The introduction of a nationwide examination in the format of ZNO into the educational system of Ukraine was not very good news for graduates. However, sooner or later you can get used to any changes, so today graduates already perceive this state of affairs as a given. Moreover, they try to pass the exam tests as well as possible.
For 11th-graders, knowledge assessment is not just a procedure necessary for obtaining school leaving documents, but also a key that opens the door to the future of a highly qualified specialist. Certificates with points for ZNO are a mandatory document when applying to universities in the country, and a significant amount of earned “points” is a guarantee that the applicant will become a student of the budget order and will receive a scholarship.
Naturally, for this you need to work hard and devote the last school year to preparing for the exam. The success of passing the ZNO is directly dependent on how much time you devote to self-preparation, attending repeaters and preparatory courses. In addition, it is worth preparing for the tests psychologically, and for this you need to be well versed in the ZNO regulations and be aware of possible changes in the ticket structure in advance!
What can change in ZNO 2019?
Even the smallest changes in the EIT procedure can be an unpleasant surprise if you find out about them too late. What can we say about the cardinal changes initiated by the main examination department of Ukraine! Of course, we will draw conclusions about specific innovations at the beginning of the new academic year, when the commissions will approve all the regulations and instructions, after which they will publish them on the ZNO official website. However, thanks to the speeches of officials and their statements in the media, it is already possible today to predict the introduction of a number of innovations into the educational life of Ukraine.
1. Reducing the time for admission
This innovation is still under discussion. The fact is that earlier certificates could be used for three years - for example, if you passed the ZNO in 2016, you could count on the received score in 2016, 2017 and 2018. Later certificates in English, Spanish, German and French were made one-year. Since 2018, they have been operating in a reduced mode, since in this educational period the procedure for certification of foreign languages was radically changed.
To date, specialists from the main body for the quality control of knowledge are actively discussing this issue. Some advocate that from 2019 all certificates become annual. Others say that after the final approval of the structure and content of tickets for the examination session, it will be possible to make all certificates reusable again, so that those who, for example, missed a year due to illness or decided to serve in the army after the exams, have the opportunity to enter without re-examinations.
2. Adaptation of MN for children with visual impairments
Representatives of the Knowledge Quality Center say that by 2019, all-Ukrainian exams will finally be adapted for children who are visually impaired. For them, materials will be printed using Braille. So far, only notebooks with enlarged type are used to test such students, but they are not very convenient for children who studied subjects from textbooks and manuals for the blind and visually impaired.
In addition, children with disabilities will be allowed to write tests for longer (up to three hours), and for children with disabilities, they promise to increase the comfort of the exam rooms.
From 2019 tickets for the visually impaired will be published in Braille 3. Two-level exam in a foreign language
Since 2018, students will have to take French, English, Spanish and German based on a new examination approach - now the ticket will include tasks of two levels of difficulty (B1 and B2 according to the common European classification). However, in the educational department they are called differently - tasks of the academic and specialized levels.
Innovations in the field of foreign languages have been brewing for a long time - back in 2017, graduates of several schools in Kyiv, Odesa and Lviv regions were offered to take a trial test, on the basis of which the Knowledge Assessment Center drew conclusions about the advisability of spreading this practice throughout Ukraine. Another innovation in this ZNO is the inclusion of a part with listening in the ticket (that is, checking how successfully graduates have mastered the skill of understanding foreign speech by ear).
Also, information is slipping in the media that as early as 2019, the EIT in foreign languages may become one of the mandatory for all graduates. Now it is taken only by those who studied in a specialized class (in this case, the mark goes to the state certification column in graduation school documents), as well as students who need a certificate with scores in foreign languages to enter a university for a chosen specialty.
4. Cancellation of ZNO in the Russian language
Students need to remember that recently this subject has been excluded from the list of variable EITs - now it is impossible to take an exam in it. If you wanted to pass this particular subject, urgently change plans.
5. Minimum passing score
Recall that a couple of years ago it was simply impossible not to pass the ZNO - certificates were issued to absolutely everyone who came to this type of final certification. The new approach assumes that the student must score at least a certain minimum score in order to receive a mark at the “satisfactory” level. To date, the minimum scores for the disciplines of ZNO look like this:
- Ukrainian language and literature - 24 test points out of 104;
- history of Ukraine - 27 test points out of 94;
- mathematics - 11 test points out of 62;
- biology - 23 test points out of 76;
- geography - 27 test points out of 92;
- chemistry and physics - at least 17 test points out of 80;
- English, French, Spanish, German - 14 points out of 56 possible.
