Temperature (in physics) Temperature(from Latin temperatura - proper mixing, proportionality, normal state), a physical quantity that characterizes the state of thermodynamic equilibrium of a macroscopic system. T. is the same for all parts of an isolated system located in equilibrium thermodynamic.
If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, then over time, the transition of energy (heat transfer) from more heated parts of the system to less heated parts leads to the equalization of T. in the entire system (the first postulate, or the zero beginning thermodynamics). T. determines: the distribution of the particles forming the system over energy levels(cm. Boltzmann statistics) and particle velocity distribution (see. Maxwell distribution); the degree of ionization of the substance (see. Sakha formula); properties of equilibrium electromagnetic radiation of bodies - spectral radiation density (see. Planck's law of radiation), the total volume density of radiation (see. Stefan - Boltzmann law of radiation) and so on. radiation temperature.
Since for a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, all these parameters are equal to each other, they are simply called the temperature of the system. V kinetic theory of gases and other sections of statistical mechanics, T. is quantitatively determined so that the average kinetic energy of the translational motion of a particle (possessing three degrees of freedom) is equal to T, where k is Boltzmann constant, T- Body temperature. In the general case, T. is defined as the derivative of the energy of the body as a whole with respect to its entropy. Such T. is always positive (since the kinetic energy is positive), it is called absolute T. or T. on the thermodynamic temperature scale. For a unit of absolute T. in International system of units(SI) adopted kelvin(TO). Often T. is measured on the Celsius scale (t), the values of t are related to T by the equality t = T √ 273.15 K (degree Celsius is equal to Kelvin). Methods for measuring T. are discussed in the articles Thermometry, Thermometer.
A strictly defined T. is characterized only by the equilibrium state of bodies. There are, however, systems, the state of which can be roughly characterized by several temperatures that are not equal to each other. For example, in a plasma consisting of light (electrons) and heavy (ions) charged particles, when particles collide, energy is rapidly transferred from electrons to electrons and from ions to ions, but slowly from electrons to ions and vice versa. There are plasma states in which the systems of electrons and ions separately are close to equilibrium, and it is possible to introduce the T of electrons T NS and T. ions T and , not coinciding with each other.
In bodies whose particles have magnetic moment,
energy is usually slowly transferred from translational to magnetic degrees of freedom associated with the possibility of changing the direction of the magnetic moment. Due to this, there are states in which the system of magnetic moments is characterized by T., which does not coincide with the kinetic T., corresponding to the translational motion of particles. Magnetic T. determines the magnetic part of the internal energy and can be both positive and negative (see. Negative temperature). In the process of equalizing T., energy is transferred from particles (degrees of freedom) with a higher T. to particles (degrees of freedom) with a lower T. if they are simultaneously positive or negative, but in the opposite direction, if one of them is positive and the other is negative. In this sense, negative T. is "higher" than any positive one.
The concept of T. is also used to characterize non-equilibrium systems (see. Thermodynamics of nonequilibrium processes). For example, the brightness of celestial bodies is characterized by brightness temperature,
spectral composition of radiation - color temperature etc.
L. F. Andreev.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
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TEMPERATURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT.
EXPERIMENTAL GAS LAWS.
1. Thermal equilibrium. Temperature.
Temperature Is a physical quantity that characterizes the degree of body heating. If two bodies of different temperatures are brought into contact, then, as experience shows, a more heated body will cool, and a less heated one will heat up, i.e. happens heat exchange- transfer of energy from a more heated body to a less heated one without doing work.
The energy transferred during heat exchange is called the amount of warmth.
Some time after bringing the bodies into contact, they acquire the same degree of heating, i.e. come to a state thermal equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium- this is a state of a system of bodies in thermal contact, in which heat transfer does not occur and all the macroparameters of the bodies remain unchanged if the external conditions do not change.
In this case, two parameters - volume and pressure - can be different for different bodies of the system, and the third, temperature, in the case of thermal equilibrium is the same for all bodies of the system. The definition of temperature is based on this.
A physical parameter that is the same for all bodies of the system in a state of thermal equilibrium is called temperature this system.
