian language and borrowed from other languages, especially English. For example: storehouse -"score", cigarette butt -"electric train" pricha -"hairstyle", deflection -"fawning" abita -"enrollee", ice -"eye", alkonaut -"alcoholic", Amerisa -"America".

Some slang words and set expressions are becoming widespread and are used to give expressiveness and expressiveness to speech. For example: bum, homeless person, breaker, green, grandmas, biker, party, lawlessness, reach the handle, take on the gun. Separate words and phrases are not currently perceived as jargon, since they have long entered the literary language and are colloquial or neutral. For example: cheat sheet, mood, rocker, snickers, be on a roll.

Sometimes as a synonym for the word jargon the word is used slang. So, for example, they talk about student, school slang, meaning jargon.

The main purpose of slang is to make speech incomprehensible to strangers. The lower classes of society are primarily interested in this: thieves, swindlers, cheaters. There was also professional slang. It helped artisans (tailors, tinsmiths, saddlers ...), as well as walkers (peddlers who sold small goods peddling and hauling in small towns, villages, villages) when talking with their own to hide from outsiders the secrets of the craft, the secrets of their business.

IN AND. Dahl in the first volume of the "Explanatory Dictionary" in an article with the title word afenya, afenya gives an example of the argot speech of merchants: Ropa kimat, twilight, loosely screeching voryhans. it means: It's time to sleep, midnight, soon the roosters will crow.

In addition to territorial and social dialects, the national language includes vernacular.

Vernacular is one of the forms of the national Russian language, which does not have its own signs of a systemic organization and is characterized by a set of linguistic forms that violate the norms of the literary language. The carriers of vernacular (citizens with a low level of education) do not realize such a violation of the norms, they do not catch, do not understand the difference between non-literary and literary forms.

Spacious are:

- in phonetics: driver, put, sentence; ridiculitis, kolidor, rezetka, drushlag;

– in morphology: my callus, with jam, doing, on the beach, a driver, without a coat, run, lie down, lay down;

- in vocabulary: pedestal instead of pedestal, semi-clinic instead of polyclinic.

Common speech, like territorial and social dialects, has only an oral form.

Language is the most important factor in the national identification of a person, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, evaluate ...

History of the Russian language: origin, distinctive features and interesting facts

By Masterweb

09.05.2018 05:00

Language is the most important factor in the national identification of a person, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, evaluate the world around. The history of the Russian language is rooted in the events of 1.5-2 thousand years ago, which favored its creation. Today it is recognized as the richest language in the world and the fifth largest population that speaks it.

How did the Russian language appear

In prehistoric times, Slavic tribes spoke completely different dialects. The ancestors of the Slavs lived on the lands washed by the rivers Dnieper, Vistula and Pripyat. By the middle of the 1st century A.D. e. tribes occupied all territories from the Adriatic to the lake. Ilmen in the northeastern part of the European continent.

The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language dates back to about 2-1 thousand years BC. e., when the Proto-Slavic dialect was separated from the group of Indo-European languages.

Scientists conventionally divide the Old Russian language into 3 groups according to the ethnic linguistic component:

• South Russian (Bulgarians, Slovenes, Serbo-Croats);
• Western Russian (Poles, Czechs, Pomors, Slovaks);
• Central Russian (Eastern).

Modern norms of vocabulary and grammar in the Russian language were formed as a result of the interaction of many East Slavic dialects that were common in the territory of Ancient Russia and the Church Slavonic language. Greek culture also had a great influence on the written form.

Theories of the origin of the Russian language

There are several theories, the main of which connect the beginning of the history of the Russian language with the ancient Indian Sanskrit and the Old Norse language.

In accordance with the first, experts consider the ancient Sanskrit language closest to Russian, which was spoken only by Indian priests and scientists, which indicates that it was introduced from outside. According to a Hindu legend, which is even studied in the theosophical universities of India, in ancient times 7 white-skinned teachers came to the Himalayas from the North, who presented Sanskrit.

With his help, the foundations of the Brahmin religion were laid, which is still one of the mass religions, and Buddhism was created through it. Until now, the Brahmins call the Russian North the ancestral home of mankind and even make a pilgrimage there.

As linguists note, 60% of Sanskrit words completely coincide with Russian in their pronunciation. Many scientific works were devoted to this issue, including the ethnographer N. R. Guseva. She has been studying the phenomenon of similarity between the Russian language and Sanskrit for many years, calling the latter a simplified version frozen for 4-5 millennia. The only difference between them is the writing method: Sanskrit is written in hieroglyphs, which scientists call the Slavic-Aryan runes.

Another theory of the history of the origin of the Russian language puts forward the hypothesis that the word "Rus" itself and the language have Old Norse roots. According to historians, the Greeks called the Norman tribes "dews" until the 9th-10th centuries, and only in the 10th-11th centuries. this name passed to the Varangian squads, who came to the territory of Russia. It was from them that the future great princes of Ancient Russia originated. For example, in old birch bark letters of the 11th-13th centuries. Novgorodians consider the territory of the Eastern Slavs near Kyiv and Chernigov to be Rus. And only from the 14th century. when fighting with enemy troops in the annals, they determine their belonging to the Russians.

Cyril and Methodius: the creation of the alphabet

The history of the Russian language, which was formed in writing, originates in the 9th century, in the era of the formation of Kievan Rus. The alphabet that existed then in Greece could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, therefore, in 860-866. Emperor of Byzantium Michael the 3rd ordered the creation of a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language. In this way, he wanted to simplify the translation of Greek religious manuscripts into Slavonic.

Scientists attribute the success of creating its literary form to the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius, who went to preach in Moravia and, observing fasting and prayers, acquired the Glagolitic alphabet after 40 days. According to legend, it was faith that helped the brothers preach Christianity to the uneducated peoples of Russia.

At that time, the Slavic alphabet consisted of 38 letters. Later, the Cyrillic alphabet was finalized by their followers, using the Greek uncial script and charter. Both alphabets almost coincide in the sound of the letters, the difference lies in the form of writing.

It was the swiftness with which the spread of Russian writing in Russia that subsequently contributed to the fact that this language became one of the leading ones in its era. This also contributed to the unification of the Slavic peoples, which took place during the 9th-11th centuries.

Period 12-17 centuries

One of the well-known monuments of literature of the period of Ancient Russia was the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", which tells about the campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsian army. Its authorship is still unknown. The events described in the poem took place in the 12th century. in the era of feudal fragmentation, when the Mongol-Tatars and the Polish-Lithuanian conquerors raged in their raids.

This period includes the next stage in the history of the development of the Russian language, when it was divided into 3 ethno-linguistic groups, the dialectical features of which have already been formed:

• Great Russian;
• Ukrainian;
• Belarusian.

In the 15th century on the European territory of Russia, there were 2 main groups of dialects: the southern and northern dialects, each of which had its own characteristics: akanye or okanye, etc. During this period, several intermediate Central Russian dialects were born, among which Moscow was considered classic. Periodicals and literature began to appear on it.

The formation of Muscovite Russia served as an impetus for the reform of the language: sentences became shorter, everyday vocabulary and folk proverbs and sayings were widely used. In the history of the development of the Russian language, the era of the beginning of book printing played a big role. An illustrative example was the work "Domostroy", published in the middle of the 16th century.

In the 17th century, in connection with the flourishing of the Polish state, a lot of terms came from the field of technology and jurisprudence, with the help of which the Russian language passed the stage of modernization. By the beginning of the 18th century in Europe, the French influence was strongly felt, which gave impetus to the Europeanization of the high society of the Russian state.

Proceedings of M. Lomonosov

The common people did not learn Russian writing, and the nobles studied foreign languages ​​more: German, French, etc. Primers and grammar until the 18th century. were made only in the Church Slavonic dialect.

The history of the Russian literary language originates from the reform of the alphabet, during which Tsar Peter the Great reviewed the 1st edition of the new alphabet. It happened in 1710.

The leading role was played by the scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, who wrote the first "Russian Grammar" (1755). He gave the literary language its final form by merging Russian and Slavic elements.

Lomonosov established a coherent system of styles and combined all of its varieties, using oral speech, orders and some regional variations, introduced a new system of versification, which still remains the main force and part of Russian poetry.

He also wrote a work on rhetoric and an article in which the scientist successfully used the lexical and grammatical richness of the Church Slavonic language. Lomonosov also wrote about the three main styles of poetic language, in which high was considered a work with the greatest use of Slavicisms.

During this period, the democratization of the language takes place, its composition and vocabulary are enriched by literate peasants, the oral speech of representatives of the merchant class and the lower strata of the clergy. The first most detailed textbooks on the literary Russian language were published by the writer N. Grech in the 1820s.

In noble families, the native language was studied mainly by boys who were trained to serve in the army, because they were to command soldiers from the common people. The girls, on the other hand, studied French, and spoke Russian only to communicate with the servants. So, the poet A. S. Pushkin grew up in a French-speaking family, and spoke his native language only with his nanny and grandmother. Later, he studied Russian with the priest A. Belikov and the local clerk. Education at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was also conducted in the native language.

In the 1820s, in the high society of Moscow and St. Petersburg, an opinion was formed that it was indecent to speak Russian, especially in front of ladies. However, the situation soon changed.

Century XIX - the century of Russian literature

The beginning of the heyday and fashion for the Russian language was a costume ball, which in 1830 was held in the Anichkov Palace. On it, the maid of honor of the Empress read the poem "Cyclops", specially written for the celebration by A. S. Pushkin.

In defense of the native language, Tsar Nicholas 1st spoke out, who ordered from now on to conduct all correspondence and office work in it. All foreigners, upon entering the service, were obliged to take an exam for knowledge of Russian, and it was also prescribed to speak it at court. Emperor Alexander III put forward the same demands, but at the end of the 19th century. English came into fashion, which was taught to noble and royal children.

A great influence on the history of the development of the Russian language in the 18-19 centuries. Russian writers who became popular then: D. I. Fonvizin, N. M. Karamzin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, in poetry - A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov. With their works, they showed all the beauty of their native speech, using it freely and freeing them from stylistic restrictions. In 1863 V. I. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language was published.

Borrowings

In the history of the Russian language, there are many facts about its growth and enrichment when borrowing a large number of words of foreign origin in the vocabulary. Some of the words came from Church Slavonic. At different times in history, the degree of influence of the neighboring language community was different, but this always helped the introduction of new words and phrases.

In contact with European languages ​​for a long time, many words came into Russian speech from them:

• from Greek: beet, crocodile, bench, as well as most names;
• from the Scythians and the Iranian group: dog, paradise;
• some names came from Scandinavians: Olga, Igor, etc.;
• from Turkic: diamond, trousers, fog;
• from Polish: jar, duel;
• French: beach, conductor;
• from Dutch: orange, yacht;
• from the Romano-Germanic languages: algebra, tie, dance, powder, cement;
• from Hungarian: hussar, saber;
• musical and culinary terms were borrowed from Italian: pasta, balance, opera, etc.;
• from English: jeans, sweater, tuxedo, shorts, jam, etc.

The borrowing of technical and other terms gained mass importance in the late 19th and 20th century as new techniques and technologies developed, especially from the English language.

For its part, the Russian language gave the world many words that are now considered international: matryoshka, vodka, samovar, satellite, tsar, dacha, steppe, pogrom, etc.

XX century and the development of the Russian language

In 1918, a reform of the Russian language was carried out, in which the following changes were introduced to the alphabet:

• the letters "yat", "fita", "decimal" were removed and replaced with "E", "F" and "I";
• canceled hard sign at the ends of words;
• it is indicated in prefixes to use the letters "s" before deaf consonants and "z" - before voiced ones;
• adopted changes in the endings and cases of some words;
• "Izhitsa" itself disappeared from the alphabet even before the reform.

The modern Russian language was approved in 1942, in the alphabet of which 2 letters "E" and "Y" were added, since then it has already consisted of 33 letters.

By the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, due to universal compulsory education, the widespread use of the press, mass media, cinema and television, the majority of the Russian population began to speak the standard Russian literary language. The influence of dialects is occasionally felt only in the speech of older people who live in remote rural areas.

Many linguists and scientists believe that the Russian language is unique in its richness and expressiveness, and that its existence arouses interest all over the world. This is evidenced by statistics that recognize him as the 8th most common language on the planet, because it is spoken by 250 million people.