6. Ability to test knowledge on a trial test
The cost of writing trial tests of ZNO is getting higher every year Each year, the cost of participation in trial tests increases slightly. For example, if in 2017 it was possible to take a trial EIT by paying a fee of UAH 120, then in 2018 it amounted to UAH 129-137. The price of the demo-ZNO depends on the region where the graduates live. For example, eleventh-graders from educational institutions in such regions as Zhytomyr, Sumy, Poltava, Khmelnitsky, Kharkiv and Vinnitsa pay the least, and the increased cost is approved for the Odessa, Dnipro and Kiev regions of the country.
It is not yet possible to say how the amount of the trial test fee will change in 2019. Based on the practice of past years, this increase can be expressed in 10-20 hryvnia. Registration for demo tests usually starts on January 10 and ends on the last day of January, and the trial EITs themselves take place one and a half months before the date on which the main exam is scheduled.
Items ZNO-2019
It will be possible to talk about innovations in tickets only after the next session of ZNO. After studying the work of 2017/2018 graduates, the commission will be able to draw conclusions about the need for additional edits and changes. So far, we can say that recent years have become a period of relative "calm" - tickets for subjects, for the most part, have already been worked out, so revolutionary changes in their structure are quite rare. For a general understanding of the situation, we will briefly analyze the tickets of the last sample.
ZNO in Ukrainian language and literature
Examination work, as before, includes 58 tasks, for the solution of which 180 minutes are allotted. All tasks are divided into three parts:
- part 1 - tasks that test knowledge and skills in the Ukrainian language (there are 33 of them);
- part 2 - tasks from this section will check how well the student knows Ukrainian literature (there are 24 of them);
- part 3 - in this section, the graduate will write an essay.
Part of the tasks (namely - No. 1-No. 23, No. 29-No. 33 and No. 58) is especially important, since the points for it are translated into marks for the final school certificate.
ZNO in mathematics
The exam lasts 180 minutes, during which you will have to puzzle over 33 tasks. They can be quite simple - in the form of small test problems with answer options, tasks to establish a correspondence between two sets of elements, or write down a short answer. The last three tasks are the most difficult. They need to be described in as much detail as possible, arguing the course of the decision, drawing a graph or constructing a geometric figure. Please note that tasks No. 1-No. 28 and No. 31-No. 32 are especially important - the amount of points for them is translated and recorded as a mark in the school certificate.
Test scores will affect grades in the school certificate ZNO in history
One of the most voluminous tickets among all subject ZNO - it contains as many as 60 tasks! Tests are proportionally divided into two parts (30 pieces each), one of which is devoted to the history of Ukraine from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, and the second is devoted to historical events from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. At the same time, it should be noted that not so much time is allotted for the story - only 150 minutes. Tasks No. 1-No. 23, No. 24-No. 26 and No. 27-No. 30 have a separate value - based on the points received for these questions, students will be given final marks in their certificates.
ZNO in physics
This ticket contains a total of 34 tests and tasks for which 180 minutes are allocated. This exam has three types of questions:
- tests with a single correct answer;
- work with logical pairs;
- tasks that will need to be briefly painted in order to give the correct answer.
The test results are not only the basis for issuing certificates for admission, but are also translated into a 12-point scale for the certification mark.
ZNO in biology
The biological test includes 50 tasks, and you need to solve them in 120 minutes. However, the tasks in this ZNO are not too difficult - some of them are simple tests with a single correct answer, others consist of creating links between two columns of elements, and the last part involves choosing three answers from the provided options. The entire test is taken into account both in certification points and when setting a mark for a school certificate.
ZNO in geography
Students who choose this subject for themselves will have to cope with 58 tests in 150 minutes. All tasks are presented in the form of tests with one or three answers from the proposed list, or tasks with logical pairs and a short answer. All scores are converted into two scales - one is assigned the ZNO score, and the other is the mark on the 12-point system for the certificate.
