Like during the Roman Republic Varro wrote an extensive essay outlining information about the history of the civil and religious life of all the Italian tribes, so during the empire, a scientist with comprehensive knowledge Gaius Pliny Secundus (Pliny the Elder, 23-79 AD) with tireless diligence compiled a collection of all knowledge about nature and its relationship to man. This knowledge was more consistent with the character of the times of the empire than that which Varro studied. The interests of the empire required oblivion of antiquity with its political life.

Guy Pliny the Elder was born in New Comum (Novum Comum), one of the cities of the province of Cisalpine Gaul. He held important administrative and military positions: under Emperor Claudius he was chief of cavalry in Germany, under Nero - procurator in Spain, under Vespasian and Titus - head of the Misenian fleet. Pliny the Elder performed his official duties very conscientiously, but with his tireless activity he found leisure for scientific studies and died a martyr of his curiosity, observing from close range the very eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Pliny the Elder says that he collected material for this work from more than two thousand writers. He read and wrote notes day and night, even at dinner and while taking a bath. A copyist always accompanied him on his trips. But the enormity of the mass of materials has damaged the form of presentation, and the treatment of different parts of the subject is not equally good. Botany is best presented in which Pliny the Elder followed the treatise Dioscorides. He dedicated his work to Emperor Titus.

At the beginning of Natural History, Pliny says that the universe is an eternal, immeasurable, uncreated and immortal deity. He ends his work with an appeal to nature - the mother of all existing objects, which he, as he put it, served more diligently than all the Romans. He considers polytheism stupidity, a product of the mental weakness of people.

“Natural History” by Guy Pliny the Elder does not in all its parts present information that is equally well verified, and in general this enormous work is the work of a person who passionately loves science, but not a researcher or a specialist. Pliny's main view is that nature created everything with a rational purpose, and this purpose is the good of man. His style is uneven, in some places pompous, sometimes poetic and dark, sometimes dry; he has no picture descriptions. But the wealth of information collected by Pliny the Elder in all departments of knowledge gave his work extremely great importance for the development of human education. As his nephew put it, his “Natural History” is as varied as nature itself.

Famous naturalist Alexander Humboldt says about Pliny’s book: “It is the product of an irresistible inclination towards a comprehensive collection of information, sometimes done superficially. Its style is uneven, sometimes simple and limited to listing objects, sometimes rich in thoughts, lively, sometimes embellished with rhetoric. It is poor in individual descriptions of nature; but in all those cases when it comes to the majestic interaction of forces that creates a well-ordered cosmos, when Pliny the Elder speaks of this “greatness of nature” (or, as he calls it, Naturae majestas), he is animated by enthusiasm emanating from the depths of the heart. Guy Pliny does not have a strict scientific order, and his form of presentation is generally bad, but, Humboldt continues: “his desire to understand the subject, his moral seriousness, his noble animation with the thought of the greatness of nature are attractive. Love for her calms and consoles him in the sorrows of his disastrous time, in grief over the vanity of people.”

Throughout the Middle Ages, the “Natural History” of Gaius Pliny the Elder enjoyed very great respect, which was partly transferred to the work of the polyhistor Gaius Julius Solinus, who compiled the “Description of the Earth” based on Pliny. Solin is primarily interested in physical geography. Everything he took was taken from Pliny; he himself added nothing.

The Greeks, like many other peoples, associated the healing effects of plants with the supernatural properties given to them by the gods, therefore information about medicinal herbs is richly represented in legends and myths. According to legend, in the Caucasus, under the patronage of the goddess Artemis, there was a magical garden of poisonous and medicinal plants, from where these plants came to Greece.

Greek mythology

According to Greek mythology, the son of Apollo the Healer, Asclepius, became the god of doctors and medical art. The premises for the treatment of the sick at the temples were called asklepiyons. The daughters of Asclepius, Hygieia and Panacea, were considered patroness of certain branches of medicine. Hygieia (hygiene - preventive medicine) became famous for her reasonable preventive advice and was revered as the goddess of health (she was depicted as a young maiden holding a bowl with a snake in her hand). Panacea was the patroness of medicinal treatment and knew how to cure all diseases (therefore, the legendary remedy for all diseases began to be called a panacea).