For example, the system consists of two gas containers. Let's bring them into contact. The volume and pressure of the gas in them can be different, and the temperature will become the same as a result of heat exchange.
2.Temperature measurement.
To measure temperature, physical devices are used - thermometers, in which the value of temperature is judged by a change in any parameter.
To create a thermometer, you must:
Select a thermometric substance, the parameters (characteristics) of which change with a change in temperature (for example, mercury, alcohol, etc.);
Select the thermometric value, i.e. a quantity that changes with a change in temperature (for example, the height of a mercury or alcohol column, the value of electrical resistance, etc.);
Calibrate the thermometer, i.e. create a scale by which the temperature will be read. For this, the thermometric body is brought into thermal contact with bodies whose temperatures are constant. For example, when constructing a Celsius scale, the temperature of a mixture of water and ice in a melting state is taken as 00C, and the temperature of a mixture of water vapor and water in a boiling state at a pressure of 1 atm. - for 1000C. The position of the liquid column is noted in both cases, and then the distance between the resulting marks is divided by 100 divisions.
When measuring the temperature, the thermometer is brought into thermal contact with the body, the temperature of which is being measured, and after thermal equilibrium is established (the thermometer readings stop changing), the thermometer reading is read.
3. Experimental gas laws.
The parameters describing the state of the system are interdependent. It is difficult to establish dependence on each other of three parameters at once, so we will simplify the task a little. Consider the processes in which
a) the amount of substance (or mass) is constant, i.e. ν = const (m = const);
b) the value of one of the parameters is fixed, i.e. either pressure or volume or temperature is constant.
Such processes are called isoprocesses.
1).Isothermal process, those. a process that occurs with the same amount of a substance at a constant temperature.
Explored by Boyle (1662) and Marriott (1676).
A simplified scheme of experiments is as follows. Consider a vessel with gas, closed by a movable piston, on which weights are installed to balance the gas pressure.
Experience has shown that the product of pressure and volume of gas at a constant temperature is a constant value. This means 
PV= const
Boyle-Mariotte law.
The volume V of a given amount of gas ν at a constant temperature t0 is inversely proportional to its pressure, i.e. . .
Isothermal process graphs.
The plot of pressure versus volume at a constant temperature is called an isotherm. The higher the temperature, the higher the isotherm is on the graph. 
2).Isobaric process, those. a process that occurs with the same amount of matter at constant pressure.
Investigated by Gay-Lussac (1802).
The simplified diagram is as follows. The gas container is closed by a movable piston on which a weight is installed to balance the gas pressure. The gas container heats up.
Experience has shown that when a gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume changes according to the following law: 
where V 0 is the volume of gas at a temperature of t0 = 00C; V - gas volume at temperature t0, α v - temperature coefficient of volumetric expansion, 
Gay Lussac's Law.
The volume of a given amount of gas at constant pressure is linearly dependent on temperature.
Graphs of isobaric processes.
The graph of the dependence of the volume of gas on temperature at constant pressure is called isobar. 
If we extrapolate (continue) the isobars to the region of low temperatures, then all of them will converge at the point corresponding to the temperature t0 = - 2730С.
3).Isochoric process, i.e. a process that occurs with the same amount of matter at a constant volume.
Researched by Charles (1802).
The simplified diagram is as follows. The container with gas is closed by a movable piston, on which weights are installed to balance the gas pressure. The vessel is heating up.
Experience has shown that when a gas is heated at a constant volume, its pressure changes according to the following law: 
where P 0 is the gas volume at the temperature t0 = 00C; P - gas volume at temperature t0, α p - temperature coefficient of pressure, 
Charles law.
The pressure of a given amount of gas at a constant volume is linearly dependent on temperature.
The graph of the dependence of gas pressure on temperature at a constant volume is called an isochore. 
If we extrapolate (continue) the isochores to the region of low temperatures, then they all converge at the point corresponding to the temperature t0 = - 2730С.
4. Absolute thermodynamic scale.
The English scientist Kelvin proposed to move the beginning of the temperature scale to the left by 2730 and call this point the absolute zero temperature. The scale of the new scale is the same as the Celsius scale. The new scale is called the Kelvin scale or absolute thermodynamic scale. The unit of measurement is kelvin.