ZNO in foreign languages
In 2019, Ukrainian schoolchildren will have to not only read and write in a foreign language, but also perceive it by ear in terms of listening This exam has been modified many times, so you should carefully study its structure and content. The EIT of the new sample consists of four parts, each of which will test certain language skills and abilities. The main elements of the examination work are:
- listening- a recent innovation from the Center for Measuring the Quality of Knowledge, which will cause a lot of difficulties for eleventh graders. Alas, few schools teach to perceive foreign speech by ear. It will be enough for students in ordinary schools to show whether they can select the necessary information from the entire audio fragment - for example, by evaluating the correctness of the statements. But representatives of linguistic classes will have to show much more skills - by ear it is necessary to perceive not just the meaning of the text, but also individual facts in the form of names, names of rivers, lakes, cities, dates, instructions, etc. At the same time, the developers of the tests included in them a very diverse topic - from family, hobbies, professions and recreation to travel, holidays, tourism, and even the role of Ukraine in the world community;
- Reading– 11th graders who studied a foreign language as part of the school curriculum will need to show how well they can search for information and understand the meaning of the fragments they read. Linguistic classes will demonstrate how successfully they were taught to understand the context and the general idea of the text. Here, students will be asked to work with newspaper articles, personal correspondence, recipes, and even instructions that are usually printed on product packaging;
- Foreign language skills- in this part of the ticket, graduates will work with texts (up to 450 words for ordinary schoolchildren, up to 550 for specialized classes), demonstrating analytical analysis skills;
- Letter- just one, but a very difficult task, in which you will need to fill out a questionnaire, write a letter or an invitation (for ordinary schoolchildren), and for linguist graduates this task is complicated by the requirement to write at length, backing up your words with facts and arguments.
Please note that in the new ZNO there are much more tasks than in the old versions - 59 instead of 43. The attestation mark takes into account points for tasks No. 1–No. 32 and No. 49–No. 59.
Submission of certificates to universities
As already mentioned, ZNO certificates are needed for admission to an institute or university. Be careful - in 2018, the number of applications that can be submitted to a university will once again be reduced! If in 2017 the number 9 appeared in the admission rules, then in 2018 the Ministry of Education allows applicants to submit only 7 applications, choosing 4 specialties.
The points received for the ZNO will determine your position in the lists of applicants It is possible that in 2019 there will be another wave of cuts. The ability to write a lot of applications leads to the disappearance of budget places - now they are distributed to each of the applicants who have the highest positions in the overall ranking. When an applicant brings the originals to one of the indicated universities, the rest of the places he occupied remain unfilled, since now the lists of applicants do not go up.
However, this news concerns only those who apply for the budget - contractors can write even more applications. Separately, we remind parents and students that all documents are now accepted by universities only in electronic format - you are not required to be personally present at the selection committee.
ZNO for applicants to the magistracy
Over the past few years, ZNO has been a test not only for eleventh graders, but also for bachelors. Now, before entering the magistracy, it will be necessary to pass not just qualifying exams in front of a commission representing the graduating department, but to pass an all-Ukrainian test. Since 2017, the approbation of this ZNO has affected bachelors entering the master's program in the specialty "Law", from 2018 the new norm will also apply to those who are going to become a master's student in "International Law".
In the same year, they decided to conduct an experimental ZNO in foreign languages. English, French, Spanish or German can be taken by those who are going to continue their studies in master's programs of specialties presented in such fields of knowledge as "Humanities" (except for philologists), "Behavioral and social sciences", "Journalism", "Law", "International Relations" and "Service Sector".
Soon ZNO will have to be taken not only by senior students, but also by bachelors So far, individual universities will take part in the experiment, but from 2019 they promise to make the EIT in foreign languages mandatory for future masters! The exception, most likely, will be valid only for those who have international certification documents, and at the level corresponding to category B2.
ZNO for college and vocational school graduates
Another change has affected children graduating from college or vocational school. Since 2018, they will have to take the ZNO in the Ukrainian language. In 2019, most likely, one more subject will be added, and in 2020, graduates of these educational institutions will be required to take knowledge assessment in the form of ZNO in three academic disciplines. So far, the Knowledge Assessment Center is deciding in what order to introduce new subjects. It is only known that in the end the set will look like this: Ukrainian language, mathematics and history.