The most interesting facts from the history of the development of the Russian language briefly:

• it is included in 6 working languages ​​in the United Nations (UN);
• ranks 4th in the world in the list of the most translated into other languages;
• large Russian-speaking communities live not only in the countries of the former USSR, but also in Turkey, Israel, the USA, etc.;
• when studying Russian by foreigners, it is considered one of the most difficult, along with Chinese and Japanese;
• the oldest books written in Old Russian: the Novgorod Codex (beginning of the 11th century) and the Ostrovir Gospel (1057) - in Church Slavonic;
• has a unique alphabet, extraordinary types and cases, many rules and even more exceptions to them;
• in the Old Slavonic alphabet, the first letter was "I";
• the youngest letter "E", which appeared only in 1873;
• in the Russian alphabet, some letters are similar to Latin ones, and 2 of them cannot be pronounced "b" and "b" at all;
• in Russian there are words that begin with "Y", but these are geographical names;
• in 1993, the longest word in the world out of 33 letters “X-ray electrocardiographic” got into the Guinness Book of Records, and already in 2003 - out of 39 letters “highly contemplating”;
• in Russia, 99.4% of the population is fluent in their native language.

A Brief History of the Russian Language: Facts and Dates

Summing up all the data, you can create a chronological sequence of facts that happened from ancient times to the present day in the formation of the modern language:

The given brief history of the Russian language reflects the course of events rather conditionally. After all, the development and improvement of oral and written forms of speech, the publication of printed publications and literary masterpieces took place at different times, gradually gaining more and more popularity among various segments of the Russian population.

As evidenced by the history and general characteristics of the Russian language, its development has been carried out over thousands of years, and enrichment through new words and expressions occurs under the influence of socio-political life, especially in the last 100 years. In the 21st century, its replenishment is actively influenced by the media and the Internet.

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Language is the most important means of human communication, knowledge and creative development of the surrounding reality.

Russian is the national language of the Russian people. The Russian national language developed in the 16th-17th centuries. in connection with the formation of the Moscow state. It was based on Moscow and adjacent local dialects. The further development of the Russian national language is associated with its normalization and formation in the 18th-19th centuries. literary language. The literary language combined the features of the northern and southern dialects: in the phonetic system, the consonants corresponded to the consonants of the northern dialects, and the vowels were closer to the pronunciation in the southern dialects; vocabulary has more overlap with northern dialects (for example, rooster, but not kochet, wolf, but not biryuk).

Old Slavonic had a significant influence on the formation of the Russian national language. Its influence on the Russian language was undoubtedly beneficial: this is how borrowings entered the Russian literary language. disposition, drag, ignoramus, head, etc., Russian participles with suffixes -ah (-ch) were supplanted by Old Church Slavonic participles with suffixes -ashch (-box) (burning instead of hot).

In the course of its formation and development, the Russian national language borrowed and continues to borrow elements from other, unrelated languages, such as, for example, French, German, English, etc.

The national Russian language is a complex phenomenon, heterogeneous in its composition. And this is understandable: after all, it is used by people who differ in their social status, occupation, place of birth and residence, age, gender, level of culture, etc. All these differences of people are reflected in the language. Therefore, the language exists in several varieties:

· territorial dialects, as a local variety of language, exist in oral form and serve mainly for everyday communication (for example, busit, instead of drizzle, rudder, instead of towel and etc.).

· vernacular- a type of language used in the speech of poorly educated native speakers (for example, TV set, instead of TV, play up instead of play, bake, instead of you bake and etc.).

· Professional jargons- this is a type of language that is used in the speech of people of one profession (for example, spark, instead of spark at the drivers batten down the hatches instead of close the sailors say training aircraft called ladybug pilots, etc.).

· Social jargon use socially isolated groups of people in their speech (for example, spur, steppe- from student jargon, ancestors, horse racing- from youth jargon, etc.).

Territorial dialects, professional and social jargons, vernacular are included as an integral part of the national Russian language, but the basis, the highest form of existence of the national language is literary language. It serves various spheres of human activity: politics, legislation, culture, art, office work, everyday communication.

One of the main signs of a literary language - normalization. The normalization of the literary language lies in the fact that the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling and the formation of grammatical forms are subject to a generally accepted pattern - the norm. Along with normalization, the literary language has the following features:

Sustainability (stability);

Mandatory for all native speakers;

Processed;

Availability of functional styles;

The presence of oral and written forms.

In accordance with the "Law on the languages ​​of the peoples of Russia", the Russian language, which is the main means of interethnic communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation, in accordance with the established historical and cultural traditions, has the status state language throughout Russia.

Functions of the Russian language as a state language:

1. The Russian language is the language in which the highest legislative bodies of the Russian Federation work.

2. Texts of laws and other legal acts are published in Russian.

3. The Russian language as the state language is studied in secondary, secondary vocational and higher educational institutions.

4. Russian is the language of the mass media.

5. Russian is the language of communication in the areas of industry, transport, communications, services and commercial activities.

On the territory of Russia with its multinational population, the “Law on the Languages ​​of the Peoples of Russia” guarantees and ensures, along with the functioning of the Russian language as the state language, the creation of conditions for the development of the state languages ​​of the republics of the Russian Federation, for the preservation and development of the languages ​​of small peoples and ethnic groups.

The Russian language is not only the language of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia, but also the peoples of the former CIS.

The functions of the Russian language are not limited to life within the nation and the Russian state, but also cover international spheres of communication, since the Russian language is one of the world languages. World languages ​​are called languages ​​that are means of interstate, international communication.

The Russian language has become one of the world languages ​​since the middle of the 20th century. The number of those who speak Russian to one degree or another now exceeds half a billion people. The Russian language meets all the requirements for world languages:

• The Russian language is a means of communication for scientists, one of the languages ​​of science.
• Russian is studied as a foreign language in many countries of the world.
• Russian is the working language of such international organizations as: the UN, UNESCO, etc.

The Russian language is the language of the richest fiction, the world significance of which is exceptionally great.

Russian is the national language of the Russian people. It is the language of science and culture. For centuries, masters of the word (A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A. Tvardovsky, K. Paustovsky and others) and philologists (F. Buslaev, I. Sreznevsky, L. Shcherba, V. Vinogradov and others) improved the Russian language, brought it to subtlety, creating for us a grammar, a dictionary, exemplary texts.
The arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their combinations contain that information about the world and people, which introduces one to the spiritual wealth created by many generations of ancestors.
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky wrote that "every word of the language, each of its forms is the result of a person's thoughts and feelings, through which the nature of the country and the history of the people are reflected in the word." The history of the Russian language, according to V. Küchelbecker, "will reveal ... the character of the people who speak it."
That is why all means of language help to most accurately, clearly and figuratively express the most complex thoughts and feelings of people, all the diversity of the surrounding world. The national language includes not only the normalized literary language, but also folk dialects, colloquial forms of the language, professionalisms.
The formation and development of a national language is a complex, lengthy process. The history of the Russian national language begins in the 17th century, when the Russian nation was finally formed. The further development of the Russian national language is directly related to the development of the history and culture of the people. The Russian national language was formed on the basis of the dialects of Moscow and its environs. The literary language forms the basis of the national language and is obliged to maintain its internal unity despite the difference in the means of expression used. The norm of a language is the generally accepted use of linguistic means, the rules that determine the exemplary use of linguistic means. The creator of the Russian literary language is A. Pushkin, who combined the literary Russian language of previous eras with the common spoken language. The language of the Pushkin era has basically survived to this day. The literary language unites living generations, people understand each other, as they use the same language norms.
Literary language exists in two varieties - oral and written. The main advantages of the Russian national language are embodied in Russian fiction.
The peculiarity of the Russian national language is that it is the state language in Russia and serves as a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation.
The law "On Languages" defines the main areas of functioning of the Russian language as the state language: the highest bodies of state power and administration; publication of laws and other legal acts of the republics within the Russian Federation; holding elections; in the activities of state bodies; in official correspondence and office work; in the all-Russian mass media.
The studies carried out in the Russian republics and a number of CIS countries testify to the recognition of the fact that at the present stage it is difficult to solve the problem of interethnic communication without the Russian language. Playing the role of an intermediary between all the languages ​​of the peoples of Russia, the Russian language helps to solve the problems of the political, economic and cultural development of the country. In international relations, states use world languages ​​legally proclaimed by the United Nations as official and working languages. These languages ​​are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. In any of these six languages, interstate political, economic, scientific and cultural contacts can be carried out, international meetings, forums, meetings can be held, correspondence and office work can be conducted on the scale of the UN, the CIS, etc. The world significance of the Russian language is due to the richness and expressiveness of its vocabulary, sound structure, word formation, syntax.
In order to communicate and disseminate the experience of teaching the Russian language abroad, in 1967 the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was established in Paris. On the initiative of MAPRYAL, Russian language olympiads are held among schoolchildren of the world. The philosopher Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin (1882-1954), speaking at the Pushkin Jubilee in 1937, said of the Russian language: “Our Russia has given us one more gift: it is our marvelous, our mighty, our singing language. In it, all of it is our Russia. It contains all her gifts: the breadth of unlimited possibilities, and the richness of sounds, and words, and forms; and spontaneity, and clarity; and simplicity, and scope, and guy; and dreaminess, and strength, and clarity, and beauty.
Everything is available to our language. He himself is submissive to everything worldly and transcendental, and therefore has the power to express, depict and convey everything.
It has the buzz of distant bells and the silver of nearby bells. There are gentle rustles and crunches in it. It has grassy rustles and sighs. It screams and grey, and whistle, and bird chirping. It contains heavenly thunders and animal roars; and whirlwinds are unsteady, and splashes are barely audible. It contains the whole singing Russian soul; echo of the world and human groans, and a mirror of divine visions...
It is the language of sharp, cutting thought. The language of a quivering, emerging premonition. The language of volitional decisions and accomplishments. The language of soaring and prophecy. The language of elusive transparency and eternal verbs.
It is the language of a mature original national character. And the Russian people, who created this language, is itself called upon to reach spiritually and spiritually the height to which it is called - its language ... "

2 The Russian language is the primary element of great Russian literature. Wealth, beauty, expressiveness of the Russian language. Artistic text in the study of the Russian language.