Zero degrees Celsius corresponds to 273 K. Temperatures on the Kelvin scale are indicated by the letter T.
T= t0 C+ 273
t0 C= T– 273
The new scale turned out to be more convenient for recording gas laws.
temperature is:
temperature TEMPERATURE-NS; f.[lat. temperatura - correct ratio, normal state] 1. The value characterizing the thermal state of a. body, substance. Moderate, average t. Permanent, room t. July, summer t. Night, day, etc. T. water, air. T. melting, boiling, freezing some l. body. T. in the room. T. Celsius, Fahrenheit. T. below zero. Fluctuations, changes in temperature. Increase, lower the temperature. Heat up, bring smth. to some temperature. Monitor the temperature. 2. The degree of warmth of the human body as an indicator of health status. Increased, normal, decreased t. T. wounded. Shoot down smb. temperature. T. rises. T. rides (colloquial). The patient has m. Forty degrees. Measure the temperature with a thermometer, hand, lips. 3. Spread. Increased warmth of the body as an indicator of ill health. The child has t. He has no temperature. Walking with a temperature to work, working with a temperature. ◁ Temperature, -and; f. Will soften.(3 characters). How is your t.? Temperature, th, th. T-th changes. T. electric oven mode. T-th curve(graph of changes in digital temperature readings). T. seam (tech .; gap, gap between parts structures that make it safe for the expansion of adjacent parts when the temperature rises). T. sheet(sheet containing a record of the patient's daily temperature). * * * temperature (from Latin temperatura - proper mixing, normal state), a physical quantity that characterizes the state of thermodynamic equilibrium of the system. The temperature of all parts of an isolated system in equilibrium is the same. If the system is not in equilibrium, then heat exchange occurs between its parts with different temperatures. A higher temperature is possessed by those bodies for which the average kinetic energy of molecules (atoms) is higher. Temperatures are measured with thermometers based on the dependence of any property of the body (volume, electrical resistance, etc.) on temperature. Theoretically, temperature is determined on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics as a derivative of the energy of a body with respect to its entropy. The temperature thus determined is always positive, it is called the absolute temperature or the temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale (denoted T). The unit of absolute temperature in SI is the kelvin (K). Temperature values on the Celsius scale ( t, ° C) are related to the absolute temperature by the ratio t = T - 273.15 K (1 ° C = 1 ° K). * * * TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE (from Latin temperatura - proper mixing, normal state), a physical quantity that characterizes the state of thermodynamic equilibrium of the system. The temperature of all parts of an isolated system in equilibrium is the same. If the system is not in equilibrium, then heat exchange occurs between its parts, which have different temperatures ( cm. HEAT EXCHANGE). A higher temperature is possessed by those bodies for which the average kinetic energy of molecules (atoms) is higher. Measure the temperature with thermometers based on the dependence of any property of the body (volume, electrical resistance, etc.) on temperature. Theoretically, the temperature is determined on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics ( cm. SECOND BEGINNING OF THERMODYNAMICS) as a derivative of the energy of a body by its entropy. So, the determined temperature is always positive, it is called the absolute temperature or the temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale ( cm. THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE) (indicated by T). For the unit of absolute temperature in SI ( cm. SI (system of units)) accepted kelvin (K). Temperature values on the Celsius scale ( t, ° С) are related to the absolute temperature by the ratio t=T-273.15K (1 ° C = 1K).Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009.
Understanding temperature and temperature scales
Temperature measuring instruments
Lecture number 7
Non-contact mechanisms position sensors
The most common non-contact position sensors of the following types: inductive, generator, magnetoherkon and photoelectronic. These sensors do not have mechanical contact with the moving object, the position of which is being monitored.
Non-contact position sensors provide high speed and high frequency of switching on the mechanism. A certain disadvantage of these sensors is the dependence, their accuracy on changes in supply voltage and temperature. Depending on the requirements, the output device of these devices can be either a contactless logic element or an electrical relay.
