From your Russian language lessons you probably know that sentences can be simple or complex. Complex ones, in turn, are divided into complex and complex. For the former, both parts of the sentence are equal, while for the latter, one part is the main clause, and the second (or even several others) is a subordinate clause. “Wait, but what does Russian have to do with it?” - you ask. The fact is that the English language has exactly the same types of sentences. And if everything is quite simple with simple and complex clauses, complex clauses and their subordinate clauses in English language have their own characteristics, which we will talk about today.
Subordinate clauses in English: usage
Complex sentences or complex sentences in English, as mentioned earlier, consist of 2 parts:
Almost always these parts can change places. In most cases they are separated by intonation, but sometimes the presence of a comma is acceptable. The peculiarity of subordinate clauses is that they cannot be used independently, since such clauses simply explain the main thing. Example:
Let's break down these proposals:
We hope that you have an idea of what such a subordinate clause is. Now we can consider the types of subordinate clauses.
Types of subordinate clauses in English
There are 5 types of subordinate clauses in English:
- The subject clause or subordinate clause performs the function of the subject, answers the questions “what? /Who?" and is introduced into the sentence by the conjunctions who, what, that, which, when, where, why, how, if / whether ).
Examples:
- The predicative clause or subordinate clause of the predicate is used in the function of the nominal part of the predicate with the same conjunctions that were used for the case above:
- The object clause or additional clauses answer the questions “what?”, “for what?”, “whom?”. Can be introduced by already known unions, although non-union cases are also possible:
Non-union joining occurs only when the conjunction that is implied:
- The attributive clause or subordinate attributive clauses serve as a definition. They answer the question “which one?” To enter them, conjunctions are required: that (which), which (which is only for inanimate), who (which is only for animate), whose (whose), why (why), where (where):
- The adverbial clause or adverbial circumstance. Perhaps the most large group subordinate clauses, which is divided into the following subgroups:
- Subordinate clauses that are introduced using where (where, where) and wherever (wherever / wherever):
- Subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunctions when (when), while (while), before (before), after (after), until / till (not yet / until), as soon as (as soon as), since (since):
- Subordinate reasons that are introduced using the conjunctions as (since), because (because), since (since):
- Subordinate objectives that use conjunctions that (to), in order that (in order to), so that (so that), lest (not to):
- Subordinate clauses of action and comparison are introduced using as if / though (as if), that (that), as (how):
- Subordinate concessions are introduced by the conjunctions although / though, whoever, however, whatever, no matter what / how, even though on what):
- Subordinate conditions that include the conjunctions if (if), unless (not yet), provided / in condition that (provided):
Example:
Nina had a stomach ache so she went to the doctor. - Nina had a stomach ache, so she went to the doctor.
There was so much soup that John wasn't able to eat it. - There was so much soup that John couldn’t eat it.
Let's consider situations in which the construction is used such...that.
The first diagram describes the turnover with countable nouns in singular:
Example:
It was such a beautiful dress that I bought it. - The dress was so beautiful that I bought it.
The second diagram describes the turnover with countable nouns in plural or uncountable nouns:
Example:
They were such clever people that it was pleasant to speak to them. “They were so smart that it was nice to talk to them.”
It was such nice weather that we went to the countryside. - The weather was so good that we went out of town.
Please note that when we use a plural noun or an uncountable noun, the article is not used (Figure 2).
Rice. 2. Zero article ()
In subordinate clauses of the consequence the construction is also used so...that. This construction is very often accompanied by the following evaluative pronouns (Fig. 3):
- little
Rice. 3. Evaluative pronouns ()
Let's look at the diagram:
Example:
There was so much water in the bucket that the boy couldn’t carry it alone. - There was so much water in the bucket that the boy could not carry it alone.
There was so little food in the refrigerator that I still feel hungry. - There was so little food in the refrigerator that I'm still hungry.
Do not forget that much And little are used with uncountable nouns, and many And few- with countable ones (see diagram 4).
Example:
We had so many books at home that mother decided to take some of them to the library. - There were so many books at home that my mother decided to take some of them to the library.
I have so few T-shirts that I need to buy some. - I have so few T-shirts that I need to buy several.
To better understand and assimilate the features of use subordinate clauses of consequence, you must do the following exercise.
I. Make one sentence out of two usingthe Clause of Result
- The book was dull. I couldn't read it to the end.
- There was a lot of work. Mary didn't know where to begin.
- The water in the sea was cold. The children didn't want to swim.
- I had little money. I couldn't buy a new dress.
Answers to the exercise:
- The book was so dull that I couldn’t read it to the end.
- There was so much work that Mary didn’t know where to begin.
- The water in the sea was so cold that the children didn’t want to swim.
- I had so little money that I couldn’t buy a new dress.