1) the aesthetic function of the word; 2) direct and figurative meanings of a word in a literary text; 3) verbal image. II. Wealth, beauty, expressiveness of the Russian language: 1) flexibility and expressiveness of the phonetic system, sound writing; 2) the richness and diversity of the word-formation system of the Russian language; 3) the lexical richness of the Russian language, the main poetic tropes (epithet, metaphor, personification, word-symbols - traditional metaphors in Russian literature), figures of speech (gradation, antithesis); 4) the expressiveness of the means of morphology and syntax of the Russian language, visual techniques built on the gram * The proposed material of the ticket can be used by the student as a reference for analyzing the text in the exam. mathematical basis (inversion, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, comparison). III. Linguistics about a literary text: 1) philological and linguistic concepts of the text and its features, text structure: expressiveness, articulation, autonomy, coherence, orderliness, integrity; theme, jt idea, plot, composition; given and new, microtext, micro-|rotem, paragraph; 2) connection of sentences in the text; 3) speech styles; 4) types of speech. I. The word, according to the definition of M. Gorky, is “the “primary element” of literature, and the language itself is the material of verbal art. The famous linguist D.P. Zhuravlev wrote that fiction is the highest form of language organization, when everything is important: the depth of the meaning of the word, and the rhythm, and the music of sounds full of meaning. Words as elements of artistic, poetic | speech have not only semantic (semantic), but also aesthetic information; they not only communicate something to the mind, but also affect the senses with their non-similarity, imagery, sound organization, unusual word formation, a special word order | in a sentence, the diversity of word meanings, rhythm. The literary text is saturated with words of both direct and figurative meaning. The verbal image (a separate word, paragraph, stanza - part of a literary work) shows how the scribber sees and artistically depicts the world. The writer has the ability, observing the language norms, to choose from the possible options the most successful for creating a verbal image. Vivid examples of speech skills are the works of art by prominent Russian writers. Gogol wrote about Pushkin's poems in the following way: “There are few words, but they are so precise that they mean everything. In every word there is an abyss of space; every word is boundless, like a poet. In the language of a work of art, the exact word is not only a word that accurately designates an object, phenomenon, action, sign, but also a word accurately chosen to express the author’s artistic intention: - Russian speech is like music to me: In it, the word sounds, sings The Russian soul breathes in it. Its Creator is the people. And I dive into this speech, Like into a river, And there, from the bottom, I get treasures, In which spring sings. (I. Brown.) II. The Russian language is rich, beautiful and expressive. The flexibility and expressiveness of the Russian phonetic system delights many. One of the most powerful techniques is sound writing. It is achieved by the selection of close-sounding words, a virtuoso combination of sounds, the repetition of the same sound or combination of sounds, the use of words that, by their sound, resemble the sound impressions of the depicted phenomenon. The repetition of similar consonants is called alliteration, and the repetition of vowels is called assonance. The methodologist S. I. Lvova in the book “Lessons of Literature” says: “So, the sonorous trembling elastic sound [r] is associated in our minds with the meaning of active noise, thunder, roar, peal, solemn ringing: A roar of thunder passed through the blue sky . (S. Marshak.) ... The persistent repetition of the sound [y] can enhance the mood of light sadness, tenderness: I love Russian birch, sometimes light, sometimes sad. (A. Prokofiev.) ”A huge number of morphemes in the Russian language is a sign of its richness and a source of special expressiveness. V. G. Belinsky wrote: “The Russian language is unusually rich for expressing natural phenomena ... what wealth ... for depicting the phenomena of natural reality lies only in Russian verbs that have the forms: swim, swim, swim, swim, sail, sail, swim away, swim away, swim, swim, swim away, swim away, swim, swim, swim, swim, melt, swim, float, swim. It's all one verb to express twenty shades of the same action! Belinsky drew attention to the expressiveness of multi-prefixed verbs. In Russian folk songs and fairy tales, diminutive suffixes are often used: oak tree, path-path, berezhki, hostess, wild little head, red sun, handkerchief. Often writers and poets play with the internal form of the word (the meaning of morphemes): I spent the whole winter in this region. I say that I settled down because I dug into the steppe. (P. Vyazemsky.) Vocabulary of the Russian language is surprisingly diverse. It includes synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, words in a figurative sense. These linguistic means are the foundation for the construction of various poetic tropes, figures of speech. In the works of Russian literature, one can find adjectives-epithets that characterize an object, emphasize its qualities, properties, create a certain image: the wind is violent, wandering, frisky (by Baratynsky), fleeting, flying, deserted (by Pushkin), sighing (by Balmont ), yellow, blue-cold (by Yesenin), sweet, precious (by Vasiliev). There are many examples of metaphor, a path where words or expressions come together in terms of the similarity of their meanings or in contrast: the sleepy lake of the city (near Blok), the grains of the eyes, the fire of red mountain ash (near Yesenin), the sea of ​​​​sky (near Khlebnikov), sea water, a heavy emerald ( at Mandelstam), a stream of a smile (at Svetlov). Often in the works of folklore, fiction there are personifications - when inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of living beings (the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel): Sleepy birch trees smiled ... (S. Yesenin.) What are you howling about, the night wind .. (F. Tyutchev.) Synonyms are the basis of such a stylistic figure of speech as gradation - the arrangement of words according to the degree of strengthening or weakening of their semantic or emotional meaning: In two hundred to three hundred years, life on Earth will be unimaginably beautiful, amazing. (A. Chekhov.) Antithesis is a stylistic figure of contrast, a sharp opposition of concepts: I will laugh with everyone, but I don’t want to cry with anyone. (M. Lermontov.) Homonyms, obsolete words, dialectisms, professionalisms, phraseological combinations also have amazing artistic possibilities. The Russian language is rich in syntactic figurative means. Intonation gives syntactic constructions a natural, emotional sound. Inversion has been polished for centuries in the language: Sad time! oh charm! (A. Pushkin.) It gives the poem more expression, emotionality, changes its intonation. A rhetorical question, a rhetorical (poetic) appeal create a special emotionality, colloquial flavor: Familiar clouds! How do you live? (M. Svetlov.) III. In order to better understand artistic speech, its originality, you need to know the laws of the functioning of the Russian language well. The artistic reproduction of reality depicted in a literary work presupposes that the reader has the ability to understand the meanings of words, the availability of special knowledge from various fields of science, history and culture of the people, and, of course, knowledge of linguistic theory. 20 In a broad philological sense, a text is a work of literature. In a narrow sense, a text is a combination of sentences, expressed orally or in writing, separated from each other by final signs (a period, a question mark or an exclamation mark) and related in meaning (theme and main idea) and grammatically. The main means of grammatical connection of sentences in the text are the order of sentences, the order of words in sentences, intonation. Each next sentence is built on the basis of the previous one, absorbing one or another part of it. The repeating part is called “given” (what is known is given to the speaker - D), the speaker starts from it, building a new sentence that develops the theme of the statement. The part of the sentence that contains new information and on which the logical stress falls is called "new" (N). The text has a beginning and an end, that is, it is a relatively complete statement. In the text, sentences are arranged in a certain order. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition. The content of the text is revealed only through its verbal form. The topic is what is described in the text, what the narration is about, the reasoning is unfolding, the dialogue is being conducted. The heading may name the topic. The titles of works of art can be directly related to the theme, they can be a metaphorical image leading to the theme ("A Hero of Our Time", "Dead Souls"). The topic can be narrow and wide (“Autumn” is a wide topic, “Autumn Day” is a narrow topic). Idea - the main, main idea, the intention of the work, what is said about the subject of speech. Plot - in a literary text - the sequence and connection of the description of events. Composition - the structure, ratio and relative position of the parts of a work of art. How are the sentences related to each other in the text? There are two ways of linking sentences in a text, two ways of unfolding a text - serial and parallel (see ticket M° 25). At the disposal of a person, a writer, there is a whole set of language options, each of which is intended for use in a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200blife. Variants of the literary language, which are due to various areas of communication, are called functional styles of speech (see ticket No. 27). There are three main functional and semantic types of text: narration, description, reasoning.

3 Classification of vowels and consonants. Strong and weak positions of sounds

Speech sounds are studied in the section of linguistics called phonetics. All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants. Vowels can be in strong and weak positions. Strong position - a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater force and does not require verification, for example: city, land, greatness. In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher. All six vowels are distinguished under stress. In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [h], other vowels are pronounced in the same part of the word. So, instead of [o], a somewhat weakened sound [a] - [vad] a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables, [ie] is pronounced - a sound that is intermediate between [i] and [e], for example: [ m "iesta], [h" iesy], [n "iet" brka], [s * ielo]. The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowels in the same part of the word is called positional alternation of sounds. The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on which syllable they are in relation to the stressed one. In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowel sounds change less, for example: st [o] l - st [a] la. In the remaining unstressed syllables, the vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example ^: transported - [n "riev" 6s], gardener - [sdavot], water carrier - [vdavbs] (here b to b denote an obscure sound, zero sound). The alternation of vowels in strong and weak positions is not reflected in the letter, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in an unstressed position, the letter that denotes the stressed sound in this root is written: to be surprised means “to meet with a diva (miracle)”. This is the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, providing for the uniform spelling of significant parts of the word - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position. The morphological principle is subject to the designation of unstressed vowels, checked by stress. There are 36 consonants in Russian. The consonant sounds of the Russian language are such sounds, during the formation of which the air meets some kind of barrier in the oral cavity, they consist of a voice and noise, or only of noise. In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - deaf. Most often, voiced and deaf consonants form pairs of voiced-deafness: [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [g] - [ w], [h] - [s]. However, some consonants are only deaf: [x], [c], [h "], [w] or only voiced: [l], [m], [n], [p], [G]. There are also hard and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b "], [c] - [c"], [g] - [g "], [d] - [d "], [h] - [h"] , [k] - [k "], [l] - [l "], [m] - [m *], [n] - [n *], [n] - [n "], [r] - [p "], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"]. Solid consonants [g], [w], [c] and soft consonants, [h "], [t"] do not have paired sounds. In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of a sound among other sounds in a word. The position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant, this is the position before a vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [v] and [v *] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants. At the same time, the consonant sound changes: the voiced before the deaf becomes deaf: hem - [patshyt "]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz" ba]; voiced at the end of the word is stunned: oak - [dup]; the sound is not pronounced: holiday - [praz "n" ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas "t"].

4 The word as a unit of language. The lexical meaning of the word. Groups of words by lexical meaning

A man needed a word in order to give a name to everything that is in the world. After all, in order to talk about something and even think about it, you need to call it somehow, name it. Each word has its own sound, literal shell, individual lexical (meaning of the word) and typical grammatical (features of the word as a part of speech) meaning, for example: [t "ul1] - tulle; individual lexical meaning - "thin mesh fabric"; the word tulle - masculine noun, 2nd declension, in the singular, in the nominative case.
All the words of a language form its vocabulary, or vocabulary. The branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology. In lexicology, independent words are studied from the point of view, first of all, of lexical meaning, as well as use and origin. The lexical meaning of a word is the main idea that we think about when we pronounce the word, the semantic content of the word, which is equally understood by people who speak the given language.
There are several ways to explain the lexical meaning of words: 1. Interpretation (explanation) of the word in the dictionary entries of explanatory dictionaries. The largest number - 200,000 words - is contained in the famous four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language", compiled by V. I. Dahl a hundred and fifty years ago.
The most complete interpretation of words is given by the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, compiled by scientists from the Academy of Sciences. It explains the meaning of 120,000 words. This dictionary is currently in its 2nd edition in 20 volumes. Recently, a one-volume "Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" has appeared, edited by S. A. Kuznetsov. It explains the meaning of 130,000 words, including those that have appeared in the Russian language in recent decades.
2. Selection of synonyms: joy - fun, revival, holiday, celebration, jubilation.
3. An interpretation that includes single-rooted words: a teacher is one who transfers knowledge, an ant is one who lives in grass-ant, a shepherd is one who grazes, drives animals to pasture.
4. Illustration of the meaning of the word, drawing.
A word can have one lexical meaning, such words are called unambiguous, for example: dialogue, purple, saber, alert. A word can have two or more lexical meanings, such words are called polysemantic, for example: the word root is polysemantic, in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova four meanings of this word are indicated: 1. The underground part of the plant . The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inner part of the tooth, hair, nail. Blush down to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. Beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. The root is the significant part of the word.
If the meaning of a word directly indicates an object, action, phenomenon, then such a meaning is called direct: parsley root, tooth root, tree root. If the direct meaning of a word is transferred to another object, then such a meaning is called figurative: the root of the genus, the root of evil. In everyday speech, a person constantly uses words in a figurative sense: golden autumn, pressure drops, silver voice, easy character. Poets and writers use the special expressiveness of the figurative meaning of the word, create special means of artistic representation: metaphor, epithet, personification. This helps them vividly, unexpectedly express their thoughts and feelings: As a tree quietly drops leaves, so I drop sad words ... (S. Yesenin.)
The Russian language has a huge number of words. All of them are divided into groups depending on what lexical feature of the word is meant. 1. Words are single-valued, multi-valued, the use of a word in a figurative sense. In this group, the features of the lexical meaning of words are emphasized: iceberg, brochure, lecture hall - unambiguous; earth, run, turquoise - ambiguous; cold tea (straight) - cold colors (transl.) - cold heart (transl.).
2. Synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, homographs, homophones. This group reflects the semantic connection of different words in the language.
Synonyms - words close in lexical meaning: spoke - said, said, responded, muttered; short - short, short; eyes - eyes. Antonyms are words that are opposite in lexical meaning: work - idleness, talk - be silent, cheerful - sad.
Homonyms are words that are completely different in meaning, but sound and spell the same (onion - “plant” and onion - “weapon”). Homographs are words that have differences in stress (atlas and atlas). Homophones are words that have differences in spelling, but at the same time sound the same (caress the kitten and rinse the laundry).
Do not mix polysemantic words and homonymous words. Polysemy differs from homonymy in that different meanings of one polysemantic word retain some commonality in the interpretation of their meaning. Therefore, in the dictionary, polysemantic words are given in one dictionary entry and are given as one word with a listing of all meanings. Homonyms are different words, the meanings of which have nothing in common, and in explanatory dictionaries homonyms are described in different dictionary entries.
3. Common vocabulary, dialectisms, professionalisms; neutral, bookish, colloquial words; outdated vocabulary. These words are allocated to a special group - in connection with the peculiarities of their use in speech. Common words are words that all people use: grass, earth, black, three, eyes.
Dialectisms are local words that are understandable to the inhabitants of a particular locality: kurnik - “chicken meat pie”, slanting - “oblique rain with wind”. Professionalisms are special words that are used by specialists, people of a certain profession: a publisher uses the words font, flyleaf, binding; scientist-linguist - lexicology, professionalisms; doctor - injection, syringe, anesthesia.
Neutral words are not associated with any style of speech, they are appropriate in various speech situations. Book words are assigned to any style of speech: artistic, scientific, official business, journalistic. Colloquial words are used in communication. This can be seen in a number of synonymous words: leave (neutral) - take a bow, leave (bookish) - evaporate (colloquial). Words that have ceased to be used in everyday life due to the disappearance of the corresponding concepts are called obsolete, for example: chain mail, smerd, serf, mayor, police officer, alarm clock. But they are used in stories, comedies, novels, when it comes to antiquity. Instead of obsolete words, new ones appear based on those that already exist in the language: a pen (goose) - I write with a pen, a pen (steel) - a golden pen. 4. Native Russian words and borrowed vocabulary. This group of words reflects the features of their origin.
The original Russian vocabulary includes those words that were formed directly in the Russian language. Among the original Russian words, common Slavic words stand out (mother, shepherd, yard, porridge, kvass, birch, field, morning), East Slavic (uncle, nephew, spoon, ravine, flower) and Russian proper (grandmother, grandfather, fork, fairy tale, calf, duck).
There are many borrowed words in Russian. According to scientists, about every tenth word is borrowed. In the 16th century the Russian language was enriched with German, Dutch words (master, assault), in the 19th century. a large number of borrowings were from the French language (ballet, dressing table, landscape), in the XX century. the main borrowings are English words (marketing, manager, rally, football). Borrowed words reflect historical changes in the life of the state, in science, technology, economics, and art. These words can be identified by some signs: if the word begins with a vowel a or e (diamond, era, echo), if the root of the word has a combination of ke, ge, heh, it, mu, byu or pyu (layout, coat of arms, scheme, engraving, mashed potatoes, bust), if the word contains the letter f (eagle owl, focus, rhyme), if two or more vowels are adjacent to the root (poet, duet, theater), we can safely say that the word came into Russian from another language.