In precise stopping circuits of electric drives, proximity sensors can be used both for commanding a transition to a reduced speed and for a final stop.
Thermocouple
Resistance thermometer
Pyrometer
Temperature is a quantity that characterizes the thermal state of a body. According to the kinetic theory, temperature is defined as a measure of the kinetic energy of the translational motion of molecules. Hence, the temperature is called a conditional statistical quantity, which is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules of the body.
“... the measure of temperature is not the movement itself, but the chaos of this movement. The chaotic state of a body determines its temperature state, and this idea (which was first developed by Boltzmann) that a certain temperature state of a body is not at all determined by the energy of motion, but by the chaotic nature of this motion, is the new concept in the description of temperature phenomena that we should use. .. "(P. L. Kapitsa)
In the International System of Units (SI), thermodynamic temperature is composed of seven basic units and is expressed in Kelvin. The SI derived quantities, which have a special name, include the Celsius temperature, measured in degrees Celsius. In practice, degrees Celsius are often used because of the historical link to the important characteristics of water - the temperature of ice melting (0 ° C) and the boiling point (100 ° C).
t = T-T o (7.1),
where T about = 273.15 K;
t is the temperature in degrees Celsius;
T is the temperature in Kelvin.
Temperatures expressed in degrees Celsius are referred to as "° C".
By the size of a unit of physical quantity, a degree Celsius is equal to Kelvin.
Temperature is measured using measuring instruments using various thermometric properties of liquids, gases and solids. Such measuring instruments include:
Expansion thermometers;
Manometric thermometers;
Resistance thermometers with ratiometers or bridges;
Thermocouples with millivoltmeters or potentiometers;
Radiation pyrometers.
The temperature is measured by contact (using resistance thermometers, manometric thermometers and thermoelectric thermometers) and non-contact (using pyrometers) methods.
Remember:
The highest accuracy of temperature measurements is achieved with contact measurement methods;
The non-contact method is used for measuring high temperatures, where it is impossible to measure with contact methods and high accuracy is not required.
The temperature measuring system is a combination of a thermometric transducer (sensor) and a secondary measuring device.
Thermometric transducer is a temperature measuring transducer designed to generate a signal of measuring information in a form convenient for transferring further transformation, processing and / or storage, but not amenable to direct perception by observation.
Thermometric converters include:
Resistance thermometers;
Thermoelectric thermometers (thermocouples);
Radiation pyrometer telescope.
Table 1
| Thermometric property | Device name | Long-term use limits, 0С | |
| Lower | Upper | ||
| Thermal expansion | Liquid glass thermometers | -190 | |
| Pressure change | Gauge thermometers | -160 | |
| Change in electrical resistance | Electrical resistance thermometers | -200 | |
| Semiconductor resistance thermometers | -90 | ||
| Thermoelectric effects | Thermoelectric thermometers (thermocouples) standardized | -50 | |
| Thermoelectric thermometers (thermocouples) special | |||
| Heat radiation | Optical pyrometers | ||
| Radiation pyrometers | |||
| Photoelectric pyrometers | |||
| Color pyrometers |
Secondary measuring device - a measuring instrument that converts the output signal of a thermometric transducer into a numerical value.
Logometers, bridges, millivoltmeters, and automatic potentiometers are used as secondary measuring instruments.
Methods and technical means of temperature measurement
1. Expansion thermometers and manometric thermometers
Liquid glass thermometers.
The oldest devices for measuring temperature - liquid glass thermometers - use the thermometric property of thermal expansion of bodies. The action of thermometers is based on the difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion of the thermometric substance and the shell in which it is located (thermometric glass or, more rarely, quartz).
A liquid thermometer consists of a glass bottle, a capillary tube. The thermometric substance fills the balloon and partially the capillary tube. The free space in the capillary tube is filled with an inert gas or may be under vacuum. The part of the capillary tube protruding beyond the upper division of the scale serves to protect the thermometer from damage in case of excessive overheating.