This news was not the most pleasant surprise for those who specifically left school after the 9th grade in order to avoid the need to take external testing. After graduating from college, graduates could apply for 2-3 courses of universities, and as an entrance test, take an internal university exam. It is possible that over time, ZNO for colleges and vocational schools will not only be the basis for obtaining a certificate, but will also be used for admission to universities, replacing a comprehensive professional exam.
To improve the quality of oncological care in general, to determine priority areas for the development of the service, it is necessary to develop the most reliable and objective evaluation criteria. On the basis of the initiated "pilot" studies on the capabilities of cancer registries in monitoring the quality of the oncological service, we analyzed the preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic measures of one of the oncological dispensaries of the Central Federal District of the Russian Federation. We used the analytical component of the Cancer Registry software package, which makes it possible to obtain a wide range of data on the state of the oncological service both throughout the territory and in individual districts and settlements (a group of districts, settlements).To analyze the state of oncological care for the population, indices for a comprehensive assessment of the quality of measures aimed at early detection, diagnosis and treatment of malignant neoplasms have been developed.
The Cancer Registry OOD has been maintained in an automated mode since 2000.
and contains data on more than 24,000 patients. The database (DB) for 2004 was selected for development as the most complete and updated one. The region includes 20 districts. In 2004, 4627 cases of malignant neoplasm (MN) were detected, among them 2326 cases in men and 2260 cases in women. Neoplasm topography codes C00-D09.
Indices for assessing the quality of preventive activities:
1. Index of active detection of MNs - the ratio of the number of MNs detected during preventive examinations to the total number of newly diagnosed MNs (%).It is used to assess the effectiveness of preventive examinations of the population, characterizes the quality of professional examinations, screening programs. In total, the index in the region was 14.3%, among the male population - 12.8%, among the female population - 15.8%; the highest index was found in the region of 18-28.2%, 24.6% and 32.1%, the lowest in the region of 10 - 6.7%, 8.3%, 4.8% and in the region of 9 - 5.8 %, 5.3%, 6.5% respectively.
The index was for the region as a whole for stomach cancer - 2.96%, rectal cancer - 8.89%, skin cancer (without melanoma) 27.63%, breast cancer - 30.14%, cervix - 24.77 %, prostate - 7.77%.
2. Index of detection of preinvasive forms of cancer - the ratio of the number of cases of preinvasive cancer (cr in situ) per 100 cases of newly diagnosed cancer. The index characterizes the organization of early detection of malignant neoplasms, the quality of work of examination rooms, preventive and screening programs, and the cytological service.
In total, 42 cases of carcinoma in situ were detected in the region, more than a quarter (28.6%) of cases were detected in examination rooms and during preventive examinations. Almost half of the cases of carcinoma in situ were diagnosed in the regional center. One case of carcinoma in situ (D06.1) was identified in the patient as a second tumor metachronously (after 3 years).
In general, this index for the region was 0.97 for tumors of all localizations, 0.23 for gastric cancer, 0.55 rectal cancer, 0.70 breast cancer, 0.59 endometrial cancer, 0.71 bladder cancer and 24 ,31 MN of the cervix.
3. The index of detectability at medical examinations of patients with stage I and II of the disease - the ratio of the number of patients with stage I and II of the disease detected at medical examinations to the total number identified at medical examinations (in%), also characterizes the quality of the organization of early detection of malignant neoplasms, preventive and screening programs.
The index was - for all neoplasms detected in stage I - 38.38%, stomach cancer - 7.69%, rectal cancer - 6.25%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 88.59%, breast cancer - 15.50%, cervix - 66.67%, prostate - 6.25%; for all neoplasms detected in stage II - 28.75%, stomach cancer - 23.08%, rectal cancer - 56.25%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 9.78%, breast cancer - 61, 24%, cervix - 22.22%, prostate - 25.00%.
Indexes for evaluating the quality of cancer diagnostics:
1. Index of timeliness of detection - the ratio of the number of cases of malignant neoplasms detected in stages I and II of the disease to the total number of newly diagnosed cases (in %).The index was - for all neoplasms detected in stage I - 25.25%, stomach cancer - 7.52%, rectal cancer - 5.00%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 90.09%, breast cancer - 12.38%, cervix - 37.61%, prostate - 11.17%; by districts, the indicator ranged from 10.7% in district 14 to 33.9% in district 17.