5 Word groups by usage and origin

Words that are not known to all speakers of Russian are called uncommon. These include dialect and slang vocabulary, as well as professional and terminological vocabulary.
Non-common words used in a certain locality are called dialectal, for example: kuren - house.
Uncommon words used by certain groups of people to name objects that have their own names in the literary language are called jargon, for example: limit - TV.
Professional and terminological vocabulary is the vocabulary used in a certain area of ​​human activity. It makes it easy to distinguish a medical worker from a miner, a steelworker from a hunter, etc.
Among professional words, there are terms denoting scientific concepts and highly specialized words, for example: scalpel, bronchoscopy, part of speech, phoneme, grammatical basis.
Depending on the origin, all words of the Russian language can be divided into two large categories: native vocabulary and vocabulary borrowed from other languages.
Native Russian words are the main words that were included in the original vocabulary of the Russian language or subsequently formed from the lexical material of the language. Words from the most ancient layer of words, for example: mother, brother, sister, water, etc., are found in other Indo-European languages ​​(they just sound a little different).
Among the borrowed vocabulary, a large group of Old Slavonic words stands out: vrata, valor, gold, words borrowed from other Slavic languages: borscht, cheese (Ukrainian), belongings, cord (Polish), etc., as well as borrowings from non-Slavic languages : cotton wool, closet (German), station, football (English), luggage, boss (French), etc.
Borrowed words, being included in the vocabulary of the Russian language, usually lose the specific phonetic and morphological features of the source language and acquire sound and grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language.

6 Phraseologism: its lexical meaning, function in a sentence and text

Phraseologism can be replaced with one word, for example: hack on the nose - remember; how to look into the water - to foresee. The lexical meaning of a phraseological unit is close to the lexical meaning of one word.
Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms, for example, a phraseological unit grated kalach (meaning "experienced person") has a synonymous phraseological unit shot sparrow; the phraseological unit has no end (in the meaning of "a lot") there is a phraseological unit-antonym one-two and miscalculated (in the meaning of "little").
Most of the phraseological units reflect the history of Russia, the customs of their ancestors, their work, for example, the expression to beat the bucks in the meaning of "to mess around" arose on the basis of the direct meaning "to split the block into bucks (chocks) to make spoons, ladles out of them", i.e. to make easy, easy job.
Many phraseological units were born from songs, fairy tales, parables, proverbs of the Russian people, for example: a good fellow, shed tears with burning tears, milky rivers.
Some phraseological units are associated with professional speech: in an hour, a teaspoonful - from medical vocabulary; get off the stage - from the speech of the artists. Phraseological units / and appeared in the process of borrowing. Everyone knows borrowed phraseological units from the Bible, for example: the prodigal son, Valaam's donkey. Many phraseological units came from ancient Greek and Roman mythology: Achilles' heel, Procrustean bed. Many quotes, winged words from foreign classical literature have become phraseological units, for example: to be or not to be (from the tragedy of W. Shakespeare "Hamlet").
Phraseologism characterizes all aspects of a person's life: attitude to work (golden hands, beat the buckets); attitude towards other people (bosom friend, disservice); personal strengths and weaknesses (to lead by the nose, turn up the nose, not to lose one's head).
In a sentence, a phraseological unit is one member: subject, predicate, complement or circumstance - depending on what part of speech it can be replaced with, for example, in the sentence Guys work rolling up their sleeves, rolling up their sleeves can be replaced by an adverb good (diligently). Therefore, this phraseological unit will play the role of the circumstance of the mode of action.
Phraseologisms are found in artistic style texts: in Russian folklore as proverbs, sayings, catchwords (there is no truth at the feet), in the sayings of literary heroes (dot the and; the golden mean), in aphoristic phrases (a legend is fresh, but hard to believe - from A. Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit"), in turns of colloquial speech (throughout Ivanovo, with a gulkin's nose).
Phraseological units give speech figurativeness, expressiveness, make it richer, more beautiful.

7 Groups of morphemes (significant parts of the word): root and auxiliary (suffix, prefix, ending). Word-building and inflectional service morphemes.

The root is the main significant part of the word, which contains the common meaning of all homogeneous words. Words with the same root are called single-root: "winter," wintering, "wintering," winter.
Suffix - a significant part of the word, which is located after the root and serves to form new words and forms of words: lamplighter, stylist. A word may have not one, but several suffixes: reader, prudence.
A prefix is ​​a significant part of a word that is in front of the root and serves to form new words: run - ^ run - run - "run. There may be not one, but two or more prefixes in a word: interesting. In some words, the prefixes have grown together with the root and no longer stand out: adore, answer, disappear.
Among the prefixes there are synonymous (trendy, best) and antonymous (fly - ^fly).
So, word-building morphemes are suffixes and prefixes, they clarify and concretize the lexical meaning of the word, form words with a new lexical meaning and are attached to part of the word or to the whole word. From what morpheme is used to form words, the main ways of their formation differ: prefix, suffix, prefix-but-suffix, non-suffix.
In the prefixed way, nouns are formed (luck - "failure"), adjectives (important - prevazhny), pronouns (something - something), verbs (cook - cook), adverbs (where - "nowhere"). All independent parts of speech are formed in a suffixal way, but it is the main one for nouns, adjectives and adverbs (whiteness, foggy, turn white black). The suffix is ​​added not to the whole word, but to its generating stem (original part). For example, the suffix -tel (with the meaning "person, occupation, profession") is added to the stem of the word (purchase), and a new word is formed - the buyer.
In the prefix-suffix way, for example, nouns are formed with the suffix -nick (with the meaning "person, object, profession"). For example, the word snowdrop means "what grows under the snow." The prefix pod1- and the suffix -nick- are simultaneously added to the base (snow). Other parts of speech are formed in this way, for example: land, "table, seaside," white.
The non-suffixal way of forming words is that the ending (green] - greens) is discarded from the word, or the ending and the suffix (fly away \ tb \ - flying away) are simultaneously discarded. Thus, the main function of the prefix and suffix is ​​word formation. In addition to the ending, form-building suffixes are also referred to inflectional service morphemes. For example, participle suffixes (speaking, reading, done, ground, fallen), comparative and superlative suffixes of adjectives, adverbs, and formative postfixes (highest, more, unhealthy). Formative suffixes, as well as endings, can be zero: carried - carried, soh - dried up, baked - baked.

8 The main ways of forming words in Russian

In Russian, new words can be formed by adding a prefix to the original word. This way of forming words is called prefixed. For example, by adding (attaching) the prefix for 1- (with the meaning “the beginning of the action”) to the generating base (to prepare), we form the word MAKE; the adverb "smaller" is also formed with the prefix No1- attached to the base (less).
The formation of words with the help of a suffix is ​​called the suffix method. For example, the adjective scarlet is formed by adding the suffix -enk- with a diminutive meaning to the stem (al)(y). The noun bookbinder is formed with the suffix -chik- (meaning "profession") attached to the stem (binding) (binder - one who knows how to bind); the word switch is formed using the suffix -tel- (with the meaning "object"), connected to the base (turning off (the switch is an object with which you can turn off); the verb to join (i.e., act as a carpenter) is formed using the suffix -nicha-, connected to the base (carpenter); the adjective swampy (“similar to a swamp”) is formed using the suffix -ist-, connected to the base (bogs); the noun worker is formed using the suffix -nik- and the base (works) ( a).
New words can be formed by adding a prefix and a suffix at the same time. This method of formation is called prefixed-suffix-fixal. For example, the adjective foreign (“located abroad”) is formed using the prefix za1- (meaning “beyond something”) and the suffix -n- (sign value); the adverb zasvetlo (at a bright time) is formed using the prefix za1- (meaning "beginning") and the typical adverb suffix -o.
The non-suffixal method consists in the fact that the ending is discarded from the word (green \\ th] - "green") or the ending is discarded at the same time and the suffix is ​​cut off (repeat \ - "repeat"). The addition method lies in the fact that new words are formed by combining words (sofa bed), adding the stems of words without connecting vowels (sports ground, physical education, half of Europe) or using connecting vowels (snowfall, plowman, five days, diesel locomotive, linguist) , with the help of connecting vowels (interfixes) one, connecting part of the word with the whole word (new building, frost-resistant, decorative and applied), adding bases with the addition of a suffix (dizzy, five-year plan), an abbreviated stem and the word (Sberbank).
Nouns in the Russian language have, and only they have, inherent methods of formation, with the help of which complex abbreviated words are created: the addition of syllables or parts of words of the full name: special correspondent (special correspondent), trade union committee (trade union committee); addition of the names of the initial letters of the phrase: ATS - pronounced [atees] (automatic telephone exchange), RF - [eref] (Russian Federation); addition of the initial sounds of the phrase: UN - [un] (United Nations), scientific research institute - [n "ii] (research institute); mixed method (addition of a syllable with a sound, a sound with a syllable, letters with a sound): glavk (main Committee).
The grammatical gender of compound words is determined by the main word of the phrase: Moscow State University (Moscow State University) has begun accepting students.
Compound and abbreviated words can serve as the basis for the formation of new words: university (higher educational institution) - university student (university student), collective farm (collective farm) - collective farmer (a person working in a collective farm).
The listed ways of forming words are called morphological. In addition to them, there is a lexical-semantic method - the formation of homonyms (barley - grain crop, barley - inflammation of the eyelid); morphological-syntactic method - transition from one part of speech to another ice cream (verbal adjective) milk - delicious ice cream (noun); lexico-syntactic method - the formation of a word from a phrase (forever + green = evergreen, that + hour = immediately).

9 Parts of speech in Russian, criteria for their selection

In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech, interjections and onomatopoeic words are distinguished. Independent (significant) parts of speech name objects, their qualities, properties or actions or point to them. They have their own grammatical meanings, carry verbal stress and play the role of the main or secondary members of the sentence. The independent parts of speech include nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, adverbs. Some scientists - authors of textbooks (V. V. Babaitseva, L. D. Chesnokova) consider participle and participle to be independent parts of speech. But more often, participles and gerunds are referred to by scientists as special forms of the verb (N. M. Shansky, M. M. Razumovskaya). Service parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) do not name the phenomena of reality, but indicate various relationships between words (prepositions), words and sentences (conjunctions) or give semantic and emotional shades to words and sentences (particles). They do not have forms of inflection, do not have verbal stress, are not members of a sentence. Interjections in Russian express, but do not name the feelings of the speaker: Oh! Yes! Alas! etc. Onomatopoeic words reproduce sounds, cries: ku-ka-re-ku, mu-u-u, etc. Neither interjections nor onomatopoeic words are members of the sentence.