Hippocrates

The famous Greek physician, the greatest thinker of his time, is rightfully considered the father of scientific medicine. Hippocrates(460-377 BC). He collected all the information available to him about medicinal herbal remedies and systematized them. Hippocrates gave a scientific basis for the use of 236 plant species. These words belong to him: “...one should not blush at borrowing from the people means that serve to heal them.” They testify to the high appreciation the physician-philosopher gave to folk healing methods and the experience of herbal medicine. The founder of modern medicine believed that all medicines work most effectively if used in the form of juices or raw. In other words, medicine should be food, and food should be medicine. This teaching of Hippocrates was the basis of medical practice for over one and a half thousand years, and in Arab-Iranian medicine it has been preserved to this day.

Many doctors of Ancient Greece considered themselves descendants of Asclepius, including Hippocrates (460-377 BC). The birthplace of this outstanding doctor and thinker is the island of Kos, famous for its medical school. The Hippocrates family practiced medicine for 18 generations, passing on their art from father to son. He created a doctrine about the causes of diseases and methods of their treatment, made an attempt to collect and systematize scattered observations and information about medicines, described 236 plants (among them - henbane, elderberry, mustard, iris, centaury, almonds, mint, chilibuha and etc.). He believed that medicinal plants owe their action to a certain, optimal combination of all their constituent parts, and therefore plants should be consumed in the form in which nature created them, i.e. in natural form or in the form of juices. “Medicine is the art of imitating the healing effects of nature”, - wrote the famous doctor of antiquity.

Many useful information about medicinal plants was left to descendants by someone who lived in the 4th century BC. physician and naturalist Theophrastus (Theophrastus). The outstanding work “On Medicines” was compiled by the famous doctor of the Roman army, originally from Asia Minor, Greek by birth, Pedanius Dioscorides(1st century AD). He is considered the “father of pharmacognosy” (the science of medicinal plant materials). Dioscorides described over 600 plant species. The work of this author served as an authoritative guide to medicine until the 16th century.

Dioscorides

The Greek physician Dioscorides, who lived in the 1st century AD, is considered the father of European pharmacognosy. He compiled a description of all medicinal plants used in the ancient world, and his work “Materia medica”, equipped with numerous drawings and translated into Latin, became a reference book for doctors and pharmacists for centuries.

Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) – a Roman scientist who died in the eruption of Vesuvius, using the knowledge of his predecessors, compiled a multi-volume encyclopedia on the natural sciences “Historia naturelis”, having, according to him, re-read more than 2000 books for this purpose. 12 volumes of his encyclopedia are devoted to medical issues, including medicinal plants.

Among the famous herbalists, the ancient Roman physician and naturalist occupies a special place Claudius Galen(130-200 AD), who described about 450 plants. He was the first to propose separating the healing principle from the useless mass with liquid - in the form of an infusion, decoction or wine extract. Until now, all drugs obtained from plants by extracting medicinal substances are called “herbal preparations” and are widely used both in clinics and at home.
A great contribution to the development of herbal medicine was made by Pliny the Elder(23-79 AD), Aulus Cornelius Celsus(1st century AD), other ancient doctors.

Galen

The greatest fame among Roman physicians was earned by Claudius Galen, a Greek by origin, originally from Asia Minor. He was born in 130 AD. in the family of an architect. His father wanted his father to become a philosopher and give him an excellent education. However, Claudius was more attracted to questions of natural science, especially medicine, which he began studying at the age of 17. To improve his medical knowledge, Galen traveled to different cities and countries, after which he became a practicing physician among the gladiators. In 164 he moved to Rome and entered the service as a court physician.

In contrast to Hippocrates, Galen was of the opinion that medicinal plants have two origins. One of them has a healing effect on the sick body, the other is useless or even harmful. The active principle prefers the liquid to the dried plant, so it is easy to separate it from the useless one. To do this, the medicinal plant should be infused or boiled with water, wine, or vinegar. Extracts from plants quickly gained popularity in all European countries and were called “herbal remedies”. Galen had his own pharmacy in Rome, where he himself prepared medicines for the sick. He described recipes for the preparation of powders, pills, lozenges, soaps, ointments, plasters, mustard plasters, mixtures and other dosage forms. Galen was also a true expert in the field of making cosmetics.