For all neoplasms detected in stage II - 21.19%, stomach cancer - 13.44%, rectal cancer - 43.89%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 7.66%, breast cancer - 49, 07%, cervix - 32.11%, prostate - 21.36%.
2. Index of late diagnosis - the ratio of the number of cases of cancer detected in stage IV of the disease to the total number of newly diagnosed cases. The index characterizes the level of late detection of cancer.
The index was - for all neoplasms detected in stage IV - 20.91%, stomach cancer - 36.67%, rectal cancer - 27.78%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 0.30%, breast cancer - 10.28%, cervix - 14.68%, prostate - 11.17%.
3. Index of the use of modern diagnostic methods - the ratio of the number of cases of cancer with an unknown stage of the disease to the total number of newly diagnosed cases. Characterizes the completeness and quality of the use of modern diagnostic methods. This index is the most informative for the ZNO of visual localizations.
The index was - for stomach cancer - 1.37%, rectal cancer - 1.11%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 0.45%, breast cancer - 0.93%, cervix - 1.83%, prostate - 0%.
4. Index of morphological verification of the diagnosis - the proportion of morphologically (including cytological methods) confirmed diagnoses of malignant neoplasms to the total number of newly diagnosed cases of malignant neoplasms. It characterizes the quality of diagnostics and the level of qualification of doctors in identifying patients with malignant neoplasms.
The index was - for all neoplasms - 79.26%, gastric cancer - 81.78%, rectal cancer - 92.22%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 99.40%, breast cancer - 96.03%, cervix - 97.25%, prostate gland - 94.17%.
5. Index of overdiagnosis of malignant neoplasm - the number of unconfirmed diagnoses per 100 cases for the first time in the life of an established diagnosis of malignant neoplasm. Characterizes the quality of diagnostics. In the region, this index was 0.55% for malignant neoplasms of all localizations.
Indices for evaluating the quality of cancer treatment:
1. Radical treatment coverage index - the ratio of the number of radically treated newly diagnosed MNs to the total number of newly diagnosed MNs (%).The index was - for all neoplasms - 48.90%, stomach cancer - 30.98%, rectal cancer - 54.44%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 83.03%, breast cancer - 61.92%, cervix - 58.725%, prostate gland - 26.21%.
2. The index of the use of various methods of special treatment - the ratio of the number of cases of cancer treated radically by a certain method of treatment (surgical, radiation, combined / complex) to the total number of cases of cancer treated radically (%). The most informative is the analysis of this index for individual localizations, taking into account the staging of the malignant process.
3. An index that characterizes the level of medical care, resuscitation and anesthetic capabilities - the ratio of the number of cases of malignant neoplasms in patients with contraindications to treatment, to the total number of first detected malignant neoplasms (%).
The index was - for all neoplasms - 9.27%, stomach cancer - 12.30%, rectal cancer - 5.00%, skin cancer (without melanoma) - 0.45%, breast cancer - 4.21%, cervix - 5.50%, prostate gland - 7.77%.
4. The treatment refusal index characterizes the level of organization of medical care and reserve opportunities for improving the survival of patients - the ratio of the number of cases of malignant neoplasms detected in the early stages in patients who refused treatment to the total number of cases of malignant neoplasms in patients who refused treatment (%). It is advisable to analyze the indices separately for stages I and II of the disease. The index for all neoplasms detected in stage I was 23.33%. for those identified in stage II - 24.43%.
In a comprehensive analysis of the indices characterizing preventive activities in the region, it can be noted that the most qualitatively organized preventive programs to identify cervical cancer in women with insufficient attention to the pathology of the mammary glands, skin, the organization of preventive examinations among men is at a low level.
An analysis of the values of the indices characterizing the diagnostic capabilities of the oncological service in the study region allows us to conclude that the level of development of diagnostic services is quite high with insufficient organization of active detection of malignant neoplasms.
Indices for evaluating the quality of cancer treatment show that the most high-tech (combined/complex) method covered less than a quarter of cases of cancer to be treated. The level of the index of refusals to treat patients with early stages of cancer is quite high. For dynamic monitoring of the oncological situation in the region, the index values obtained as a result of the study should be considered as basic.