ThePresentPerfect- one of the ways to help express the result in speech. PresentPerfect describes actions completed at the time of speech. This means that the action has already completed in the past, but we are interested in result, which relates to the present moment.
Example:
- Go and do your homework!
- I have already done it.
- Go do your homework!
- I did it already.
It doesn’t matter to mom when her son has done his homework. She is only interested in the result: whether she did it or not.
PresentPerfect- time is compound. Like all times of the group Perfect it includes a linking verb have And semanticverbVthirdform(Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Formation Present Perfect
Example:
I have already done homework.
He has already done homework.
For education interrogativeproposals V PresentPerfect linking verb have/has must be placed first in the sentence.
Example:
Have you done homework yet?
Has he done homework yet?
For education negativeproposals V PresentPerfect a negative particle must be added to the linking verb not, or use short forms haven't/hasn’tt.
Example:
I haven'tdone homework yet.
He hasn'tdone homework yet.
Adjective- one of the most important parts of speech in both Russian and English. Adjectives mean quality, properties, signs one or another subject(Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Adjectives ()
Adjectives can be simple(e.g., red, white, nice), may contain suffixes And prefixes(e.g., beauty ful , un happy), can be complex and consist of several bases (e.g., darkgreen, well-written).
Adjectives in English have only one form. They do not change by gender, number and case. But some adjectives can have degrees of comparison. This applies to qualitative adjectives, that is, to those adjectives that express the quality of an object, namely, that attribute of it that can manifest itself in greater or to a lesser extent(e.g., beautiful, big) (Fig. 6). Relative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison (e.g., Russian, English, golden).
Rice. 6. Degrees of comparison of adjectives ()
Nouns in English are divided into countable And uncountable.
TO countable noun include items/objects, countable. Such nouns can be used in both singular and plural, used with both definite and definite indefinite article.
Countable nouns can be like subject, so collective.
Subject nouns:
a pupil - five pupils
a table - many tables
an engineer - engineers
Collective nouns:
a family - families
an army - armies
TO uncountable noun belong to words that denote substances or concepts, which cannot be counted. Such nouns are not used with the indefinite article and are used only in the singular. Uncountable nouns are used with pronouns such as much(much milk) little(little water) some And any.
Uncountable nouns can be real or abstract(actions, states, natural phenomena, feelings).
Real nouns:
Abstract nouns:
Uncountable nouns denoting substance can sometimes be used with articles when denoting portions.
Example:
Can I have a coffee please? - Can I cup coffee, Please.
Bibliography
- Afanasyeva O.V., Mikheeva I.V. English language. 9th grade. - M.: Bustard, 2008.
- Baranova K.M., Dooley D., Kopylova V.V. English language. - M.: Education, 2011.
- Biboletova M.Z., Trubaneva N.N. English language. 9th grade. - M.: Title, 2008.
Homework
- Fill in the blanks with conjunctions so or such. Use the article a/an where necessary:
a) She was responsive woman that everyone asked her advice.
b) Winter evenings are boring times that people don’t know what to do.
c) Today is warm afternoon that we are going out for a walk.
d) They were cheap A-shirts that we bought quite a lot.
e) He invited few friends that it was not interesting to play.
e) There were many people that we couldn’t find a seat.
- Complete the sentences according to their meaning:
a) The case was so heavy that.
b) that I stopped talking.
c) They were so polite that.
d) It was such a strange call that.
e) Mr and Mrs White were such nice people that.
e) that he invited her to a meeting.
g) that Carol refused an offer.
- Translate into English, paying attention to the peculiarities of the use of conjunctions in subordinate clauses of the consequence:
a) His story was so improbable that no one believed him.
b) The last day of summer turned out to be so rainy that the meeting participants did not want to watch a movie in the open air.
c) The tea had so much sugar that it was impossible to drink.
d) He was so scared that he could hardly remember his name.
e) I had so many questions that I didn’t know where to start.
f) Our behavior seemed so stupid to everyone that no one wanted to get to know us.
g) They have so few friends in this city that they don’t even know who to invite to the holidays.
h) It was such an amazing evening that the guests did not want to leave.
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In the previous article, we looked at the use of words with which we can express the reason for an action taking place. In this article we will learn how to express a consequence in English.
The following words can help express the consequence of a certain action: therefore, consequence, so that, effect, result.
Using the adverbs therefore, accordingly and consequently to express a consequence in English
Therefore is the most common word that helps convey a consequence. Often this adverb in English appears in the middle of a sentence and is often separated by commas:
The minerals, therefore, are in the trustees- for this reason the stones are kept by trusted persons
The structure was damaged and therefore infirm- the structure was damaged and therefore unstable
It should be noted that using therefore at the beginning of a sentence is more typical for those who are just starting to learn English (i.e., for beginners).