Galen is the author of about 400 works, half of them on medicine. His book contains a wealth of material in the form of standard prescriptions and advice for use by a practicing physician.

The name of Galen is associated with the improvement of one of the most ancient and popular medicines - theriac, which was considered a universal antidote, as well as for all internal diseases. According to legend, theriak was compiled by the Pontic king Mithridates, who was afraid of being poisoned. Thanks to the daily use of this remedy, he became immune to poisons. After defeat in the battle with the Romans, not wanting to surrender, he was forced to stab himself with a sword, since not a single poison had any effect on him. According to ancient doctors, theriac combined the qualities of an antidote to all plant and animal poisons. It cured all processes of self-poisoning of the body that developed due to internal diseases, and was also an all-powerful preventive remedy that ensured a long and painless life. Galen received gratitude from the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius for his improvement of theriac in the form of a gold chain with a medal on which was engraved: “Antoninus - Emperor of the Romans, Galen - Emperor of Physicians.” In the Middle Ages, theriac was included in most European pharmacopoeias. At times the number of components in it reached 100, of which the main one was snake meat. Theriak was prepared with honey and had the appearance of porridge. In some cities it was made publicly with great solemnity in the presence of authorities and invitees. Theriac entered the official Russian pharmacopoeia in 1798 in a significantly modernized form, containing only 13 components, including the roots of angelica, valerian, iris, gentian, elderberry, and juniper. But by the beginning of the twentieth century, theriac was gradually excluded from pharmacopeias and now represents exclusively the property of history.

From the first days of life, a child strives to understand the world around him. The older he gets, the more interesting and fascinating his reality becomes. The world changes with him. Likewise, all of humanity does not stand still in its development. All new discoveries captivate us. What was impossible yesterday is becoming commonplace today. The science of biology makes a huge contribution to modern scientific and technological progress. She studies all aspects of life, explores the stages of the origin and development of living organisms. It is noteworthy that this science became a separate branch only in the 19th century, although humanity accumulated knowledge about the world around us throughout its development. The history of the development of biology is very interesting and entertaining. Many people may have a question: why do we need to study this science? It would seem that let scientists do it. How will this discipline help the common man? But without basic knowledge of human physiology and anatomy, it is impossible, for example, to recover even from a common cold. This science can provide answers to the most complex questions. The main thing that biology can shed light on is the development of life on Earth.

Science in Antiquity

Modern biology has its roots in antiquity. It is inextricably linked with the development of civilizations in the era of antiquity in the Mediterranean space. The first discoveries in this area were made by such outstanding figures as Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus and others. The contribution of scientists to the development of biology is invaluable. Let's look at each of them in more detail. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460 - ca. 370 BC) gave the first detailed description of the structure of the body of humans and animals. He pointed out how environmental factors and heredity can influence the development of certain diseases. Modern scientists call Hippocrates the founder of medicine. The outstanding ancient Greek thinker and philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) divided the surrounding world into four kingdoms: the world of humans and animals, the world of plants, the inanimate world (earthly), the world of water and air. He made many descriptions of animals, thereby laying the foundation for taxonomy. His hand belongs to four biological treatises, which contain all the information about animals known at that time. At the same time, the scientist gave not only an external description of the representatives of this kingdom, but also reflected on their origin and reproduction. He was the first to describe viviparity in sharks and the presence of a special chewing apparatus in sea urchins, today called “Aristotle’s lantern.” Modern scientists highly appreciate the merits of the ancient thinker and believe that Aristotle is the founder of zoology. The ancient Greek philosopher Theophrastus (370-c. 280 BC) studied the plant world. He described more than 500 representatives of this kingdom. It was he who introduced many botanical terms into use, such as “fruit”, “pericarp”, “core” and so on. Theophrastus is considered by scientists to be the founder of modern botany.