In further work, it is planned to study the above indices in dynamics, if necessary, develop and analyze additional, more detailed indicators in conjunction with the activities carried out in the region for the early detection, diagnosis and treatment of malignant neoplasms.
In the last five years, the system of secondary education in Ukraine is moving to another level and has undergone a number of fundamental changes. One of the main directions of its reform is the creation of a system of external unified testing, which should provide an opportunity for an objective comparison of the level of education in schools throughout the country.
External independent testing (ukr. "Zovnishne nezalezhne testuvannya", ZNO) is an exam for admission to higher educational institutions of Ukraine. Starting from 2008, the ZNO certificate is mandatory for admission to the university. Initially, the ZNO took place during the school year, and the test results could be counted as final school exams. But since 2010, the ZNO has been held after graduation parties, so students have to take both exams at school and tests of the ZNO.
All over the country, the ZNO takes place simultaneously, without interruption, in the form of a written test. The requirements and conditions for all its participants are the same. Any attempt by a student to violate the testing regulations may lead to the annulment of the results. Therefore, the passage of the ZNO should be taken extremely seriously, because the future of the applicant will to some extent depend on its result.
In order to take part in testing, you must first register. Registration usually takes place in February. In order to register, it is necessary to prepare the required materials and documents (the full list of which is available on the website of the Ukrainian Center for Educational Quality Assessment http://www.testportal.gov.ua/) and send them before the registration deadline to the regional center. Not later than in three weeks, the applicant will receive either a certificate and a registration card, or a refusal to register with an indication of the reasons, by return letter. In the latter case, it is necessary to eliminate them and send the documents for registration again.
The most difficult thing at the registration stage can be the choice of items that will have to be handed over. It should be borne in mind that the number of subjects that a graduate can take should not exceed four. In addition, only one of the foreign languages can be selected.
The choice of subjects depends on the specialty for which admission is planned. There were cases when a graduate passed the ZNO in those subjects that he knew best, and then could not apply to the chosen university, because the wrong disciplines were indicated in the certificate. Therefore, in order to avoid such an unpleasant situation, the required disciplines should be clarified in advance on the websites of the relevant universities / institutes.
In 2012, the list of disciplines available for delivery contains:
- biology
- maths
- geography
- History of Ukraine
- Russian language
- The World History
- Ukrainian language and literature
- physics
- chemistry
- foreign languages (English, German, French, Spanish)
The schedule, as well as testing programs for all disciplines, are available on the UTSOKO website http://www.testportal.gov.ua/. There you can also ask a question regarding the organization and conduct of external evaluation.
And finally, on the day of the event, you must definitely come to the testing point at the appointed time, or better a little in advance. After all, being late can lead to non-admission to the test. Be sure to have with you the document on the basis of which the registration was made (birth certificate or passport). Also, do not forget the certificate, invitation-pass and two pens with black ink. Compliance with these requirements will make it possible to be admitted to the test.
An important issue is the preparation for testing. As always, there are several options:
Economy option, he is on his own; preparatory courses in universities; help of a tutor.
Those parents whose family budget is not ready for the additional financial burden will have to make a choice in favor of self-preparation. There is nothing wrong with this, since future applicants are not required to do anything supernatural and beyond the scope of the school curriculum. Firstly, on the official website of the UCOKO, as well as the Osvita portal (http://ru.osvita.ua/test/training/), you can find programs according to which test tasks are compiled, as well as a list of recommended textbooks and manuals. In the same place it is possible to find examples of tests for last years with answers. Secondly, you can purchase training manuals for the EIT in bookstores. However, it should be noted that not all of the authors have an idea about the specifics of testing tasks, so you should focus on the list of recommended manuals. Thirdly, to test your knowledge and determine the level of preparation, you can take online tests. Links to some of these services can be found on the Osvita portal (http://ru.osvita.ua/test/zno_online/). In addition, you can pay attention to the site "Tests ZNO online" (http://zno.fizika.kiev.ua/)
True, most experts argue that in the case of self-preparation for the EIT, the applicant may lose sight of the key points and miss some important details related to the test tasks.