Chemically pure mercury is most often used as a thermometric substance. It does not wet the glass and remains liquid over a wide temperature range. In addition to mercury, other liquids, mainly of organic origin, are also used as a thermometric substance in glass thermometers. For example: methyl and ethyl alcohol, kerosene, pentane, toluene, gallium, thallium amalgam.
The main advantages of glass liquid thermometers are ease of use and a sufficiently high measurement accuracy even for serially produced thermometers. The disadvantages of glass thermometers include: poor visibility of the scale (if you do not use special magnifying optics) and the inability to automatically record readings, transmit readings over a distance and repair.
Glass liquid thermometers are widely used and are produced in the following main varieties:
1.technical mercury, with an embedded scale, with a lower part immersed in the measured medium, straight and angular;
2. laboratory mercury, stick or with an enclosed scale, immersed in the measured medium up to the measured temperature mark, straight, small outer diameter;
3. liquid thermometers (not mercury); 4. high precision and exemplary mercury thermometers;
5. electrocontact mercury thermometers with an enclosed scale, with contacts soldered into the capillary tube for breaking (or closing) an electrical circuit with a column of mercury;
6. special thermometers, including maximum (medical and others), minimum, meteorological and other thermometers.
Gauge thermometers
The operation of manometric thermometers is based on the use of the dependence of the pressure of a substance at a constant volume on temperature. The closed measuring system of a manometric thermometer consists of a sensitive element that senses the temperature of the measured medium - a metal thermocylinder, a working element of a manometer that measures the pressure in the system, and a long connecting metal capillary. When the temperature of the measured medium changes, the pressure in the system changes, as a result of which the sensitive element moves the needle or the stylus along the scale of the manometer, calibrated in degrees of temperature.
Gauge thermometers are divided into three main types:
1. liquid, in which the entire measuring system (thermocylinder, pressure gauge and connecting capillary) is filled with liquid;
2.condensing, in which the thermocylinder is filled partly with a liquid with a low boiling point and partly with its saturated vapors, and the connecting capillary and a pressure gauge - with saturated liquid vapors or, more often, with a special transfer liquid;
3. gas, in which the entire measuring system is filled with an inert gas.
The advantages of manometric thermometers are the comparative simplicity of design and use, the possibility of remote temperature measurement and the possibility of automatic recording of readings. The disadvantages of manometric thermometers include: relatively low measurement accuracy (accuracy class 1.6; 2.5; 4.0 and less often 1.0); short distance of remote transmission of readings (no more than 60 meters) and the difficulty of repair when the measuring system is depressurized.
Gauge thermometers are not widely used in thermal power plants. In industrial heat power engineering, they are more common, especially in cases where, due to explosion or fire safety conditions, it is impossible to use electrical methods of remote temperature measurement.
2. Thermoelectric thermometers
To measure temperature in metallurgy, the most widespread are thermoelectric thermometers operating in the temperature range from -200 to +2500 0C and above. This type of device is characterized by high accuracy and reliability, the ability to use in systems of automatic control and regulation of a parameter that largely determines the course of the technological process in metallurgical units.
The essence of the thermoelectric method lies in the emergence of an EMF in a conductor, the ends of which have different temperatures. In order to measure the EMF that has arisen, it is compared with the EMF of another conductor, forming with the first a thermoelectric pair AB, in the circuit of which a current will flow.
The thermo-EMF of a given pair depends only on the temperature t 1 and t 2 and does not depend on the dimensions of the thermoelectrodes (length, diameter), the values of thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity.
To increase the sensitivity of the thermoelectric method for measuring temperature, in a number of cases, a thermopile is used: several thermocouples connected in series, the working ends of which are at a temperature t 2, free at a known and constant temperature t 1.
Thermoelectric thermometer device
A thermoelectric thermometer (TT) is a measuring transducer, the sensing element of which (thermocouple) is located in a special protective fitting, which protects thermoelectrodes from mechanical damage and the effect of the measured medium. The armature includes a protective cover and a head, inside which there is a contact device with clamps for connecting thermoelectrodes with wires going from the measuring device to the thermometer. Thermoelectrodes are insulated along their entire length from each other and from the protective reinforcement by ceramic tubes.