It is also worth noting the works in the development of biology of ancient Roman scientists, such as Gaius Pliny the Elder (22-79) and Claudius Galen (131 - about 200). The naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote an encyclopedia called “Natural History,” which contained all the information known at that time about living organisms. Until the Middle Ages, his work, numbering 37 volumes, was the only complete source of knowledge about nature. An outstanding physician, surgeon and philosopher of his time, Claudius Galen, made a huge contribution to the concept and development of such sciences as anatomy, pharmacology, physiology, neurology, etc. In his research, he widely used dissections of mammals. He was the first to describe and compare the anatomy of humans and monkeys. His main goal was to study the central and peripheral nervous system. The recognition of his merits by his colleagues is evidenced by the fact that his work on anatomy, based on pigs and monkeys, was used until 1543, until the work of Andreas Vesalius “On the Structure of the Human Body” appeared. Medical students studied the works of Galen until the 19th century. And his theory that the brain controls movements with the help of the nervous system is still relevant today. The “Development of Biology” table will help us better understand how the emergence and study of this science occurred throughout history. Its main founders are presented here.

Medieval medicine

The contribution of scientists to the development of biology in these times is enormous. Many doctors of the Middle Ages included the knowledge of ancient Greek and Roman figures in their practice. It was medicine that received the greatest development at that time. A significant part of the territory of the Roman Empire was conquered by the Arabs during this period. Therefore, the works of Aristotle and many other ancient scientists have come to us in translation into Arabic. What marked this era in terms of the development of biology? This was the time of the so-called Golden Age of Islam. Here it is worth noting the works of such a scientist as Al-Jahiz, who then first expressed his opinion on food chains and evolution. He is also the founder of geographical determinism - the science of the influence of natural conditions on the formation of national character and spirit. And the Kurdish author Ahmad ibn Daoud al-Dinawari did a lot for the development of Arab botany. He made descriptions of more than 637 species of different plants. The trend in medicine for treatment with medicinal herbs aroused great interest in the world of flora.

A doctor from Persia, Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi, reached great heights in medicine. He experimentally refuted the then reigning theory of Galen about the “four vital juices.” The outstanding Persian physician Avicenna created one of the most valuable books on medicine called “The Canon of Medicine,” which was a textbook for European scientists until the 17th century. It is worth recognizing that during the Middle Ages, few scientists achieved fame. This was the heyday of theology and philosophy. Scientific medicine was then in decline. This state of affairs was observed until the beginning of the Renaissance. Next, the stages of development of biology during this time period will be described.

Biology in the Renaissance

In the 16th century, interest in physiology intensified in Europe. Anatomists practiced dissecting human bodies after death. In 1543, Vesalius published a book entitled “On the Structure of the Human Body.” The history of the development of biology takes a new turn here. Treatment with medicinal herbs was widespread in medicine. This could not but influence the increased interest in the world of flora. Fuchs and Brunfels laid the foundation for large-scale description of plants in their works. Even the artists of that time showed interest in the structure of the bodies of animals and humans. They painted their pictures working side by side with naturalists. Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Durer, in the process of creating their masterpieces, tried to obtain detailed descriptions of the anatomy of living bodies. The first of them, by the way, often watched the flight of birds, talked about many plants, and shared information on the structure of the human body.

No less significant contributions to the science of that era were made by such scientists as alchemists, encyclopedists, and doctors. An example of this is the work of Paracelsus. Thus, it is clear that the development of biology in the pre-Darwinian period was extremely uneven.

17th century

The most important discovery of this time was the discovery of the second circle of blood circulation, which gave a new impetus to the development of anatomy and the emergence of the doctrine of microorganisms. At the same time, the first microbiological studies were made. For the first time, a description was given of plant cells that could only be seen under a microscope. This device, by the way, was invented by John Lippershey and Zachary Jansen in 1590 in Holland.

The device was constantly being improved. And soon the artisan Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, who was interested in microscopes, managed to see and sketch red blood cells, human sperm, as well as a number of very small living organisms (bacteria, ciliates, and so on). The development of biology as a science at this time is reaching a completely new level. Much has been done in the field of physiology and anatomy. A doctor from England, who dissected animals and conducted research on blood circulation, made a number of important discoveries: he discovered venous valves and proved the isolation of the right and left ventricles of the heart. His contribution to the development of biology is difficult to overestimate. He discovered And a naturalist from Italy, Francesco Redi, proved the impossibility of spontaneous generation of flies from the remains of rotten meat.