10 Nominal parts of speech, their common and distinctive features

Nominal parts of speech in Russian are a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun. The features of these parts of speech are studied by morphology.
Nominal parts of speech are independent (meaningful), changeable (declined) parts of speech, are members of a sentence.
The noun occupies one of the main places in our speech. Everything that exists in the world is called a word - a noun. Nouns designate an object, answer the questions who? what? (boy, cat, blizzard, decision, Moscow, blue, excitement). The subject in grammar is everything that you can ask who is it? what is it?, for example: who is it? - human; what is this? - textbook. Nouns are divided into groups depending on the lexical meaning:
1) specific - they call objects of the surrounding world (living or inanimate nature): house, picture, TV; boy, dog, bullfinch, oak;
2) real - they call substances: gold, oil, gas, salt, polyethylene;
3) abstract - they call phenomena perceived mentally: properties, qualities: whiteness, kindness, stupidity; actions: running, changing, pushing; states: joy, sleep, laziness; natural phenomena: blizzard, rainbow; social phenomena: parade, reform;
4) collective - they call a lot of identical objects as one: foliage, children.
Nouns denoting generalized names of homogeneous objects (phenomena) are called common nouns, for example: river, mountain, city, kindness, uprising, titmouse. Nouns denoting the names of single (individual) objects are called proper, for example: Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, Yuri Dolgoruky, cat Marquis, Europe, Arbat. Nouns are divided into animate (Volzhanin, carpenter, bear cub) and inanimate (house, newspaper, Meshchera).
The division into animate and inanimate nouns does not always coincide with the division of everything that exists in nature into living and inanimate, for example, the names of plants, the words people, children, flock, youth are inanimate, and the words doll, dead man, dead man, ace, jack, trump card (card terms) - to the animated ones.
Nouns refer to the masculine (man, house, tiger), feminine (sister, hut, tigress), middle (generation, impression, patronymic) gender. Usually it is not difficult to determine the gender of nouns, but there is a group of words for which the gender can be correctly determined only by referring to the dictionary: swan - masculine; shampoo - masculine; chassis - neuter; callus is feminine.
Some masculine nouns denoting a profession, occupation, can be used to refer to both male and female persons (lawyer, geologist, salesman).
Foreign nouns are more often neuter (cafe, menu, atelier); masculine gender includes nouns that name males or animals (maestro, kangaroo); to the feminine - nouns that call females (miss, madam, frau, lady).
The gender of geographical names is determined by the gender of the related common nouns (Tbilisi - city - masculine).
Depending on belonging to the genus, nouns belong to the 1st declension (masculine, feminine with the endings -а, -я, words of the general gender - egoz®); to the 2nd declension (masculine gender with zero ending, neuter gender with endings -o, -e); to the 3rd declension (feminine with a zero ending), for example: hotel®, Ban@ - 1st declension, business \ o ±, nail ^ - 2nd declension, youth ^), sensitivity ^] - 3rd declination.
So, nouns have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning (subject), are divided into groups depending on the meaning, have constant morphological features (proper - common noun; animate - inanimate; gender, declension).
Adjectives designate a sign of an object and answer the questions what? which? which? which? With the help of adjectives, an object can be characterized from different points of view. If adjectives indicate the quality of an object, which can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent (smart - smarter (comparative degree) - the smartest (superlative degree), they are called qualitative. Qualitative adjectives characterize the object: ruddy, kind, big, warm.
Adjectives indicating that the object they define is related to another object are called relative: silver - related to silver, from silver; Moscow - is related to Moscow. The belonging of an object to a person or animal is determined by possessive adjectives: mother (dress), foxes (footprints), Petina (book).
So, adjectives have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning (a sign of an object) and a constant sign - a category by value (qualitative, relative, possessive). There are many words in Russian that have the meaning of numbers, counts, for example: two, two, double, doubled, doubling. But only the word two is a numeral.
The numeral is a nominal part of speech that denotes the number, the number of objects (two days), their order in counting (the second student) and answers the questions how much? which? which the? (by account).
Numerals by value are divided into quantitative (answer the question how many? - five, fifteen, twenty-five, one hundred and twenty-five) and ordinal (answer the question which one? Or which one? - fifth, fifteenth, twenty-fifth).
Cardinal numbers can mean whole numbers (five), fractional numbers (one-fifth) or have a collective meaning (five).
Numerals are simple (consist of one word), complex and compound (two or more words): eleven, five hundred, one thousand two hundred and thirty-one.
So, numerals have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning (numbers) and constant morphological features: they are ordinal and quantitative, simple, complex and compound, whole, fractional and collective (only quantitative).
Pronouns are words that are used instead of a name, designate persons (I, you, we, you, he, she, it, they), indicate objects, signs of objects, the number of objects, without specifically naming them (that, this, everyone , so much). Pronouns differ from all other nominal parts of speech in that they themselves do not have an independent meaning, but in speech, in the text this meaning becomes specific, because it corresponds to a specific person, object, sign, quantity: There was a vase on the table. It [the vase] was of unusual shape. It happened in a city that [the city] is known to everyone. According to the meaning and grammatical features, nine categories of pronouns are distinguished: 1) personal (I, we; you, you; he, she, it; they); 2) returnable (oneself); 3) possessive (mine, yours, ours, yours, yours); 4) demonstrative (this, that, such, such, such, so many); 5) definitive (himself, most, all, everyone, each, different); 6) relative (who, what, what, what, which, how much, whose); 7) interrogative (who? what? what? whose? who? how much? where? when? where? from where? why? why? what?); 8) negative (no one, nothing, no one); 9) indefinite (someone, something, someone, anyone, anyone, someone). Pronouns have morphological features of the part of speech with which they correspond.
So, all nominal parts of speech are independent, have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning and constant morphological features (grammatical meanings).
The initial form for nominal parts of speech is the nominative case, singular, masculine (except for a noun). Irregular symptoms are also common. Nominal parts of speech change in cases, numbers, genders (except for the noun). We will prove this by changing sequentially all the words in the phrase, consisting of nominal parts of speech.
For qualitative adjectives, a changeable feature is a change in the form of the word (full or short), the degree of comparison (comparative and superlative).
Nominal parts of speech in a sentence act as main or secondary members.

11 The verb as a part of speech and its non-conjugated (special) forms, their unifying feature

The initial form of the verb is called the infinitive (indefinite form). Verbs in an indefinite form answer the questions what to do? what to do?, for example: to see, to carry, to consider.
In modern Russian, there are two types of verbs: perfect and imperfect.
Imperfective verbs answer [interrogation what to do? and indicate the incompleteness of the action, for example: decide, read.
Perfective verbs indicate the completion of the action, its end or result and answer the question what to do?, for example: decide, read.
A verb of one kind can correspond to a verb (of another kind with the same lexical meaning.
Such verbs form a specific pair: bloom (in May) - bloom (on time); save (friend) - save (friend).
There are verbs that do not form forms of another kind, for example, the verbs to regret, sing along, etc. do not form paired forms of the perfect form, and the verbs to walk, rush, etc. - paired forms of the imperfect form. There are verbs that in the same forms are used in the meaning of both the perfect and the imperfect form. Such verbs are called two-species, for example: marry, execute, use.
Verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive.
Verbs that combine or can combine with a noun or pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition are called transitive: I love my native side in all its modest attire, a birch, a fir tree and a pine tree in a pensive and dark forest. (M. Isakovsky.) Transitive verbs denote an action that goes over to another subject: I love (what?) - side, birch, Christmas tree, pine, which means that the verb I love is transitive.
Verbs are intransitive if the action does not directly transfer to another subject: walk (on skis), swim (in the sea), implement (into life).
Verbs change according to moods, that is, the same verb can be used in the form of the indicative, imperative and conditional mood.
The indicative mood of the verb denotes a real action that takes place in the present, past or future, for example: I read, I read, I will read.
The imperative mood of the verb expresses the will of the speaker - a request, an order, for example: read, speak, light.
The conditional mood of the verb denotes actions that are desired or possible, the implementation of which depends on some conditions, for example: would read, would speak, would light. Verbs in the indicative mood change with tenses. The category of time reflects the relation of action to the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action is happening at the moment of speaking about it, for example: shines, arrives. The past tense denotes an action that happened or happened before the speech about it began, for example: luminaries, arrived. The future tense denotes an action that will take place after the end of the speech about it, for example: I will return when our white garden spreads its branches in spring. (S. Yesenin.) The future simple tense is formed from perfective verbs: I will read; from imperfective verbs - future compound i tense: I will read.
Changing verbs in persons and numbers is called conjugation. According to their personal endings, verbs are divided into two conjugations: the first and the second.
The II conjugation includes verbs in -it (except for shaving and laying), seven verbs in -et (twirl, offend, see, depend, hate, watch, endure) and four verbs in -at (drive, hold, breathe, hear) . These verbs have personal endings -u (-u), -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -am (-yat).
All other verbs belong to the I conjugation (including shave, lay), have personal endings -u (-u), -esh, -et, -em, -et, -ut (-yut).
Verb conjugation is determined by the indefinite form. If the verb has an unstressed personal ending, then you need to: 1) put the verb in an indefinite form: work - work, do - do; 2) determine which letter comes before -t (what the verb ends with).
If the personal ending of the verb is under stress, then the conjugation is determined by the form of the 3rd person plural (-ut (-yut) - I ref.; -am (-yat) - II ref.) and by the vowels in the ending (e - I ref.; and - II ref.). The category of a person indicates the speaker (I listen - 1st person), the interlocutor of the speaker (you love - 2nd person), the person who does not participate in speech (they fly away - 3rd person).
All verbs with the suffix -sya (-s) are called reflexive.
Verbs that denote actions that occur on their own, without a protagonist (object), are called impersonal: it gets dark, shivering, unwell, frosty, evening, etc. Impersonal verbs usually denote natural phenomena or a person’s state: It’s already getting light. But I can't sleep.
As a rule, in a sentence, verbs act as a predicate. The verb has two non-conjugated (special) forms, this is participle and participle *. A common feature for participles and gerunds is that they carry some of the grammatical features of a verb.
Participle is a special form of a verb that denotes a sign of an object by action and answers the questions what? which? which? what?, for example: cities (k a k o g o?) surprising.
As a form of the verb, the participle has the grammatical meanings of the verb: transitivity or intransitivity: adhesive - washing, perfect or imperfective: read - audible, tense (present, past): throwing - throwing.
The participle combines, in addition to the signs of the verb, the signs of the adjective: it changes by gender, number and case, has a full and short form. In a sentence, it is more often a definition or part of a compound nominal predicate.
* In the educational complex of the authors V. V. Babaitseva, L. D. Chesnokova, A. Yu. Kupalova, G. K. Lidman-Orlova and others, participles and participles are considered as independent parts of speech.
Participles can be active (ball bouncing) and passive (lesson learned).
A gerund is a special form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb and answers the questions what are you doing? what did you do?, for example: deifying nature, rushing past. The participle denotes an additional action, while the main action is expressed by a verb-predicate.
Like the adverb, the gerund does not change.
As a form of the verb, the gerund has some of its grammatical meanings: it can be perfect and imperfect: flooding - bay, transitive and intransitive: lowering (what?) Eyes - transitive, trying - intransitive.
In a sentence, the participle is a circumstance.

12 Place of participle and gerund in the system of parts of speech

Participle is a special form of a verb that denotes a sign of an object by action and answers the questions what? which? which? what?, for example: cities (k a k o g o?) falling asleep. As a form of the verb, the participle has the grammatical meanings of the verb: transitivity or intransitivity: building - carried away, perfect or imperfective: glued - persecuted, tense (present, past): falling asleep - falling asleep.
The participle combines, in addition to the signs of the verb, the signs of the adjective: it changes by gender, number and case, has a full and short form. In a sentence, the participle is more often a definition or part of a compound nominal predicate.
Participles can be active and passive. Real participles denote a sign that is created by the action of the subject itself: a loving mother. Passive participles denote a sign that is created in one object by the action of another object: a task solved by a schoolchild.
A gerund is a special form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb and answers the questions what are you doing? what did you do?, for example: loving nature, flashing a dagger. The participle denotes an additional action, while the main action is expressed by a verb-predicate. Like the adverb, the gerund does not change.
As a form of the verb, the gerund has some of its grammatical meanings: it can be perfect and imperfect: bay - flooding, transitive and intransitive: lowering (what?) Eyes - transitive, trying - intransitive. In a sentence, the participle is a circumstance.
Participles and participles are more often used in written speech than in oral speech. The place of participles and gerunds in modern Russian has not been fully determined. So, some scientists - authors of textbooks (V. V. Babaitseva, L. D. Chesnokova) consider participle and participle to be independent parts of speech.