Wire with a diameter of 0.5 mm (noble metals) and up to 3 mm (non-noble metals) are used as thermoelectrodes. The junction at the tip of the thermocouple is formed by welding, brazing, or twisting. The latter method is used for tungsten-rhenium and tungsten-molybdenum thermocouples.
Standard and custom thermoelectric thermometers
For measurements in metallurgy, the most widely used TTs with standard grading: platinum-rhodium-platinum (TPP), platinum-rhodium-platinum-rhodium (TPR), chromel-alumel (TCA), chromel-drop (TCA), tungsten-tungsten-rhenium (TBR). In some cases, TTs with non-standard grading are also used: copper-constantan, tungsten-molybdenum (TBP), etc.
Under conditions of long-term operation at high temperatures and aggressive media exposure, instability of the calibration characteristic appears, which is a consequence of a number of reasons: contamination of thermoelectrode materials with impurities from protective covers, ceramic insulators and furnace atmosphere; evaporation of one of the alloy components; mutual diffusion through the junction. The magnitude of the deviation can be significant and increases sharply with increasing temperature and duration of operation. These circumstances must be taken into account when assessing the accuracy of temperature measurement in a production environment.
Verification of technical TT
Verification of TT is reduced to determining the temperature dependence of the thermo-EMF and comparing the resulting calibration with standard values.
Calibration is carried out by two methods: by constant points or comparisons.
Calibration by constant (reference) points is the most accurate and is used for reference thermocouples. The thermocouple to be verified is placed in a crucible with high-purity metal installed in a furnace, and the area on the thermo-EMF curve is recorded as the metal temperature rises or falls. This area corresponds to the melting or crystallization temperature of the metal, and it is more preferable to calibrate by the crystallization point. Gold, palladium, platinum, etc. are used as reference metals.
The method of comparison is used to calibrate standard thermocouples of the second category and technical TT. It consists in the direct measurement of the thermo-EMF of the calibrated thermocouple at a constant temperature of the free ends t 0 = 0 0C and different temperatures t 2 of the working junction, the latter being determined using an exemplary thermometer. Thermo- EMF measurements are made using a portable potentiometer with a measurement (counting) accuracy of at least 0.1 mV. The countdown is carried out after 10 minutes of exposure at this temperature.
Measurement of thermo-EMF by compensation
The measurement of the thermo-EMF of a thermocouple in a direct way, according to the current strength in the constant resistance circuit, using a millivoltmeter, can be carried out relatively simply. However, this method has a number of disadvantages that create additional errors, which in most cases does not allow obtaining high measurement accuracy.
In measuring technology, in addition to direct measurement methods, compensation methods or methods of opposing (comparing) an unknown quantity to a known quantity are known. Compensation methods allow measurements to be made more accurately, although not always as simple as direct measurement.
The main advantage of the compensation measurement of thermo-EMF, in comparison with direct measurement using a millivoltmeter, is that at the moment of measurement, the current in the thermocouple circuit is 0. This means that the resistance value of the external circuit does not matter: do not adjust the resistance of the external circuit there is no need to worry about the influence of the ambient temperature on the external circuit.
Automatic potentiometers
Automatic potentiometers are used for compensating thermo-EMF measurements without manual manipulations, typical of non-automatic potentiometers. In the latter, manual manipulations after the standardization of the current are reduced to the following need to move the slidewheel slider until the galvanometer needle reaches zero. In this case, the movement of the slider is made in a well-defined direction.
The measuring circuit of an automatic potentiometer does not differ in principle from a circuit of a non-automatic potentiometer.
The circuit has three voltage sources (battery B, normal NE element and thermocouple T) and three circuits. The battery circuit is made in the form of a bridge: the diagonal BD is powered, and the diagonal CA is the thermocouple circuit. The normal element circuit connects to the CD arm of the compensation circuit. With the help of the switch P, the electronic amplifier EU (including the vibration transducer) is connected to the thermocouple circuit or to the circuit of the normal element. When the circuit of the normal element is turned on, a shunt resistance R1 is introduced, parallel to the electronic amplifier, since in this case the value of the unbalance voltage is much greater than when the thermocouple circuit is turned on.