History of the development of biology in the 18th century

Further, human knowledge in the field of natural sciences expanded. The most important events of the 18th century were the publication of the works of Carl Linnaeus (“System of Nature”) and Georges Buffon (“General and Particular Natural History”). Numerous experiments were carried out in the field of plant development and animal embryology. Discoveries here were made by scientists such as Caspar Friedrich Wolf, who, based on his observations, proved the gradual development of the embryo from a strong germ, and Albrecht von Haller. The most important stages in the development of biology and embryology in the 18th century are associated with these names. It is worth recognizing, however, that these scientists defended different approaches to the study of science: Wolf - the ideas of epigenesis (the development of the organism in the embryo), and Haller - the concept of preformationism (the presence in the germ cells of special material structures that predetermine the development of the embryo).

Science in the 19th century

It is worth mentioning that the development of biology as a science began only in the 19th century. The word itself has already been used by scientists before. However, its meaning was completely different. So, for example, Carl Linnaeus called biologists the people who compiled the biographies of botanists. But later this word began to be used to refer to the science that studies all living organisms. We have already touched upon such a topic as the development of biology in the pre-Darwinian period. At the beginning of the 19th century, the formation of such a science as paleontology took place. Discoveries in this area are associated with the name of the greatest scientist, Charles Darwin, who in the second half of the century published a book called “The Origin of Species.” We will discuss his work in more detail in the next chapter. The emergence of cell theory, the formation of phylogenetics, the development of microscopic anatomy and cytology, the formation of the doctrine of the emergence of infectious diseases through infection with a specific pathogen, and much more - all this is associated with the development of science in the 19th century.

Works of Charles Darwin

The first book of the greatest scientist is “A Naturalist’s Voyage Around the World by Ship.” Further, Darwin became the object of study. The result of this was the writing and publication of a four-volume work on the physiology of these animals. Zoologists still use this work of his. But still, Charles Darwin’s main work is the book “The Origin of Species,” which he began writing in 1837.

The book was expanded and reprinted several times. It described in detail the breeds of domestic animals and plant varieties, and outlined his thoughts on natural selection. Darwin's concept is the variability of species and varieties under the influence of heredity and external environmental factors, as well as their natural origin from earlier species. The scientist came to the conclusion that any plant or animal in nature tends to reproduce exponentially. However, the number of individuals of this species remains constant. This means that the law of survival operates in nature. Strong organisms survive by acquiring traits useful for the entire species and then reproduce, while weak ones die in unfavorable environmental conditions. This is called natural selection. For example, a female cod produces up to seven million eggs. Only 2% of their total number survives. But environmental conditions may change. Then completely different traits in species will be useful. As a result, the direction of natural selection changes. External signs of individuals may change. A new species appears, which, if favorable factors persist, disperses. Later, in 1868, Charles Darwin published his second evolutionary work entitled Variation in Animals and Plants under Domestic Conditions. However, his work was not widely recognized. It is worth mentioning one more important work of the great scientist - the book “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection.” In it, he gave many arguments in favor of the fact that man descended from ape-like ancestors.

What does the 20th century have in store for us?

Many global discoveries in science were made in the last century. At this time, the biology of human development takes a new turn. This is the era of genetic development. By 1920, the chromosomal theory of heredity was formed. And after World War II, molecular biology began to develop rapidly. The directions in the development of biology changed.

Genetics

In 1900 they were, so to speak, rediscovered by scientists such as De Vries and others. This was soon followed by the discovery of cytologists that the genetic material of cellular structures is contained in chromosomes. In 1910-1915, the scientist’s working group, based on experiments with fruit flies (Drosophila), developed the so-called “Mendelian chromosomal theory of heredity.” Biologists have found that genes on chromosomes are arranged linearly, like “beads on a string.” De Vries is the first scientist to suggest gene mutation. Next, the concept of genetic drift was given. And in 1980, American experimental physicist Luis Alvarez put forward the meteorite hypothesis of the extinction of dinosaurs.

