Influence of plants, animal fungi and bacteria. The main environmental factors affecting the growth and development of fungi. Mushroom nutrition. Ecological groups. Eukaryotic cell - structure

All living beings living on our planet have a cellular structure. The cells of living beings are what unites all life on the planet. But, nevertheless, cells in fungi, plants, animals and bacteria have significant differences. In order for you to know how they differ and how similar, you need to consider their structure.

cell types

What is the difference from other organisms in bacteria?

The main thing that makes bacteria (prokaryotes) different from other living organisms (eukaryotes) is that they do not have a nucleus.

Prokaryotes contain:

* protective capsule;
* nuclear substance with genetic data;
* cytoplasms that bind organelles;
* cell wall that regulates water and gases; provides form;
* flagella, due to which bacteria move.

The functions of the nucleus are performed by the nucleoid. It stores all genetic data and dna.

The cytoplasm is a liquid containing nutrients, a lot of protein, ribosomes that synthesize protein.

The capsule protects the shell, and therefore is on top of it. Thanks to the capsule, the shell does not dry out and is not damaged.

Cell structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes under external factors can change their shape and return to their own when the influence from the outside ceases (spore formation).

Cell structure of fungi, plants and animals

All plants, animals and fungi are largely similar in their structure. Their cells contain:

* mitochondria;
* core;
* cytoplasm;
* endoplasmic reticulum;
* cytoplasmic membrane;
* Golgi apparatus.

The nucleus is the largest element of the cell, responsible for its existence and vital activity. It contains the DNA of animals and plants, the synthesis of ribosomes and RNA takes place. In all organisms, the nucleus most often has the shape of a sphere.

The cytoplasmic membrane protects the interior of the cell from outside influences. The membrane contains pores designed for the entry of water and nutrients and the removal of waste products.

Plant cells also contain plastids. They are located in leukoplasts, chloroplasts and chromoplasts. The latter have substances that give color to the stems and fruits. Due to the bright coloring, bees fly to the plant. Leucoplasts are needed to maintain a supply of substances for nutrition in adverse conditions. Chloroplasts are green plastids responsible for plant photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are found only in stems and leaves.

Eukaryotic cell - structure

eukaryotic cell structure

The cell wall of plants is made of cellulose, animal cells do not have it, fungi have it made of chitin. Mushroom and animal cells store glycogen in the process of work, and starch in plant cells.

The Golgi apparatus produces and stores complex proteins and polysaccharides.

Plants and animals in cells differ in the number of vacuoles. Plants exist with cells in which there is one large vacuole, but animals with cells in which it is one or several, but then smaller in size. Vacuoles in plants are responsible for the entry and exit of water, while in animals they retain water and ions, as well as waste products in themselves. Fungi do not have vacuoles.

Fungal cells have from 1 to 30 nuclei.

General and Miscellaneous

Prokaryotes differ in that they are nuclear-free and smaller than other living beings.

In addition to differences in structure, cells of fungi, bacteria, animals and plants reproduce in different ways. Bacteria multiply by budding or constriction, in very rare cases - sexually, there is nowhere more remarkable. Eukaryotic cells multiply by mitosis.

Another important difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes lies in ascorbic acid. Eukaryotic cells constantly need ascorbic acid, but prokaryotes do not.

The structure of bacterial cells (A), animals (B), fungi (C) and plants (D)

It should be noted that proteins dominate among organic compounds in animal cells, while carbohydrates prevail in plant cells.

Table of differences and similarities of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria

bacteria

Or autotrophic
Organization of hereditary information -- Prokaryotes
DNA localization -- Nucleoid, plasmids

Cell wall -- Murein
Cytoplasm - yes
Organelles -- Ribosomes
Organelles of movement - flagella and villi
Vacuoles - Rare
Inclusions -- Volyutin

Animals

Diet - Heterotrophic


Plasma membrane - yes
cell wall -
Cytoplasm - yes
Organelles -- Membrane and non-membrane, including the cell center

Vacuoles -- contractile, digestive
Inclusions -- Glycogen

Mushrooms

Diet - Heterotrophic
Organization of hereditary information -- Eukaryotes
Localization -- DNA Nucleus, mitochondria
Plasma membrane - yes
Cell wall -- Chitinous
Cytoplasm - yes
Organelles -- Membrane and non-membrane
Organelles of movement - flagella and cilia
Vacuoles - Sometimes
Inclusions -- Glycogen

Plants

The mode of nutrition is autotrophic
Organization of hereditary information -- Eukaryotes
DNA localization -- Nucleus, mitochondria, plastids
Plasma membrane - yes
Cell Wall -- Cellulosic
Cytoplasm - yes
Organelles - Membrane and non-membrane, including plastids
Organelles of movement - flagella and cilia
Vacuoles -- Central vacuole with cell sap
Inclusions -- Starch

And yeast is used for the production of food, medicines. Some fungi cause significant harm to humans: they cause spoilage of food products, destroy wood and leather products. Parasitic fungi cause various diseases of plants, animals and humans.