Preparatory courses at universities are expensive, but still have their advantages. As a rule, the website of each prestigious university has the necessary information about the preparation courses for the ZNO. Recruitment for kusa usually takes place in September-October, and training starts in October-November. A good motivation for choosing this type of training last year (2011) was an additional 20 rating points after completing the courses. Only those applicants who, upon completion of the courses (at least 3 months of study), entered the same university for natural-mathematical and engineering-technical specialties, had the right to use this bonus. This (2012) year it is planned to maintain such a bonus.
When choosing a tutor, you need to pay attention to his experience and level of training. There are many teachers on the Internet, as well as students who want to earn extra money, offer their services, but still you should heed the advice of friends who have similar experience, or look for a candidate with good reviews on your own.
Finally, if we summarize the cost of preparing for the ZNO, we get the following financial picture:
Preparatory courses at higher educational institutions will cost 500-3000 UAH for the entire course, depending on the university and region. Private training courses for ZNO will cost about 2000 - 3500 UAH. The tutor will take on average from 50 to 150 per hour, depending on work experience and the region. Self-study will require payment for the Internet, notebooks and pens.
Cancer is a malignant tumor that develops from epithelial cells, i.e. cells covering and lining almost all of our organs and tissues. When cancer develops, normal epithelial cells of the body transform into tumor cells, which begin to multiply uncontrollably, which leads to the appearance of a malignant neoplasm.
What provokes this process? There are hundreds of reasons that increase the risk of causing a malignant tumor. The specific weight of the nature of nutrition in the development of cancer is from 30 to 35%, smoking - 30% (i.e. 2 cases out of three are due to these factors), infectious (viral) agents - 17%, alcohol - 4%, environmental pollution - 2%, burdened heredity - 2%. The influence of these factors should be assessed in combination. About 80% of cases are associated with exposure to harmful environmental factors and lifestyle. Individual cancer prevention for each person consists in knowing and following practical recommendations in order to reduce oncological risk.
1. Do not smoke; if you smoke - stop. If you cannot quit smoking, then do not smoke in the presence of non-smokers.TO Urination accounts for at least 80% of lung cancer cases. Chemical and physical carcinogenic factors most intensely affect the smoker's lungs, but they can enter the gastrointestinal tract with sputum and saliva and affect the entire body. Each pack of cigarettes gives a dose of radiation exposure commensurate with the dose of one picture on a digital fluorograph. Tobacco smoke, present in the environment and emitted by smokers, contributes to the so-called "secondhand smoke", which has a harmful effect on people who inhale it. Passive smoking increases the risk of lung cancer.
2. Try to avoid obesity. The fight against obesity and overweight, as well as maintaining physical activity, is best started at a young age. However, if you start following a healthy lifestyle at a later age, the positive effect will also be noticeable.
3. Be mobile and active, try to exercise every day. The protective effect of physical activity on cancer risk increases with increased activity levels. Although such recommendations should be followed taking into account the general state of health.
4. Increase your daily intake and variety of vegetables and fruits. Limit your intake of foods containing animal fats. The low incidence of some types of malignant tumors in the southern regions of Europe is associated with a lower consumption of meat and animal fats and a higher consumption of fish, seafood, vegetables, fruits, grains.
5. Limit the amount of alcohol you drink. Drinking alcoholic beverages increases the risk of cancer of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus.
6. Try to avoid excessive sun exposure. It is especially important to protect children and teenagers from the sun. People who are prone to sunburn must apply protective measures throughout their lives. Skin cancer is predominantly found among fair-skinned people. The main external cause of skin cancer is exposure to the sun, namely the ultraviolet part of its spectrum. Melanoma of the skin is the most malignant and one of the most frequently metastatic tumors, quickly leading to death. Skin melanoma risk is associated with intermittent intense sun exposure. An example of intense intermittent sun exposure is excessive sunbathing. The best protection from the sun is to stay out of its direct rays. Especially between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m., as the effect of ultraviolet rays is at its maximum at this time. This should be taken into account when planning outdoor activities, especially for children.
7. Strictly follow precautions to prevent exposure to substances known to cause cancer. Follow all health and safety instructions when handling such substances. Science knows a large number of chemicals that can be carcinogenic (that is, capable of causing the development of malignant tumors). These include aromatic carbohydrates (benzpyrene, benzanthracene), aromatic amines (aniline dyes - naphthylamine), nitrogenous compounds, pesticides (herbicides, insecticides), mineral fertilizers, asbestos, etc. The source of most carcinogens in the environment are industrial emissions. Through contaminated soil, water, air, carcinogens can enter the skin, lungs, and with food - into the internal environment of the body and provoke the development of a tumor. Of the physical factors, various types of radiation deserve special attention.