The emergence and development of biochemistry

Even more outstanding discoveries awaited scientists in the near future. At the beginning of the 20th century, active research into vitamins began. A little earlier, pathways for the metabolism of poisons and medicinal substances, proteins and fatty acids were discovered. In the 1920-1930s, scientists Karl and Gertie Corey, as well as Hans Krebs, described the transformations of carbohydrates. This marked the beginning of the study of the synthesis of porphyrins and steroids. At the end of the century, Fritz Lipmann made the following discovery: adenosine triphosphate was recognized as a universal carrier of biochemical energy in the cell, and the mitochondria was called its main energy “station”. Instruments for conducting laboratory experiments became more complex, and new methods of obtaining knowledge appeared, such as electrophoresis and chromatography. Biochemistry, which was one of the branches of medicine, became a separate science.

Molecular biology

All new related disciplines appeared in the study of biology. Many scientists have tried to establish the nature of the gene. When conducting research for this purpose, a new term “molecular biology” appeared. The objects of study were viruses and bacteria. A bacteriophage was isolated - a virus that selectively infects the cells of a particular bacterium. Experiments were also carried out on fruit flies, with bread mold, corn, and so on. The history of the development of biology is such that new discoveries were made with the advent of completely new equipment for research. Thus, the electron microscope and high-speed centrifuge were soon invented. These instruments allowed scientists to discover the following: the genetic material in chromosomes is represented by DNA, and not protein, as previously thought; The structure of DNA was restored in the form of the double helix we know today.

Genetic Engineering

The development of modern biology does not stand still. Genetic engineering is another “by-product” of the study of this discipline. It is to this science that we owe the appearance of some medications, such as insulin and threonine. Despite the fact that it is currently at the stage of development and study, in the near future we may already be able to “taste” its fruits. These include new vaccines against dangerous diseases, and varieties of cultivated plants that are not exposed to drought, cold, disease, or pests. Many scientists believe that with the help of the achievements of this science we will be able to forget about the use of harmful pesticides and herbicides. However, the development of this discipline is controversial in modern society. Many people, not without reason, fear that the result of research may lead to the emergence of pathogens that are resistant to antibiotics and other drugs, causing dangerous diseases in humans and animals.

The latest discoveries in biology and medicine

Science continues to develop. Many more mysteries await our scientists in the future. At school today we study a brief history of the development of biology. We receive the first lesson on this topic in 6th grade. Let's see what our children have to study in the near future. Here is a list of discoveries that were made in the new century.

1. Human Genome Project. Work on it has been carried out since 1990. At this time, the US Congress allocated a significant amount of money for research. In 1999, more than 2 dozen genes were deciphered. In 2001, the first “draft” of the human genome was made. In 2006 the work was completed.
2. Nanomedicine is treatment using special microdevices.
3. Methods are being developed for “growing” human organs (liver tissue, hair, heart valves, muscle cells, and so on).
4. Creation of artificial human organs, which in their characteristics will not be inferior to natural ones (synthetic muscles, etc.).

The period when the history of the development of biology is studied in more detail is 10th grade. At this stage, students gain knowledge of biochemistry, cytology, and reproduction of organisms. This information may be useful to students in the future.

We examined the periods of development of biology as a separate science, and also identified its main directions.

Pliny the Elder (full name - Gaius Plinius Secundus) - Roman statesman, scientist, writer, who possessed truly encyclopedic knowledge. Uncle, adoptive father of Pliny the Younger - this is why, in order to avoid confusion, “younger” and “elder” are added to the names of these two famous people.

Pliny the Elder was born in the city of Comum around the year 23. Most likely, he received his education in Rome, although there is no information about this in all the main sources of information about his biography. The main ones are letters written by his nephew, as well as a short biography of Suetonius.

Pliny the Elder spent his youth on various military campaigns, being a member of the imperial cavalry. Among other things, he fought with the German people - the Hawks, who were then described in his large-scale work “Natural History”. He also had a chance to visit Belgium. At that time, the local procurator was the father or uncle of the famous historian, Cornelius Tacitus. A stay in these parts allowed Pliny the Elder to collect rich factual material about them and write a major work devoted to the war between the Germans and the Romans. It became the main source on which Tacitus later relied in his work “Germania”.