13 Invariable independent parts of speech. Their morphological and syntactic features.

An adverb is an independent part of speech that denotes a sign of action (going fast, slowly turning) or a sign of another sign (extremely cold, laughing merrily, very brightly).
In a sentence, the adverb is usually an adverb and answers the questions how? to what extent? where? where? where? when? why? why? Most often, the adverb refers to the verb (writing correctly), less often to the adjective, participle, gerund, another adverb (a cold winter day, a short flowering shrub, jumping joyfully, explaining is surprisingly simple).
By meaning, adverbs are divided into groups:
1) adverbs of mode of action (answer questions how? in what way?): together, quietly, three of us;
2) adverbs of measure and degree (answer questions to what extent? to what extent? to what extent e?): very, too much, three times, completely;
3) adverbs of place (answer the questions where? where? where? from where?): close, left, above, forward, afar, f. not far away;
4) adverbs of time (answer questions when? how is the debt about?): late, yesterday, autumn, long ago, until late;
5) adverbs of reason (answer questions about why? why?): because, rashly, blindly, involuntarily, accidentally;
6) adverbs of purpose (answer the questions why? | for what?): on purpose, out of spite, intentionally, then, why, for show.
An adverb is an invariable part of speech, it does not decline, does not conjugate, does not agree with other words. I The adverb does not and cannot have an ending. In the sentence, the adverb is a circumstance: Autumn. Overhead, gradually begins to turn yellow, I turn red, the leaves turn brown on the trees. (According to V. Bianchi.) Scientists note that there are about 6 thousand adverbs of the mode of action, measure and degree, their number is actively replenished. There are very few adverbs of cause and purpose. Some scholars also include gerunds and words of the state category as unchangeable independent parts of speech.
In the textbook "Russian language. Theory. Grades 5-9 ”by V. V. Babaitseva, L. D. Chesnokova, the gerund is characterized as an independent part of speech on the basis of the designation by the gerund of an additional action, a sign of action, like an adverb, specific questions, what have you done? what am I doing?, morphological features that combine the features of a verb and an adverb, typical morphemic indicators (suffixes -a, -i, -v, -lice, -shi), the syntactic function of the circumstance: looking, shouting, doing, smiling, crouching. The participle is formed from the verb, is associated with it by the grammatical meaning of the species, and also has the features of an adverb. As a result, many scientists still consider the gerund participle as a special form of the verb, and not as an independent invariable part of speech.
Scientists characterize the words of the state category in different ways, referring them both to a special part of speech and to predicative adverbs (adverbs in the role of a predicate). The words of the category of state were singled out by L. V. Shcherba in 1928, including in this special, as he believed, part of the speech of the word, which denote the state of man and the environment. L. V. Shcherba considered immutability and the ability to be used with a bunch as grammatical features of words of the category of state. To this part of speech, he attributed the words joyfully, it is possible, it is impossible, stuffy, it is necessary, it is dark. The words of the state category outwardly coincide with adverbs, but their syntactic functions are different. The words of the category of state are predicates in a one-part sentence, adverbs are circumstances: She looked at me coldly. I'm cold. There is still no uniformity in the interpretation of these words, however, many scientists consider the words of the state category to be an independent part of speech.

14 Service parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Their ranks in meaning, structure and syntactic usage

Functional parts of speech, unlike independent ones, do not have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning, do not change, are not separate members of a sentence, they perform only auxiliary functions in a sentence.
Prepositions serve to express the relationship of a noun, numeral, and some pronouns to other words in speech. Prepositions help to connect words in a phrase, clarify the meaning of the statement, and add adverbial meanings. So, in the proposal I will come to Moscow five in the evening, there are no pretexts for the train to be late. Although in general the phrase is understandable, nevertheless, the prepositions from (expresses spatial relations - from Moscow), to (expresses temporal relations - at five in the evening), due to, due to (express circumstantial, causal relations - due to being late) would help faster and more accurately comprehend what has been said.
The use of a preposition, taking into account grammatical norms, is a prerequisite for good and correct speech. So, the preposition in correlates only with the preposition from, and the preposition with - with the preposition on. You can say (came) to school - from school (but not "from school"), (came) from the Caucasus - to the Caucasus (but not "from the Caucasus"); you can't say "thanks to being late" - just because of being late. It must be remembered that prepositions according to, contrary to, thanks to are used with nouns in the dative case: according to the order, contrary to criticism, thanks to a friend. Prepositions are usually found before | the word with which they are used. Conjunctions are service words that connect homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions (and, no, no, too, also, but, but, however, or, or, something) connect homogeneous members of a sentence and parts of a compound sentence: A light breeze either woke up or subsided. (I. Turgenev.) Only the heart beats, but the song sounds, but the string quietly rumbles. (A. Surkov.) Coordinating unions are divided into three categories according to their meaning:
1) connecting (“and this and that”): yes (= and), and-and, no-no, also, also, not only-but and, like-so and;
2) adversatives (“not this, but this”): but, but, yes (= but), but, however; 3) dividing (“either this or that”): or, or, this, not that, not that. Subordinating conjunctions (what, to, because, as if) connect parts of a complex sentence: The sun was already high when I opened my eyes. (V. Garshin.)
Subordinating conjunctions are divided by value into categories:
1) explanatory (indicate what they are talking about): what, in order, as if, as if to others;
2) temporary: when, barely, how, as soon as, before, etc .;
3) causal: because, since, etc.;
4) target: in order to, in order to, etc.;
5) conditional: if, times, if, etc.;
6) concessive: although, despite the fact that and others;
7) investigative: so;
8) comparative: as, as if, as if, etc.
In complex sentences, the role of a union connecting parts of a sentence can be performed by relative pronouns (who, whose, what, who, what, how much) and adverbs (where, where, when, where, why, why, why). They are called allied words. Unlike unions, allied words are members of a sentence: We approached the house in which a friend lives.
Particles serve to form the forms of words and to express various shades of meaning in a sentence: The same word, but I would not say so. (Proverb.) - the particle would (would say) forms the form of the conditional mood of the verb; What a delight these stories are! (A. Pushkin.) - a particle that expresses delight, introduces an exclamatory meaning; Let everyone be happy! - let the particle form the imperative mood of the verb to be.
Particles involved in the formation of verb forms are called formative.
Particles that convey different meanings are called modal. Modal particles can express *: 1) negation: not, nor; 2) amplification: even, after all, after all; 3) question: is it, really; 4) exclamation: so what for; 5) doubt: hardly, hardly; 6) clarification: exactly, just; 7) allocation, restriction: only, only; 8) indication: out, here.
Particles are not and are not often found in our speech. The particle does not convey negation: not you, could not, not a friend, but in double negation (could not know) and in interrogative-exclamatory sentences (Who does not know Pushkin's fairy tales!, i.e. everyone knows) the particle does not lose its negative meaning .
The particle neither most often has an intensifying meaning, it strengthens the negation when it is expressed by a particle not or by words in the meaning of “no, it’s impossible”: Neither rain nor snow stopped us, that is, neither rain nor snow stopped us; There is not a cloud in the sky, that is, there are no clouds in the sky. The particle is not found in set expressions (neither alive nor dead), in the subordinate part of a sentence like How many times I have read this book, I am always interested, that is, although I have read this book many times, I am still interested. Particles neither and nor are written separately from the words they refer to.

15 The phrase as a unit of syntax. Types of connection of words in phrases. Types of phrases according to the morphological properties of the main word

A phrase is a combination of at least two significant words related grammatically and in meaning.
The phrase consists of the main and dependent words.
According to the morphological affiliation of the main word, phrases are divided: into nominal (the main word is expressed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun).
into verbal (the main word is expressed by personal forms of the verb, as well as special forms of the verb - participle and gerund).
There are three types of subordination between the main and dependent words: agreement, control, adjoining.
Agreement is a kind of subordinating relationship in which the dependent word is used in the same forms as the main one (a tiny creature, a grown flower).
Management is a kind of subordination in which the dependent word is placed with the main word in a certain case (to be interested in art, to be at the gatehouse).
Adjacency is a kind of subordinating connection in which words in a phrase are connected only by meaning (speak smiling, offer to enter).
Thus, the grammatical connection between words in a phrase is expressed using the ending of a dependent word or ending and a preposition; invariable words are associated in phrases with the main word only in meaning, that is, the grammatical connection is determined by the morphological features of those parts of speech that make up the phrase.
Phrases are free and non-free. In free words, it is easy to single out the main and dependent words, they have the same meaning: a shady garden is an object and its sign. Non-free phrases are not divided into parts: kindergarten - the meaning of the subject, and not the subject and its attribute. Non-free phrases are similar to a word; in a sentence they are one member of the sentence.
The phrase serves to name (more precisely than the word) objects, their actions and signs. Concretizing the meaning of a word, the phrase narrows it down. For example, the word house is wider in meaning than the phrase brick house, and the phrase is more precise, since it not only names an object, but also indicates its attribute.
Phrase like. the word serves as a building material for the sentence. For example, in the sentence Snowflakes fall to the ground, you can select the word snowflakes, which is the subject, and the phrase fall to the ground, which is a predicate group.
Do not form subject and predicate phrases, homogeneous members of a sentence, a word with a preposition, for example: it is raining; shines, but does not heat; by the sea, near the sea.

16 A simple sentence, its types according to the purpose of the statement. Exclamatory and non-exclamatory sentences

A sentence is a word or a combination of words that is grammatically designed and expresses a message, question or motivation. A simple sentence is a basic syntactic unit that has one grammatical basis, consisting of two (or one) main members. The content of a particular sentence is infinitely varied.
Thus, the sentence is a separate statement, has semantic and intonational completeness.
The intonation of a sentence is its sound side. The "drawing" of intonation is created by changes in the strength and height of the voice, therefore its basis is vowels, and its element is pauses. The most important types of sentence intonation are narrative, interrogative, and imperative. According to the purpose of the statement, the sentences are narrative (contain a message, a message): It's time for exams; interrogative (contain a question): Are you tired?; incentive (contain motivation, “wake up”): Guys, learn and love the Russian language!
In terms of emotional coloring, sentences are exclamatory (if the statement is accompanied by a strong feeling) and non-exclamatory. Logical stress helps to highlight the main semantic element in a sentence. With the help of logical stress, meaningful variants of the sentence are created. The sentence Good in the forest in early spring, in addition to the general meaning, can convey additional information depending on which word the logical stress falls on: it is good, not bad; it is in the forest, and not elsewhere; in the spring, and not at any other time of the year. Punctuation marks help in writing to convey the features of the structure and intonation of the sentence. Period, question mark, exclamation point, ellipsis - end-of-sentence signs.

17 Complete and incomplete sentences. Two-part and one-part sentences. Offers common and non-common

The grammatical basis of two-part sentences consists of two main members - the subject and the predicate. For example: A lone sail turns white in the blue mist of the sea. (M. Lermontov.)
The grammatical basis of one-part sentences consists of one main member - the subject or the predicate.
If the sentence has only a subject, such a sentence is called denominative. For example: Winter! The peasant, triumphant, renews the path on the wood. (A. Pushkin.) Nominative sentences are pronounced with the intonation of the message that some object or phenomenon exists in the present.
One-part sentences, in which the main member of the sentence is the predicate, are divided into definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal, impersonal.
Definitely personal are sentences with a verb-predicate in the form of the 1st and 2nd person. Definitely personal sentences are synonymous in meaning with two-part sentences, since a specific person (object) performing an action can be easily restored in meaning. For example: I’ll leave and I won’t know how your efforts will end. (A. Chekhov.)
In indefinite personal sentences, the person performing the action is not determined. The verb-predicate is expressed in the forms of the 3rd person plural in the present and future tense and in the singular form in the past tense. For example: They mowed down the river. There was a smell from there. freshly cut grass.
In generalized personal sentences, the action denoted by the verb-predicate can be attributed to any person, to a group of persons (i.e., to a generalized person). Usually the verb in such sentences is used in the form of the 2nd person singular. For example: What you sow, you will reap. The 3rd person plural form can also have a generalized meaning. For example: After the case, they don’t go for advice. Proverbs often take the form of such sentences.
Impersonal sentences are sentences with one main member - a predicate, in which there is not and cannot be a subject. For example: In late autumn it quickly gets dark. The predicate in such sentences is expressed by impersonal verbs or personal verbs in the meaning of impersonal ones. For example: The roofs of neighboring houses were blown away by the wind. Verbs in an indefinite form can act as a predicate: There is nothing to build from, as well as adverbs in -o (-e): The street is light and crowded.
By the presence of secondary members, simple sentences can be non-common and common. A simple sentence, consisting only of a grammatical basis, is called non-e- "common, for example: Autumn has come. It's getting colder.
A simple sentence, which, in addition to the grammatical basis, includes secondary members, is called a common one, for example: From under a bush, a silver lily of the valley nods its head affably to me. (M. Lermontov.) By the presence or absence of the necessary members of the sentence, simple sentences are divided into complete and incomplete.
Incomplete sentences are sentences in which any member of the sentence is missing - the main or secondary. Missing terms in incomplete sentences are easily restored thanks to previous sentences.
Incomplete sentences are often used in dialogue:
Do you feel pain now?
- Now very small. (F. Dostoevsky.) The omission of sentence members in speech can be expressed by a pause, and a dash is indicated in the letter: It gets light early in summer, and late in winter.