The basis of cancer prevention is early detection and timely treatment of patients. The main task of the prevention of malignant tumors is reduced to the active detection and treatment of patients with precancerous diseases and the identification of patients with cancer at an early stage. One of the most active methods of early diagnosis and prevention of malignant tumors should include, first of all, preventive medical examinations of the population. A detailed history of the disease, attention to the patient's complaints, completeness of the examination, literacy in assessing the results of the examination, clinical examination of patients with precancerous diseases, constant oncological alertness, well-established sanitary education - these are the main components of early diagnosis of malignant tumors. Unfortunately, malignant tumors in the early stages do not have specific symptoms. It is important to be aware of some common signs and symptoms of cancer. It must be remembered that the presence of some of them does not necessarily mean the presence of a tumor.
You should definitely see a doctor if you:
-unexplained weight loss. Unmotivated weight loss of 4-5 kg can be the first sign of cancer, especially cancer of the pancreas, stomach, esophagus, lung;
-prolonged increase in body temperature. An increase in body temperature is common with cancer and most often with a common process. Rarely, fever can be an early sign of cancer, for example, with Hodgkin's disease;
-fatigue. Fatigue can be an important symptom as the disease progresses. However, fatigue and weakness can occur early, especially if the cancer causes chronic blood loss, as occurs with colon or stomach cancer;
-pain. Pain can be an early sign of several tumors, such as those of the bones or testis. But more often than not, pain is a symptom of a common process;
-skin changes. In addition to skin tumors, some internal cancers can cause visible skin signs such as darkening of the skin (hyperpigmentation), yellowing (jaundice), redness (erythema), itching, or excess hair growth;
-stool or bladder dysfunction: chronic constipation or diarrhea, which may be a manifestation of a tumor of the large intestine. Pain when urinating, blood in the urine, or more frequent or less frequent urination may be a sign of bladder or prostate cancer. These changes must be reported to the doctor immediately;
-non-healing wound or ulcer. Malignant skin tumors may bleed and resemble a wound or ulcer. A long-standing mouth ulcer can be oral cancer, especially in those who smoke, chew tobacco, or drink alcohol frequently. Ulcers on the penis or in the vagina can be both signs of infection and signs of cancer and should therefore be examined;
-unusual bleeding or discharge. Bleeding may occur against the background of early or advanced cancer. Blood in sputum may be a sign of lung cancer. Blood in the stool is a sign of rectal or colon cancer. Cervical cancer and cancer of the uterus itself can lead to bleeding from the genital tract. Blood in the urine is a sign of possible bladder or kidney cancer. A discharge of blood from the nipple may be a sign of breast cancer;
-a lump or tumor in the breast or other parts of the body. Many tumors can be felt through the skin, especially in the breast, testicles, lymph nodes, and soft tissues of the body.
-indigestion and swallowing. Although these symptoms can occur in various conditions, they can also indicate the presence of cancer of the esophagus, stomach, and pharynx at the same time;
-wart or mole change. Any change should alert you - a change in color, size, shape, borders. The skin lesion may be melanoma, which, if diagnosed early, responds well to treatment;
Timely access to a doctor is the key to timely diagnosis and the key to successful treatment.
In general, summing up what has been said, we can give the following tips for cancer prevention:
1.What to do? Get preventive checkups. Timely consult a doctor about any diseases and health disorders. Strictly follow the recommendations of doctors on the examination and treatment of diseases, especially those that may be precancerous. Among the screening methods currently available, which are widely used in mass preventive examinations of the population, include fluorography, mammography, cytological examination, and reaction to occult blood in the feces. According to existing regulations, all persons over 40 years of age should undergo an annual x-ray examination of the chest. If pathological shadows or changes in the mediastinum are detected on fluorograms, a series of fluorograms in different phases of breathing should be carried out, as well as the use of special methods of X-ray examination.
2.What not to do? Everything else. First of all - get rid of bad habits, quit smoking, excessive alcohol consumption.
Live a healthy and fulfilling life!