It is known that Pliny the Elder held the position of imperial procurator in Narbonen Gaul - that was the name of the Roman province located on the northern shore of the Mediterranean along the border with Spain; subsequently Pliny was procurator of Spain itself. He met the son of Emperor Vespasian during his military service and campaigns in Germany. This circumstance played a significant role in his appointment to one of the key government posts - the head of the Mizen fleet.

While holding this position, he died on August 25, 79, becoming a victim of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. This event is described in a lengthy letter from Pliny the Younger to Tacitus. His adoptive father was dangerously close to the volcano because... he wanted to get a better look at this enormous natural disaster. Curiosity and the desire to help other people played a cruel joke on him: Pliny was poisoned by sulfur fumes.

Pliny the Elder is remembered as an extremely hardworking person; he read almost anywhere, considering any time that was not accompanied by mental pursuits to be spent aimlessly. He read a lot, trying to extract some benefit from even the most ordinary books. Thanks to Pliny the Younger, we know about the existence of such works by his uncle as 31 books on historical topics, 3 books of works on rhetoric, 8 books on grammar; 160 books contained his notes and extracts made during reading.

The only work of Pliny that has survived to this day is the 37 books of “Natural History,” which he spent no more than 6 years writing, completing it in 77. This book can safely be called an encyclopedia of antiquity in the field of natural science knowledge. In it you can find a large amount of data on politics, economics, and everyday life, although researchers note that Pliny the Elder was not too critical of the sources used and showed gullibility.

Charles Darwin (1809 -1882) - the main work “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life.”Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (1894 -1980) - the first scientific theory of the origin of life.Hippocrates (460 - ca. 370 BC) - the first detailed description of the structure of humans and animals, pointed out the role of the environment and heredity in the occurrence of diseases, the founder of medicine.Aristotle (384-322 BC) - divided the surrounding world into 4 kingdoms, the founder of zoology.Theophrastus (372-287 BC) - studied plants, founder of botany. Guy Pliny the Elder (23-79) - 37 volumes of the encyclopedia “Natural Theory”.Claudius Galen (c. 130-c. 200) - dissections of mammals, comparative anatomical description of humans and monkeys, studied the central and peripheral nervous systems.Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) - studied the flight of birds, described many plants, methods of connecting bones in joints, the activity of the heart and the visual function of the eye, the similarities of human and animal bones.Carl Linnaeus (1707 -1778) - proposed a system for classifying animals and plants.Karl Baer (1792 -1876) - in his works formulated the basic principles of the theory of homologous organs and the law of germinal similarity, which laid the scientific foundations of embryology.Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1774 -1829) - raised the question of the causes and mechanisms of evolutionary transformations and outlined the first theory of evolution.Theodor Schwann (1818-1882) - zoologist, cell theoryMatthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881) - botanist, cell theory.Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895), Robert Koch (1843 - 1910), Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916) - microbiology.William Harvey (1578 - 1657) - used the experimental method in his research to study blood circulation.Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) - studying the heredity and variability of organisms, was the first to use experiment to test a hypothesis formulated on the basis of the results obtained, the beginning of the development of genetics as a science. Cytology. Robert Hooke - in 1665, while studying a section of an elderberry plug, he saw cells that he called cells.Anthony van Leeuwenhoek - in 1696, in his book “The Secrets of Nature, Discovered with the help of Advanced Microscopes”, described red blood cells, sperm, and microorganisms. Founder of biological microscopy.Jan Purkinje - described the cell nucleus and introduced the term “protoplasm” Robert Brown - in 1831 - 1833 discovered a spherical structure in plant cells, which he called the nucleus. Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881) - in 1838, the book “Materials for Phylogenesis” was published, in which he expressed the idea that the cell is the basic structural unit of plants, and raised the question of the emergence of new cells in the body.Theodor Schwann - in 1939, in the work “Microscopic studies on the correspondence in the structure and growth of animals and plants”, formulated the main provisions of the cell theory.Rudolf Virchow - in 1859 formulated the position of the cell theory: “Every cell comes from another cell.