Electronic automatic potentiometers are sometimes referred to as continuous balancing devices, since the unbalance measurement is performed here with an alternating current frequency of 50 Hz.
3. Electrical resistance thermometers
In metallurgical practice, resistance thermometers (RT) are used to measure temperatures up to 6500C, the principle of which is based on the use of the dependence of the electrical resistance of a substance on temperature. Knowing this dependence, the temperature of the environment in which it is immersed is judged by the change in the resistance value of the thermometer. The output parameter of the device is an electrical quantity that can be measured with a very high accuracy (up to 0.020С), transmitted over long distances and directly used in automatic control and regulation systems.
Pure metals: platinum, copper, nickel, iron and semiconductors are used as materials for the manufacture of sensitive elements of the TS.
The form of the function R = f(t) depends on the nature of the material and can be written as a linear equation R = R 0 (1 + at), where a is the temperature coefficient of resistance, t is the temperature.
The resistance of semiconductors sharply decreases with increasing temperature, i.e., they have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance almost an order of magnitude greater than that of metals. Semiconductor resistance thermometers (RTDs) are mainly used to measure low temperatures.
The advantages of the RSPP are small dimensions, low inertia, and a high coefficient. However, they also have significant disadvantages:
1) the nonlinear nature of the dependence of resistance on temperature;
2) the lack of reproducibility of the composition and calibration characteristics, which excludes the interchangeability of individual vehicles of this type. This leads to the release of the TSPP with individual graduations.
Vehicle types and designs
To solve various problems, vehicles are divided into standard, exemplary and working ones, which in turn are subdivided into laboratory and technical ones.
Technical vehicles, depending on their purpose and design, are divided into: submersible, surface and room; protected and not protected from the action of an aggressive environment; stationary and portable; thermometers of 1 st, 2 nd and 3 rd accuracy classes, etc. The thermometer consists of a sensitive element located in a protective steel case, on which a nipple is welded. Wires reinforced with porcelain beads connect the leads of the sensing element to the terminal block located in the head body. At the top, the head is closed with a cover, at the bottom there is a gland entry through which the installation cable is supplied. When measuring the temperature of media with high pressure, a special protective (mounting) sleeve is installed on the vehicle cover.
The sensing element of the TS is made of a thin metal wire with non-inductive frame or frameless winding. Semiconductor resistance thermometers (TSPP) for measuring temperatures from -90 to +180 0C are found much less frequently in metallurgical practice. They are used in thermo relays, low-temperature regulators, providing high-precision stabilization of sensitive elements of gas analyzers, chromatographs, pyrometer housings, electrodes of thermoelectric installations for express analysis of metal composition, etc.
What is temperature?
What is temperature? (definition and explanation if possible)
Sapienti sat
From lat. Temperatura - normal condition
Temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the average kinetic energy of particles of a macroscopic system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. In equilibrium, the temperature has the same value for all macroscopic parts of the system.
To measure the temperature, a certain thermodynamic parameter of the thermometric substance is selected. A change in this parameter is unambiguously associated with a change in temperature.
Bulat 1
Temperature (from Latin temperatura - proper mixing, normal state) is a physical quantity that roughly characterizes the average kinetic energy of particles of a macroscopic system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium per degree of freedom. (http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature).
Basically, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of molecules.
Ek = 3/2 * k * T, where Ek is the average kinetic energy of molecules, k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.38 * 10 ^ -23 J / K, T is the temperature (in degrees Kelvin).
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_Constant
In a more general thermodynamic definition: temperature is the reciprocal of the change in the entropy (degree of disorder) of the system when a unit amount of heat is added to the system: 1 / T = ΔS / ΔQ.
it is the speed of movement of molecules and also with the condition that it can be detected in the infrared spectrum of the radiation of an electromagnetic wave.
Therefore, the temperature at an altitude of 1000 km from the Earth is thousands of degrees Celsius, but there it is not felt due to the rarefaction of the atmosphere.
This is the energy of chaotic microscopic movement per degree of freedom.