The role of fungi in the cycle of substances

Often on trees there are tinder fungi, or tinder fungi. Tinder fungus spores get into wounds on the bark of trees and germinate, forming mycelium. It penetrates the wood and feeds on the organic matter of its cells. Affected trees become brittle, rotten. A few years after the infection of the tree with a tinder fungus, its fruiting bodies appear on the trunk (Fig. 51). They are hoof-shaped and usually very hard. Perennial fruit bodies of tinder fungi can sometimes reach 0.5-1 m in diameter. On the underside of the fruiting body, millions of spores ripen in small tubules.

To prevent infection with polypore fungi, it is necessary to protect trees from damage to the bark and breakage of branches, and to knock down and burn fruiting bodies.

Many types of hat mushrooms are eaten as a valuable product. Some species are grown in artificial conditions on special nutrient substrates: straw-based composts (champignons), wood-based (oyster mushrooms). Mushrooms are grown more often (Fig. 52), in second place is oyster mushroom. In France, black truffles are cultivated, in Japan and other countries - shiitake (Fig. 53).

Man has long used mushrooms in various sectors of the economy. Winemaking and baking - the most ancient crafts - would be impossible without yeast fungi. During baking, the carbon dioxide released by the yeast raises the dough and makes it porous and fluffy. Certain types of mold fungi are used to produce cheeses (Roquefort and Camembert).

Fungi in the microbiological industry

Some types of penicillium are widely used in the microbiological industry in the production of organic acids, vitamins and other valuable substances. Some types of mold fungi are used to obtain proteins, antibiotics, and drugs for pest control of agricultural plants.

The school stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in ecology

2014-2015 academic year

Grade 9

TASKS

Exercise 1. You are offered ten tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which you must either agree or reject. The maximum number of points is 10 (one point for each correct answer). Record your choice of yes or no answer in the answer matrix.

1. The rule of the ecological pyramid defines a progressive increase by a factor of 10 of the mass of each subsequent link in the food chains.

2. The same living organisms can be part of several food chains at once.

3. There is no self-regulation in the agrocenosis.

4. Water is the most populated habitat.

5. The ability of a species to adapt to changing environmental factors is called ecological lamellarity.

6. If oxygen does not play a significant role for the soil habitat, then for the water it is the most important environmental factor.

7. In the tundra, the anthropogenic influence is most noticeable.

8. To increase the fish catch in the northern seas, it is necessary to increase the diameter of the cells of the fishing gear.

10. Reindeer protect taiga forests from fire.

Task 2. You are offered twenty test tasks that require you to choose one correct answer out of four possible ones. The index of the answer that you consider the most complete and correct, indicate in the answer matrix. Each correct answer is worth 1 point, the maximum number of points is 20.

11. The influence of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria on living organisms in an ecosystem is called factors: A) abiotic; B) biotic; B) anthropogenic; D) limiting.

12. The juicy fruits of some plants are eaten by animals. In this case, the seeds not only spread in various places, but even increase their germination capacity under the influence of gastric juice. Similar relationships between plants and animals are called: A) endozoochory; B) exozoochory; B) synoikia; D) companionship.

13. In a symbiotic relationship are: A) a lion and a jackal; B) shark and fish stuck; C) sundew and fly; D) fish and earthworm.

14. Who are the main energy suppliers in the pine forest? A) bacteria B) proteins; B) pines; D) insects.

15. In what direction are food and energy connections carried out?

A) consumers - producers - decomposers; B) decomposers - consumers - producers;

C) reducers - producers - consumers; D) producers - consumers - decomposers.

16. For which plant communities in the north of Europe is periodic burning out a necessary condition for existence? A) pine forest B) peat bog; C) floodplain meadow; D) thickets of heather.