18 Secondary members of the proposal. Basic morphological ways of expressing minor members of a sentence

Complement - a minor member of the sentence, which denotes the subject and refers to the predicate or other members of the sentence. Additions answer questions of indirect cases and are expressed in indirect cases of nouns and pronouns, for example: The old man was catching (what?) With a net (what?) Fish. (A. Pushkin.) Additions can also be expressed by words of other parts of speech in the meaning of a noun in the indirect case, for example: Old Taras was thinking (about what?) About the old. (N. Gogol.) Tomorrow will not be like (like what?) Today. Nine is divided (by what?) by_three. The indefinite form of the verb can also act as an addition, for example: Everyone asked her (about what?) To sing. (M. Lermontov.)
Definition - a minor member of the sentence, which indicates the attribute of the subject and explains the subject, object and other members of the sentence expressed by nouns. Definitions answer the questions what? whose? Referring to nouns, definitions as dependent words are associated with them either by the method of agreement - agreed definitions, or using other methods (control, adjacency) - inconsistent definitions, for example: (how do I?) The attic staircase was very steep ( agreed definition). - The staircase (how about me?) to the attic was very steep (inconsistent definition). An application is a definition expressed by a noun and agreed with the word being defined in the case, for example: A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff. (M. Lermontov.)
Circumstance - a minor member of the sentence, explaining the word with the meaning of an action or attribute. Circumstances explain the predicate or other members of the sentence. According to their meanings, the circumstances are divided into the following main groups: mode of action (how? in what way?): Ringing / with a cuckoo cuckooed in the distance. (N. Nekrasov.); degree (how? to what steppe and?): She has changed to kuznavaeleostts; places (where? where? where from?): Corncrake screamed all around. (F. Tyutchev.); time (when? how long? since when? doka-k and xp about r?): Yesterday I arrived in Pyatigorsk. (M. Lermontov.); conditions (under what condition and?): With_ diligence, you can achieve great success; reasons (why? about what?): Hot temper - he did not feel pain; goals (why? for what?): Aleksey Meresyev was sent to Moscow for an appointment. (B. Polevoy.) The circumstance of the goal can be expressed in an indefinite form of the verb, for example: I came (why?) to visit you.

19 Homogeneous members of the proposal. Generalizing words with homogeneous members of a sentence

Any members of the sentence can be homogeneous, both the main ones (There is an oak forest in the distance, and it glistens and reddens in the sun, - I. Turgenev.), And secondary ones (The sun is mine. I won’t give it to anyone. Not for an hour, not for a beam, not at a glance. - M. Tsvetaeva.) Homogeneous members of the sentence can be arranged in a row or separated from each other by different members of the sentence, for example: Meadows, vegetable gardens, fields, groves have already stretched along the banks. (I. Turgenev.) The wind rose and swirled the fallen leaves.
Homogeneous members of a sentence can be expressed in words of one part of speech or different parts of speech, for example: The moon has appeared from behind the mountain and shines all over the world. (N. Gogol.) I like to walk in the forest quietly, with stops, with a sinking heart. (M. Prishvin.)
Homogeneous members of the sentence are not: repeated words that have an amplifying meaning (far, far; fled, fled); phraseological units (both day and night, etc.).
The means of expressing homogeneity are intonation and conjunctions. Homogeneous members of the sentence, in which there are no unions, are separated by commas in writing.
Homogeneous members of the sentence are pronounced with enumerative intonation, each of them is logically stressed, for example: The speaker spoke clearly, understandably, in simple language.
If homogeneous members are connected by coordinating unions, then a comma is placed in the following cases:
1. Before opposing unions a, but, yes (= but), but, however, for example: I was struck by the sounds of strange, but extremely pleasant and sweet music.
Before the second part of the double union.
There is no comma before repeating connecting or separating unions:
1. Between homogeneous members of the proposal, connected by single connecting or separating unions;
2. With a repeated union and if homogeneous members form a close semantic unity;
3. In phraseological turns: both laughter and sin, neither fish nor meat, neither this nor that, neither back nor forth.
With homogeneous members, there may be generalizing words that have a broader meaning and generally express the meaning of homogeneous members, giving a common name to what is listed, for example: In Oblomovka they believed everything: both werewolves and the dead. (I. Goncharov.)
Punctuation marks for generalizing words are placed as follows: 1. If homogeneous members are preceded by a generalizing word, then a colon is placed after it;
2. If the generalizing word is in front of homogeneous members, and after them the sentence continues, then a colon is placed before the homogeneous members, and after them a dash;
3. If a generalizing word follows homogeneous members, then a dash is placed before it.
If after generalizing words there are explanatory conjunctions namely, that is, like that, then a comma is placed in front of them, and after them a colon, for example: Khor understood reality, that is: he settled down, saved up some money, got along with the master and other authorities. (I. Turgenev.) If after homogeneous members before a generalizing word, introductory words are used in one word, word, then a dash is placed before the latter, and after them a comma.
Homogeneous members clarify and concretize the generalizing word, which is most often expressed by a pronoun. The generalizing word answers the same question as homogeneous members, and is the same member of the sentence. Homogeneous members of the sentence are used in different styles of speech for a more accurate description of objects and phenomena.

20 Sentences with appeals, introductory words and plug-in constructions

An address is a word or a combination of words that names the person to whom the speech is addressed.
Appeals in oral speech serve to draw attention to the message and at the same time to express the attitude of the speaker to the interlocutor. Such appeals are expressed by animate nouns, less often by adjectives or participles in the meaning of such nouns, for example: Mourners, we ask you to free the cars.
In letters, appeals serve to express one or another attitude of the writer to the addressee. Here are a few examples from A.P. Chekhov's letters: Dear Nikolai Nikolaevich, thank you very much for your congratulations and kind words; Dear Alexey Maksimovich, I am answering two letters at once; Dear Misha, hello; Thank you, Sasha, for your efforts.
In artistic speech, poetic appeals can be inanimate nouns. This is one of the impersonation techniques, for example: Do not make noise, rye, with a ripe ear! (I. Koltsov.)
Appeal can be at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
The appeal in the sentence is separated by commas, for example: I was born, my dear grandchildren, near Kyiv, in a quiet village. If the appeal is at the beginning of a sentence and is pronounced with a special feeling, then an exclamation mark is placed after it, and the sentence that follows begins with a capital letter, for example: Friends! I congratulate you!
Introductory words are special words or combinations of words with which the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is reporting, for example: Luckily for me, the weather was great all the time. These meanings can be expressed not only in introductory words, but also in introductory sentences: Snowstorm will certainly end soon (introductory word) and Snowstorm, I am sure, will end soon (introductory sentence).
Introductory words and sentences when pronounced are distinguished by intonation (pauses and relatively fast pronunciation), and in writing - by commas, for example: Apparently, the journey was nearing its end. You, I know, are unpretentious. (I. Turgenev.)
Thus, introductory words and sentences allow you to express shades of thought, indicate the source of the message, and convey various feelings.
Plug-in constructions contain additional messages, incidental remarks. On a letter, insert constructions are highlighted with brackets or a dash, for example: One evening (it was in early October 1773) I was sitting at home alone ... (A. Pushkin.) Or:
If I get sick
I will not go to doctors.
I turn to friends
(do not think that this is delirious):
lay the steppe for me,
curtain my windows with mist,
put at the head
night star.
(Ya. Smelyakov.)

21 Compound sentence and its types: allied and non-union sentences. Complex and complex sentences.

Compound sentences, like all sentences, serve to communicate people, express a message, a question or an incentive to action and have the obligatory features of a sentence - the presence of a grammatical basis and intonation of the end. This brings complex sentences closer to simple ones, for example: The sky was again covered with clouds, and it began to rain. (M. Gorky.)
In terms of their structure and meaning, complex sentences are very diverse; according to the types of connection between parts, complex sentences are divided into non-union and allied.
Compound sentences are called unionless, parts of which are connected only with the help of intonation, for example: The mountain ash turned red, the water turned blue. (S. Yesenin.)
Compound sentences are called allied, parts of which are connected using intonation and conjunctions or allied words, for example: He [Pushkin] is for Russian art the same as Lomonosov for Russian education in general.
In writing, parts of complex sentences are separated by punctuation marks.
Sentences with unions and allied words are divided into two groups: compound and compound.
Compound sentences are sentences in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are connected by coordinating conjunctions and intonation, for example: The dusk became thicker, and the stars shone higher. (I. Bunin.)
Complex sentences are sentences in which one of the sentences is subordinate in meaning to the other and is connected with it by intonation and a subordinating union or allied word, for example: We left for barely green fields, over which a lark sang hotly in the sunlight, fluttering its wings. (A. Tolstoy.)
An independent sentence as part of a complex subordinate is called the main one, and a dependent one, subordinate to the main one in meaning and grammatically, containing a means of communication (conjunction, allied word), is called a subordinate clause.
There are three most broad groups of complex sentences in terms of meaning: with subordinate attributive, explanatory and adverbial clauses.

22 Alien speech and the main ways of its transmission

The main ways of transmitting someone else's speech are direct, indirect and improperly direct speech.
Direct speech is a literal reproduction of someone else's speech. At the same time, all its lexical and grammatical features are preserved. In this case, someone else's speech and the speech of the speaker are clearly distinguished: He suddenly stopped, stretched out his hand and said: "This is where we are going." (I. Turgenev.) Direct speech is always presented by the speaker (writer) as an exact, verbatim transmission of someone else's speech. Features of the structure of sentences with direct speech - author's words and direct speech.
Author's words are a construction with a verb of speech (say, speak, say, ask, answer, etc.), to which direct speech directly relates. Introductory words (author's) can characterize the character's behavior during speech, his facial expressions, posture, stages of speech flow, for example: "Take them!" the old man barked, stamping his foot on the ground. (M. Gorky.)
From the point of view of structure, direct speech is simple and complex sentences, one-part and two-part, complete and incomplete. Appeals, forms of the imperative mood, interjections, emotionally expressive particles, personal pronouns and verbal forms in the first person are the characteristic features of direct speech. Punctuation system for direct speech:
A: "P".

A: "P?(!)"
"P", - a.
"P? (!)" - a.
"P, - a, - p."
"P-a. - P".
"P-a. - P?(!)"
“P? (!) - a. - P". - a. -
Direct speech, which is a conversation between two or more people, is called a dialogue. The words of each person participating in the conversation are called replicas. The words of the author may or may not accompany the replica. If the replicas of the dialogue are given each from a new paragraph, then they are not enclosed in quotes, they are preceded by a dash, but if the replicas of the dialogue are written in a line and it is not indicated to whom they belong, then each of them is enclosed in quotes and separated from the adjacent dash.
In a sentence with indirect speech, someone else's speech is not transmitted verbatim, but with the preservation of its content. These are, as a rule, complex sentences consisting of two parts (the words of the author, representing the main sentence, and indirect speech, designed as a subordinate clause): Pugachev said that Grinev was deeply to blame for him; The captain ordered the boats to be launched.
The question, conveyed in indirect speech, is not posed with a name sign, for example: The forester asked if I saw swans on the lake. The words of the author usually precede indirect speech and are separated from it by a comma.
Improper direct speech is a way of transmitting someone else's speech, in which someone else's speech merges with the author's speech, for example: Alexander ran out, as if the ceiling had collapsed in the house, looked at his watch - it's late, he won't be in time for dinner. (I. Goncharov.) Improperly direct speech combines the properties of direct and indirect speech. Improper direct speech, like direct speech, retains the features of the vocabulary and syntax of someone else's speech and, like indirect speech, is not drawn up in quotation marks in writing, it is conducted on behalf of the author of the narrative.
In addition to these methods, someone else's speech can be framed as a quote.
A quotation is a verbatim excerpt from a text or exactly quoted someone's words. Quotations are used to reinforce or explain the stated thought with an authoritative statement. In written speech, quotations are enclosed in quotation marks or in bold type. If quotes are not given in full, the omission is indicated by ellipsis.
Someone else's speech can be conveyed by a simple sentence, and often only the topic of speech is indicated. The content of someone else's speech is conveyed by an addition expressed by a noun in the prepositional case, an indefinite form of a verb with a direct object: I began to ask about the way of life on the waters and about remarkable people. (M. Lermontov.) I was here; the conversation turned to horses, and Pechorin began to praise Kazbich's horse. (M. Lermontov.)
Someone else's speech can be transmitted by a simple sentence, the content of someone else's speech is reflected in the sentence itself, and introductory words (sentences) replace words
centuries ate (- words of the author)
!_ author: The roach took, as the anglers say, almost on a bare hook. (Yu. Nagibin.)

23 Text as a speech work, the main features of the text

What are the features of the text?
1. Expression. The text is always expressed in oral or written form.
2. Limitedness (autonomy). Each text, even the smallest one, has clear boundaries - a beginning and an end.
3. Connectivity. The language units that form the text are interconnected in a certain order.
The scheme of connected speech from the point of view of its constituent units can be represented as follows: a sentence - a prose stanza - a fragment; chapter - part - finished work.
There are texts consisting of one sentence (rarely two). These are aphorisms, riddles, proverbs, chronicle notes in a newspaper, etc. There are texts that are equal to a prose stanza or fragment: a note in a newspaper, a poem or a fable in prose. And there are, of course, texts of considerable length.
4. Wholeness. The text in terms of content and construction is a single whole, for understanding the structure of the text, the relationship between content and form is of paramount importance. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition.
The content of the text is revealed only through its verbal form.
5. The content is relevant to the topic. The topic is what is described in the text, what the narration is about, reasoning is unfolding, dialogue is being conducted, etc. In non-fiction texts, the topic is usually indicated in the title. The titles of works of art can be directly related to the theme ("Woe from Wit", "Undergrowth"). Works of art, even relatively small in volume (for example, stories), can reveal several topics, and stories, novels, and plays are almost always multi-themed.
6. Orderliness. All linguistic units that form the text, all its parts and all meaningful, semantic aspects are ordered and organized in a certain way.
7. Articulation. The ways of linking words in a sentence and parts of a complex sentence are well known. There are serial (chain) and parallel connection of sentences. With a parallel connection, sentences are not linked, but compared. The features of this type of connection are the same word order, the members of the sentence are expressed in the same grammatical forms, sometimes by repeating the first word of the sentences. For example: I love guests. I love to laugh. ... I really like to stand behind the car when it snorts, to sniff gasoline. I like a lot of things. (According to V. Dragunsky.)
With a sequential connection of sentences, one sentence, as it were, merges into another: each next sentence begins with what the previous one ended with. For example: I have often marveled at the shrewd insolence of crows. As if jokingly, they fooled me more than once. (A. Platonov.)
Based on everything that has been said above about the text, we can give such a definition. Text is expressed in
in written or oral form, an ordered sequence of language units united into a whole by a theme and a main idea.