The words accordingly and consequently can be used in the same sense as therefore, but they are not used as often as therefore. They can be used both at the beginning and in the middle of a sentence:
Accordingly, the proposed director interlock appears to be consistent with…. - accordingly, the proposed combination of directors does not contradict….
After being here for a week, I took a notion to leave, and accordingly did so- after being here for a week, I got ready to leave, and so I did
Consequently, his final decision cannot be faulted- therefore, his final decision cannot be called wrong
He had no time, consequently he drove very fast- he didn’t have time, so he drove very fast
Using thus, hence and so to express a consequence in English
The words thus, hence and so can also be used to express the consequence of some action. These words can appear at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. The word so is almost always used in the middle of a sentence, preceded by a comma:
It was late, so I went home - it was late, so I went home
Thus we have man modifying nature- So we have a man changing nature
Using thereby, as a result, as a consequence to express a consequence in English
The adverb thereby is always used in the middle of a sentence and is separated by commas. It should be noted that after this word, verbs are used with the ending –ing:
He became a citizen in 1999, thereby gaining the right to vote- he became a citizen in 1978, thereby gaining the right to vote
many have been laid off from work as a consequence of the administration's policies– as a result of administrative policies, many were fired from their jobs
Using as a result of, as a consequence of to express a consequence in English
Both of these prepositions are used in the middle of a sentence. As a result of is used more often than, as a consequence of:
He was in the doghouse as a result of his misbehaviour- because of his bad behavior he was out of favor
As a result of healthy food consumption the durability of organism systems and organs increases- As a result of consumption healthy food the endurance of individual organs and the body as a whole increases.
If after the phrases as a result of, as a consequence of there is a verb, then the ending –ing is added to it:
She is in good shape as a result of taking regular exercise- she is in good shape thanks to regular exercise
Using the conjunction so that to express a consequence in English
The conjunction so that is the most common conjunction in English to express a consequence. The conjunction so that in English always comes in the middle of a sentence and is often preceded by a comma:
He slept with the key under his pillow, so that no one could steal it- he slept with the key under his pillow so that no one could steal it
English also has a number of nouns that help convey consequences, for example: consequence, effect, implication, outcome, result:
The consequence of those measures will be the best apology…- the results of these measures will be the best justification...
What are the implications of the new law?- What follows from the new law?
the outcome of the advertising campaign- result of an advertising campaign
Adverbial clauses perform functions in various circumstances. They answer next questions when?- When?, why?- Why?, where?– where?, where?, how?- How?
By meaning, subordinate clauses are divided into:
- adverbial sentences of time,
- adverbial clauses of place,
- adverbial clauses of reason,
- circumstantial sentences of investigation,
- adverbial sentences of manner of action and comparison,
- circumstantial concessionary offers,
- adverbial sentences of purpose,
- adverbial clauses conditions.
note that adverbial clauses are separated by a comma only if they stand before the main clause.
Subordinate clauses of time. Adverbial Clauses of Time
1. Subordinate clauses of time
- when? - When?
- since when? – since when?
- how long? - how long?
- when - when;
- whenever - whenever;
- while – while, when, while;
- as – when, while;
- after – after;
- before - before;
- till, until – until, until...not;
- as soon as - for now;
- since – since then, etc.;
Examples: I learned to read when I was about 5 years.– I learned to read when I was about 5 years old.
Before it grew dark, we had reached home. “Before it got dark, we got home. (We separated the adverbial clause with a comma, since it comes before the main clause.)
2. B subordinate clause of time The verb in the future tense is never used.
Remember: replaced by , replaced by , and replaced by .
Examples:When they return home, she'll tell them the news. “When they return home, she will tell them the news.”
Subordinate clauses of place. Adverbial Clauses of Places
1. Subordinate clauses of place answer the following questions:
- where? – where?/where?
- from where - where from?
They are connected to the main sentence using conjunctions:
- where – where, where;
- wherever – wherever, wherever;
Examples:Wherever I meet his brother, he is always troubled. – Wherever I meet his brother, he is always worried.
This is the house where I live in. - This is the house where (in which) I live.
Subordinate clauses of reason. Adverbial Clauses of Cause
1. Subordinate clauses of reason answer the question:
- why? - Why?
They are connected to the main sentence using conjunctions:
- because – because;
- as – since;
- fore – since;
- now that – now when, since.
Examples: There were many people in the streets because it was a holiday. – There were a lot of people on the street because it was a holiday.
We decided to camp there as it was too dark to go on. “We decided to set up camp there because it was too dark to go any further.
Subordinate clauses of manner of action and comparison. Adverbial Clauses of Manner and Comparison
1. Subordinate clauses of manner of action answer the question:
How? – how?/in what way?