17. The most accurate indicators (indicators) of the state of the environment are species that: A) exist in a wide range of environmental conditions; B) require strictly defined conditions of existence; C) adapt to the influence of anthropogenic factors; D) show plasticity to the action of environmental factors.

18. Weakened, diseased trees emit substances that attract pests, that is, the former have on the latter: A) an attractive effect; B) repellent action; C) allelopathic action;

D) homeopathic action.

20. Stable populations are characterized by numbers that: A) changes irregularly with a large amplitude of oscillations; B) is at the level of the supporting capacity of the medium; C) changes regularly depending on environmental conditions; D) is determined by the speed of migration processes.

21. The historical stages of the relationship between man and nature can be built in the following sequence: A) "Neolithic Revolution", "Paleolithic Revolution", "Industrial Revolution"; "green revolution";

B) "Paleolithic Revolution", "Green Revolution", "Neolithic Revolution", "Industrial Revolution";

C) "industrial revolution", "green revolution", "paleolithic revolution", "neolithic revolution";

D) "Paleolithic Revolution", "Neolithic Revolution", "Industrial Revolution", "Green Revolution";

22. What is the shape of the "survival curve" in mammals? A) concave down; B) vertical; B) convex up; D) horizontal .

23. What is the name of the state of the biosphere when its development is controlled by the human mind? A) the astrosphere B) noosphere; B) lithosphere; D) nanosphere.

24. The best way to restore open pits can be: A) filling them with water; B) plowing slopes; C) planting cultivated plants on the slopes;

D) filling with sand.

25. The return of biogenic elements to the global circulation of substances is carried out mainly: A) producers B) decomposers; B) industrial enterprises; D) consumers.

26. Choose the correct sequence of components of the detrital food chain:

A) otter-phytoplankton-carp-daphnia; B) otter-phytoplankton-daphnia-crucian carp; C) daphnia-phytoplankton-carp-otter; D) phytoplankton-daphnia-carp-otter.

27. The principle of G.F. Gause can be applied in the case of: A) descriptions of the relationship between black and red cockroaches; B) determination of the type of specially protected natural area; C) calculation of the diet of farm animals; D) modeling of erosion processes .

28. Who coined the term "population"? A) G. De Vries; B) I.I. Schmalhausen; C) W. Johannsen; D) A. Volterra.

29. Correctly drawn up scheme of secondary ecological succession: A) fire → lichens and algae → grasses and shrubs → spruce forest → birch forest → oak forest; B) rocks → lichens and algae → mosses and ferns → grasses and shrubs → birch forest → mixed forest → spruce forest; C) felling → grasses and shrubs → birch forest → mixed forest → spruce forest; d) wasteland → mosses and ferns → grasses and shrubs → mixed forest → birch forest → oak forest.

30. Specify the correct food chain: A) clover - hawk - bumblebee - mouse; B) clover - bumblebee - mouse - hawk; C) bumblebee - mouse - hawk - clover; D) mouse - clover - bumblebee - hawk.

Task 3. It consists in choosing the correct answer “yes” or “no” with a written justification for your choice. You must not only choose and indicate the correct answer in the matrix, but also justify it in writing, based on your knowledge and experience. It consists of three tasks, each of which is estimated at a maximum of 3 points (the maximum number of points is 9).

31. Is it possible to preserve the steppe ecosystem if all ungulates are exterminated in it?

32. Three related plant species live in one area - non-poisonous, slightly toxic and poisonous. The same phytophages feed on them (non-poisonous and weakly toxic). Is it possible for all three plant species to survive?

33. Is any living organism capable of inhabiting the entire surface of the planet?

Task 4. Solve the test problem. The task consists in choosing the only correct answer from the four proposed with a written justification for your choice. You must not only choose and indicate the correct answer in the matrix, but also justify it in writing, based on your knowledge and experience. The maximum number of points is 4 points.

34. The concept of topical connections was introduced by V. K. Beklemishev, meaning by them the influence of some organisms on others through a change in various abiotic factors. An example of topical ecological links is:

A) the presence of long hair, outgrowths on the fingers of the thin-toed jerboa - an inhabitant of sandy deserts; B) the colonization by insects of "pools" formed due to the accumulation of rainwater in the bases of the leaves of plants of the bromeliad family; C) sundew digestion of insects falling on the surface of its leaves; D) fixing moving sands with the help of psammophilous plants (willow-sheluga, kandym, and other shrubs).