24 Features of texts of different types: narration, description, reasoning

Narration is a story about events, incidents, actions; the organizing role in this form of verbal expression belongs to verbs, especially the forms of the past tense of the perfect form. They designate sequentially replacing each other events, provide the development of the narrative. Sentences in the narrative, as a rule, are not too long and complex. The expressive and pictorial power of narration lies primarily in the visual representation of actions, the movement of people and phenomena in time and space. It is no coincidence that researchers have repeatedly noted that Pushkin “removes” everything secondary from the narrative, strives to leave only the subject and predicate in the sentence, so that the narrative is livelier, more dynamic. For example: Dunya sat in a wagon next to the hussar, the servant jumped on the box, the coachman whistled, and the horses galloped (“Station Master”); The clock struck one and two in the morning, and he heard the distant rumble of a carriage. Involuntary wave-
nie - mastered it. Karsta drove up and stopped. He heard the thud of the step being lowered. There was a fuss in the house. People ran, voices were heard, and the house was lit up ("The Queen of Spades").
A description is a verbal representation of a phenomenon of reality by listing its characteristic features: a description of an object (what object), a place (where what is), the state of the environment (what it is like here), the state of a person (what it is like here). In the description there are more than in the narrative, words denoting the qualities, properties of objects. Verbs in the description appear, as a rule, in the imperfective form, often in the past tense. These features are clearly visible in an excerpt from M. Bulgakov's novel "The White Guard": Like a multi-tiered honeycomb, it smoked and made noise, and the Beautiful City lived in frost and fog on the mountains above the Dnieper. For days on end, smoke rose from countless chimneys to the sky. The streets smoked with mist, and the downed gigantic snow creaked. And in five, and in six, and in seven floors houses were piled up. During the day their windows were black, and at night they burned in rows in a dark blue sky. In chains, as far as the eye could see, like precious stones, electric balls shone, suspended high on the squiggles of gray long pillars. In the daytime, with a pleasant, even hum, trams with yellow straw plump seats, modeled on foreign ones, ran.
For special clarity, descriptiveness of the description, the present tense forms of verbs can also be used in it, as, for example, in the well-known poetic description of late autumn from Chapter IV of "Eugene Onegin" by A. Pushkin:
The dawn rises in a cold haze; On the fields, the noise of work ceased; With his hungry she-wolf A wolf comes out on the road; Sensing it, the road horse snores - and the cautious traveler
Rushing uphill at full speed; At the dawn of the morning the shepherd Does not drive the cows out of the barn, And at the hour of noon in a circle His horn does not call them; Singing in the hut, the maiden Spins, and, friend of winter nights, A splinter cracks in front of her.
It is important that in the description of the form of the verb tense, it is not a sequential change of parts, parts, but their location on the same plane, as if on one pictorial canvas.
Reasoning is a verbal proof (why so, and not otherwise; what follows from this), an explanation (what it is), reflection (how to be; what to do). It differs from narration and description primarily by longer and more complex sentences (with isolated phrases, various types of non-union and allied connection) and abstract vocabulary, i.e., a significant number of words denoting concepts (words denoting specific predominate in the narration and description). objects and events). Here is an example of reasoning: A truly strong person is always kind. (Thesis.) Once a new one came to our section. I don't remember exactly, but for some reason, you see, I didn't like it. The beginner, of course, did not know how, but I decided to prove it to him. He spent two or three painful receptions and saw that he was almost crying. The trainer came up and took me aside:
- You are strong. Why are you on the weak? ..
Even my ears turned red. And really, why? (Rationale.)
Since then (and many years have passed) he has never raised a hand against the weak. Understood: to fight with an equal is fair. Beating the weak is an unworthy occupation. (Logical conclusion.)
In any reasoning there is a thesis and justification for the expressed thought, a logical conclusion from everything that has been said.
In scientific and business speech, full reasoning is usually used, the parts of which are connected by conjunctions because, since, therefore, thus, so, therefore. In colloquial and artistic speech, abbreviated reasoning without unions prevails.

25 Styles of speech, their functions and scope of use

Among the variety of varieties of language use, two main ones stand out: spoken language and literary (bookish) language.
Spoken language (colloquial style of speech) is usually used orally.
Depending on the sphere of use of the literary language, scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic styles of speech are distinguished.
The most important features of each of the styles are determined taking into account the following: a) for what purpose we speak; b) in what environment we speak; c) speech genres; d) linguistic means of expression; e) style features of speech.
The conversational style is used for direct communication, when we share our thoughts or feelings with others, exchange information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.
The conversational style is characterized by emotionality, figurativeness, concreteness, simplicity of speech, for example: A month before leaving Moscow, we had no money - it was dad who was preparing for fishing ... And so the fishing began. My father sat down on the shore, laid out all his household, lowered the cage into the water, threw in fishing rods - there was no fish. (A. Yashin.)
In colloquial speech, the emotionality of the utterance, unlike the artistic style, is not the result of special creative work, artistic skill. It is a living reaction to events, to the actions of the surrounding people.
The relaxed atmosphere of communication leads to greater freedom in the choice of emotional words and expressions: colloquial words are used more widely (stupid, rotosey, talking shop, giggle, cackle), colloquial (neigh, deadhead, awful, disheveled), slangy (parents - ancestors, "iron, worldly ).
Scientific style is the style of scientific messages. Its genres are scientific article, educational literature. Terminological and professional vocabulary is widely used.
The main purpose of a scientific text is to study phenomena, objects, name them and explain. The most common features of scientific style vocabulary are: the use of words in their direct meaning; lack of figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, hyperbole; wide use of abstract vocabulary and terms, for example: The most important economic and biological characteristics of varieties are: resistance to growing conditions (climate, soil, pests and diseases), durability, transportability and storage time. (G. Fetisov.)
The official business style is used for communication, informing in an official setting (the field of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style
serves to draw up documents: laws, orders, decrees, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates.
In the official business style there is no place for the manifestation of the author's individuality, style features - formality, accuracy. For example:
Receipt.
I, Elena Tikhonova, a student of the 9th grade “B” of school No. 65, received 5 (five) copies of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova in the school library to conduct a Russian language lesson. Books must be returned the same day.
March 23, 2000 E. Tikhonova
Publicistic style serves to influence people through the media. It is found in the genres of article, essay, reportage, feuilleton, interview, oratory and is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, emotionality, appraisal, invocativeness. This style is used in the sphere of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. Information is intended not for a narrow circle of specialists, but for the general public, and the impact is directed not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of the addressee.
The artistic style affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, is characterized by figurativeness, emotionality, and concreteness of speech.
The emotionality of the artistic style differs significantly from the emotionality of the colloquial and journalistic styles. The emotionality of artistic speech performs an aesthetic function. Functional-stylistic boundaries in the modern language are very thin and complex. Units of one
styles can be used in other functional varieties of the language.

The national language is the means of oral and written communication of the nation. Along with the commonality of the territory, historical, economic and political life, as well as the mental warehouse, language is the leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term nation(lat.natio - tribe, people).

Russian national language by family ties, belongs to to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European languages ​​are one of the largest language families, including Anatolian, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Italic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic groups, as well as Armenian, Phrygian, Venetian and some other languages.

Slavic languages ​​come from single Proto-Slavic a language that evolved from the Indo-European base language long before our era. During the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages ​​developed. Around the 6th-7th centuries AD, the Proto-Slavic unity broke up. The Eastern Slavs began to use a relatively uniform East Slavic language. (Old Russian, or the language of Kievan Rus). At about the same time, they formed West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbal Lusatian and "dead" Polabian) and South Slavic languages (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovene, Rusyn and "dead" Old Church Slavonic).

In the 9th-11th centuries, on the basis of translations of liturgical books made by Cyril and Methodius, the first written language of the Slavs was formed - Old Church Slavonic Its literary continuation will be the language used to this day in worship. – Church Slavonic .

With the strengthening of feudal fragmentation and the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities are formed. Thus, the East Slavic group of languages ​​is divided into three related languages: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. By the 14th-15th centuries, the language of the Great Russian people was formed with the Rostov-Suzdal and Vladimir dialects at the core.

Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development capitalist relations and the development of the Russian nationality into nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure and the main vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language Great Russian people formed in the process interaction between the northern Great Russian and the southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north of the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. Exactly Moscow business vernacular had a significant impact on the development of the national language.

An important stage in the development of the Russian national language was the 18th century. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. The democratization of the language was required, the introduction of elements of lively, colloquial speech of the merchants, service people, clergy and literate peasants into its system. Leading role in theoretical substantiation of the Russian language played M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a "Russian grammar", which has theoretical and practical significance: ordering of the literary language and development rules for the use of its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, incomprehensible history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages:

- "the vastness of the places where he reigns"

- "your own space and contentment."

In the Petrine era due to the appearance in Russia of many new objects and phenomena the vocabulary of the Russian language is updated and enriched. The flow of new words was so huge that even a decree of Peter I was needed to regulate the use of borrowings.

The Karamzin period in the development of the Russian national language is characterized by the struggle for the establishment of a single language norm in it. At the same time, N.M. Karamzin and his supporters believe that, when defining norms, it is necessary to focus on Western, European languages ​​(French), to free the Russian language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, to create new words, to expand the semantics of those already used to designate emerging in the life of society, mostly secular, new objects, phenomena, processes. Karamzin's opponent was the Slavophil A.S. Shishkov, who believed that the Old Slavonic language should become the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute about language between Slavophiles and Westernizers was brilliantly resolved in the work of the great Russian writers of the early nineteenth century. A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of live colloquial speech, the originality and richness of Russian folklore.

Creator same national Russian language became A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportion and conformity”: any element is appropriate if it accurately conveys thought and feeling.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing the national language in order to create unified orthoepic, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Dahl.

After the October Revolution of 1917, important changes took place in the Russian language. Firstly, a huge layer of secular and religious vocabulary, which was very relevant before the revolution, “dies out”. The new power destroys objects, phenomena, processes, and at the same time the words denoting them disappear: monarch, heir to the throne, gendarme, police officer, privatdozent, footman and so on. Millions of believing Russians cannot openly use Christian terminology: seminary, sexton, Eucharist, Ascension, Mother of God, Spas, Assumption, etc. These words live in the people's environment secretly, implicitly, waiting for the hour of their revival. On the other hand. a huge number of new words appear, reflecting changes in politics, economics, culture : Soviets, Kolchak, Red Army soldier, Chekist. There are a large number of compound words: party dues, collective farm, Revolutionary Military Council, Council of People's Commissars, Commander, Prodrazverstka, food tax, cultural enlightenment, educational program. One of the brightest distinguishing features of the Russian language of the Soviet period - interference of the opposite, The essence of this phenomenon lies in the formation of two opposing lexical systems that positively and negatively characterize the same phenomena that exist on opposite sides of the barricades, in the world of capitalism and in the world of socialism. : scouts and spies, warriors-liberators and invaders, partisans and bandits.

Today, the Russian national language continues to develop in the post-Soviet space. Among the modern characteristic features of the language, the most important are:

1) replenishment of the vocabulary with new elements; first of all, it is a borrowed vocabulary denoting objects and phenomena of the political, economic and cultural life of the country: electorate, extreme sports, business center, conversion, clone, chip, iridology, HIV infection, audio cassette, cheeseburger, jacuzzi;

2) the return to use of words that seemed to have lost such an opportunity forever; first of all, it religious vocabulary: lord, communion. Annunciation, Liturgy, Vespers, Epiphany, Metropolitan;

3) the disappearance, along with objects and phenomena, of words characterizing Soviet reality: Komsomol, party organizer, state farm, DOSAAF, pioneer;

4) the destruction of the system formed as a result of the action interference of the opposite.