They are connected to the main sentence using conjunctions:
- as – how;
- as if (as though) – as if, as if;
- that - what.
Examples: Pronounce the word as I do. - Say the word like I (do).
2. In comparative sentences introduced by conjunctions as if, as though, used Subjunctive II.
Examples: Hey as if he were starving for months. “He ate as if he had been starving for months.”
She talks about Paris as though she had been there herself. – She talks about Paris as if she had been there in person.
3. K subordinate clauses of manner of action relate subordinate clauses of comparison, they are connected to the main sentence using conjunctions:
- than – than;
- as...as – just...as/same...as;
- not so...as - (not) so/such...as;
Examples: It's not so bad as her mother thinks it is. “It’s not as bad as her mother thinks.”
Subordinate clauses of consequence. Adverbial Clauses of Result
1. Subordinate clauses of consequence express a consequence arising from the content of the main sentence. They are connected to the main sentence with a conjunction so that, such that - so, V colloquial speech conjunction is often used so.
Examples: They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house. “They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to pass by their house.
The weather was so warm that I did not wear a jacket. – The weather was so warm that I didn’t wear a jacket.
Subordinate clauses are concessive. Adverbial Clauses of Concession
1. Concessive subordinate clauses indicate the circumstance contrary to which the action of the main sentence is performed. They are connected to the main sentence by conjunctions:
- thought (although) – although;
- in spite of the fact that - despite the fact that;
- however - no matter how;
- whoever – whoever;
- whatever - whatever;
- whichever – whatever;
- no matter what - no matter what;
- no matter how - no matter how, etc.
Examples: Don't change your plans whatever happens. – Don’t change your plans, no matter what happens.
Although I like insects, I do not wish to study entomology. – Although I love insects, I don’t want to study entomology.
In spite of having no qualifications, he got the job. Despite the fact that he had no qualifications, he got the job.
Subordinate clauses of purpose. Adverbial Clause of Purpose
1. Subordinate clauses of purpose indicate the purpose for which the action of the main sentence is performed. Subordinate clauses of purpose answer the following questions:
- what for? - Why? What for?
- for what purpose? -for what purpose?
They are connected to the main sentence using conjunctions:
- so that, so, in order that - so that, in order to;
- in order that – (in order) to.
Union so that– the most common, and in colloquial speech the conjunction is often used so.
The predicate of these sentences is expressed by verbs may (might) and should + infinitive without to. This design is translated.
May (might) used when the predicate of the subordinate clause has a connotation of possibility. Should used when the shade of possibility is absent.
Examples: He told us to get into the back of the car so that we could talk. “She told us to sit in the back seat of the car so we could talk.”
She gave me the key so that I could open the door. “She gave me the key so I could open the door.”
Subordinate clauses conditions. Adverbial Clauses of Condition
1. Subordinate clauses conditions connected to the main sentence using conjunctions:
- if – if (the most common conjunction);
- in case - in case;
- supposing (that), suppose (that) - if, suppose (that);
- unless - if... not;
- provided (that), providing (that), on condition (that) – provided that, provided that.
Examples: I wouldn't do it if I were you. “I wouldn’t do this if I were you.”
I'll be at the flat all evening in case you should change your mind. “I’ll be at my house all evening in case you change your mind.”
Please note that it is possible to consider subordinate clauses in detail only in the context of the whole. Detailed information about conditional sentences you can see .
Subordinate clauses in English are part of complex clauses and perform the function of one of the members of a sentence, being, as it were, its expanded version.
For example, in this sentence the circumstance is expressed in one word - carefully:
I was driving carefully. – I drove the car carefully.
Now let’s expand the circumstance, replacing it with a subordinate clause of the manner of action. The result is a complex sentence like this:
I was driving as if I had China on my backseat. “I drove like I had china in the back seat.”
Accordingly, there are as many subordinate clauses as there are members of the sentences that they replace.
Subject clauses
Subordinate clauses perform a function and answer the same questions as the subject: Who? What? They are connected to the main sentence by conjunctions and allied words:
- that– what,
- whether, if - whether,
- who, whom – who, whom,
- which – which,
- when - when,
- where - where, where,
- how - how,
- why - why.
- whose - whose,
- what - what, which,
It is bad that you made a mistake. - It's bad that you made a mistake.
Whether they will leave today is not known yet. “It remains to be seen whether they will leave today.”
Predicate clauses
Subordinate predicates perform a function and answer the questions: what is the subject? what is it? They are connected to the main sentence by the same conjunctions and allied words as the subject subordinate clauses.
The question is whether they want to join us. “The question is whether they will want to join us.”
The weather is not what it was yesterday. - The weather is not the same as yesterday.
Subordinate clauses of addition
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