Response Matrix

Grade 9

FULL NAME. Class

Task 1. [10 points].

31. Choose and justify your answer.

32. Choose and justify your answer.

33. Choose and justify your answer.

Task 4.

34. Choose and justify the only correct answer.

Response Matrix

Grade 9

Maximum 43 points.

Task 1. [10 points].

31. No, because phytomass, which was constantly absorbed by ungulates, will immediately begin to accumulate. The steppe will overgrow and turn into forest-steppe communities.

32. Yes, animals will eat all the plants evenly, and some of them will die. Plants will be preserved in this way. Most likely, non-poisonous and slightly toxic species are similar to the poisonous species. In addition, phytophages will develop a conditioned reflex and only young individuals will eat these species.

33. No, because an unlimited growth in numbers leads to the depletion of environmental resources, and, accordingly, to a decrease in the number of the population itself or to its death.

34 . Answer B) is correct. The structural features of the leaves of plants of the bromeliad family create the physical conditions necessary for the habitat of other organisms - insects. Thus, there is a topical connection here.

The possibility of its settlement largely depends on the moisture content of the nutrient substrate. Many representatives of soil microflora, in the development cycle of which zoospores are formed, develop best in moisture-saturated soil. However, for oxygen-demanding fungi, excessive soil moisture is unfavorable, since its aeration sharply deteriorates. Almost all terrestrial fungi require high substrate moisture during mycelium growth.

The humidity of the surrounding air often determines the intensity of sporulation and the spread of the infectious beginning of fungi. High relative air humidity (and for fungi that form zoospores, drop-liquid moisture) is most often necessary during the formation of asexual sporulation organs. With the formation of the organs of sexual reproduction, the need for water sometimes decreases. It decreases especially sharply when the fungus passes into the dormant stage, for example, during the formation of sclerotia. High, saturated air humidity or the presence of drop-liquid moisture is necessary for most fungi during the release of spores from various spore hosts, their dispersal and germination. The ability to develop surface mycelium and sporulate abundantly at low relative air humidity is inherent in few fungi (for example, powdery mildew).

Ambient temperature has a very strong influence on the growth, reproduction and physiological activity of fungi. At the same time, along with mushrooms, the temperature optimum of which is about 25-30°C (and sometimes even higher), many species are known for which temperatures from 5 to 10°C are optimal. There are species whose active development occurs at temperatures close to 0 ° C (for example, causative agents of decay of cereals develop under snow). For most mushrooms, optimal temperatures range from 18 to 25°C.

At the optimum temperature, the processes of metabolism, growth and sporulation usually proceed most intensively. The temperature of the medium is of great importance for the germination of fungal spores. Sometimes not only the possibility of spore germination depends on temperature, but also the rate of germination and its nature.

If optimal temperature is necessary for the best development of a species, then extreme (minimum and maximum) temperatures, which are called cardinal, are often more important for survival and preservation in nature. At the minimum temperature, the vital processes of the fungus begin, at the maximum, they sharply weaken or almost stop. Resting spores, sclerotia, fruiting bodies of some fungi are able to withstand extreme temperatures for a certain period of time, at which all life processes completely stop. Thus, perennial fruiting bodies of polypore fungi remain viable during severe (up to -40°C) winter frosts.

The destructive effect of high temperatures is used to disinfect materials, products and substrates infected with fungi, to disinfect seeds and planting material. The thermochemical method of sterilization is based on the use of high temperature in combination with chemical treatment.

Acidity. The reaction of the environment is one of the main factors determining the possibility of fungi infecting certain plant species or organs, colonizing various natural substrates, food products, and industrial materials.

Light. Most fungi grow best in diffused light. Fungal mycelium is usually insensitive to light, but light is usually necessary for the normal development of sporulation organs. Many mushrooms in the dark do not sporulate or sporulate weakly, others (for example, some tinder fungi) form ugly, sometimes sterile fruiting bodies. There are some species that do not need lighting at all. Often in fungi, the phenomenon of phototropism is observed, which most often manifests itself in the growth or bending of conidiophores, sporangiophores, fruiting bodies towards the light source. The alternation of lighting and darkening usually stimulates the growth and sporulation of fungi.

Direct sunlight tends to retard the growth of the mycelium, and with prolonged exposure causes it to die off. Do not withstand direct sunlight and propagative spores of many fungi, especially uncolored. The exception is powdery mildew fungi. Sclerotia, resting spores and fungal spore hosts, resistant to direct light, usually have thick, intensely pigmented shells.

The presence of olive-black pigments (melanins) in the shells of spores, fruiting bodies and other organs of fungi has a protective effect against ultraviolet, infrared, x-ray and other radiation. Various types of radiation, depending on the dose, exposure, temperature and other factors, can stimulate growth and sporulation, cause a change in genetic properties (mutations) or death of the fungus.

The science of biology, which studies life on Earth, never ceases to amaze its adherents. It reveals in more detail the complex structural levels of the relationship of different manifestations of life with each other and with the environment. One promising direction in understanding the role played by prokaryotes (bacteria) in the life of macroorganisms is the study of the presence of bacteria in the cellular life of plants.

Despite the venerable age of the science of biology itself, microbiologists only at the end of the 19th century were able to identify some characteristics of the joint life of bacteria and plants. Only later, with the advent of electron microscopes, were the mechanisms of those connections established, the existence of which was only ascertained in the study of organisms with more primitive instruments.

You can see the classification in more detail in the table.

In addition to separation according to the nature of utility, symbioses of plants with prokaryotes can be located outside plant cells (exosymbioses) or with damage to eukaryotic plant cells (endosymbioses).

Mutualism

Biology received the first descriptions of mutualism as a result of research by the Dutch botanist Beijerinck, conducted in 1888. He studied the nodules of leguminous plants, the nature of which has been of interest to biology since the 17th century. In the course of the study, sterile seeds of leguminous plants were taken and germinated under controlled conditions. Some seeds in the process of life were treated with pure cultures of bacteria (strains specially diluted under laboratory conditions) isolated from nodules, while others were not treated.

As a result of the experiment, legumes treated with a liquid containing bacteria had characteristic nodules on their roots, while untreated ones did not. So it was found that the presence of bacteria is important in the formation and life of the root system of legumes.

The benefits of symbiosis have been established for much longer, and today biology has the following description of the process of this beneficial interaction:

1. Each species of leguminous plants has its own personal symbiont bacteria (clover has its own, peas have their own, beans have their own). Such personification is important in the interaction of proteins (lectins) of plant root hairs with carbohydrates of the bacterial cell membrane. Proteins of each type of legume have their own distinctive features. That is why different carbohydrates are required in bacterial cell membranes for a successful life together.
2. During the germination of plant seeds, organic nutrients accumulate in the rhizosphere (the area of ​​soil near the roots), which release the roots into the soil during their growth. Bacteria attracted by this organic matter interact with the root hairs of plants and through them penetrate into the eukaryotic cells of legume roots.
3. From the moment bacteria penetrate into the root tissue, special proteins, flavonoids, begin to be produced in the root cells (scientists have determined the dominant role of flavonoids in shaping the color of plants). In response to an increase in the amount of flavonoids, the bacterium begins to produce proteins responsible for the coordination of the actions of the bacterial cell and the root cell.
4. Acting in concert, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells form a tube in the legume root cavity, in which the bacterial colony grows.
5. In the process of symbiosis, bacteria rid eukaryotic cells of excess oxygen and fix nitrogen from the atmosphere in the nodules of the root system. Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed only in these symbiotic formations due to the synthesis of a protective protein in them - leghemoglobin.

Such a joint life plays an important role in agriculture as the only natural way to enrich farmland with nitrogen.

• adhesion (specific properties of bacteria that allow them to stick to plant cells);
• the action of hydrolase enzymes (proteins that speed up chemical reactions), which destroy the walls of eukaryotic cells.

Biology has provided material for the study of toxins that affect the life and health of plants. In biology, the effect of bacterial toxins on plants is known. They call:

• wilting as a result of blockage of conductive vessels;
• destruction of tissue (rot);
• necrosis (spoilage of leaves);
• tumors (hypertrophy) as a result of improper formation of plant tissues.

Commensalism

Biology knows enough examples of commensalism. Basically, this is the use by commensal organisms of the surfaces of other organisms for shelter or for moving in space. With commensalism, such relationships are beneficial to one participant, and indifferent to the other.

Commensal mushrooms are widely distributed in nature. Basically, fungi cooperate with insects, which have the ability to spread fungal spores on their limbs. Fungi are also known, which act as a party that creates the conditions for the successful existence of a commensal organism. So, fungi that destroy wood create conditions (dust) for the development of larvae of some insect species.