The bottom line is that chaotic movement over time extends to all "degrees of freedom", that is, to all possible ways of movement. For example, if a molecule can move in three directions and rotate in three directions, then over time the energy will be evenly distributed over all six movements.
If the molecule can also vibrate like a spring, then energy will penetrate into this movement. If a molecule can emit photons, then chaos will penetrate there too - the molecule will randomly emit photons.
Ultimately, when everything is settled, all possible forms of motion are involved in the same way - this is called "thermodynamic equilibrium". It is in this state, how much energy falls on one degree (and each one has the same amount of energy) and is called "temperature". Just to convert from joules to degrees, you still need to divide by the Boltzmann constant.
If two substances, the molecules of which have a different number of degrees of freedom, are supplied with the same amount of energy, then the substance, which has more degrees of freedom, will be colder. Heat flows from hotter to colder, therefore, where there are more degrees of freedom, energy is directed there.
Anatoly khapilin
This is a conditional measure for determining the degree of excitation of the plasma-akasha around the planet, which in turn moves the molecules of the structures in the place of its excitation. For example, fire, as an element of etheric matter, is more energetic than physical elements, and therefore, it excites locally a plasma that permeates everything and everyone, as well as space in a structure, which, for example, should burn out, and it begins to destroy electronic bonds structures. The weaker the latter, the faster this structure will collapse. And the higher the degree of plasma excitation during combustion, for example, of a gas, the more energetic it is. Read more in the source.
Evgeny dyubailo
Temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the average kinetic energy of particles of a macroscopic system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
simply put, temperature is a measure of energy
In any society that has crossed the stage of primitiveness and is at the stage of civilization, inequality necessarily appears. Society is divided into various groups of people, with some groups being at a high position in society, while others are at a low position.
Historians have put forward two ways to distinguish such groups of people in medieval society. The first way is the allocation of estates, that is, such groups of people who have strictly defined rights and obligations in society, inherited. Estates are closed: it is very difficult or almost impossible to pass from one estate to another. This means that in what class a person was born, in that he, as a rule, lived all his life. In the Middle Ages, there were three estates, each of which had a specific occupation. According to the prestige and importance of this occupation, the estates received numbers. The people of the Middle Ages clearly knew what class they belonged to. The idea of division into estates was supported by Christian teaching: it was believed that God himself singled out three estates (therefore, the class number determined his proximity to God) and assigned each person a place in one of them. Therefore, striving to move from one estate to another meant opposing "God's will." Only the first estate was replenished at the expense of people from other classes, although belonging to the class of warring and working was considered hereditary. In some rare cases, the right to transfer from one estate to another was granted by the king.
The closest to God was considered the first estate, which consisted entirely of the clergy (people who served in churches and monasteries: monks, priests, bishops and higher up to the Pope). It was called "praying" because its main merit before society was that it atoned for the sins of people belonging to other classes before God, and cared about their spiritual healing. The clergy were to serve as an example of faith and morality for the whole society. The second estate was called "warring" and consisted of warrior-knights of all levels: from the richest and most influential (dukes and counts) to the poor, who could hardly find money to buy a horse. The main merit of the representatives of the second estate before society was that they shed their blood in battles, defending the fatherland, the king and people belonging to other classes from external enemies. Finally, the furthest from God was the so-called "third estate", which included all other people: the majority were peasants (they were engaged in agriculture and partly handicrafts), and a smaller part were townspeople (they were also called burghers, they were engaged in handicrafts and trade), people of "free professions" (wandering artists, teachers, doctors, etc.), etc. The third estate was also called "workers", since the people who entered it created food and everything necessary for themselves and the first two classes by their labor. Only thanks to the hard work of the third estate were the other two able to fulfill their duties.
But the allocation of estates did not take into account the most important thing for the Middle Ages: who owned the main wealth for that era - land. Therefore, historians have put forward another way to distinguish groups in medieval society - to distinguish classes. Classes are allocated not on the basis of the rights and obligations of each person, but on the basis of what property the person had. Historians have identified two main classes in medieval society: the class of feudal lords, whose representatives owned land, and the class of peasants, who did not have their own land. To feed himself, the peasant needed to take land from the feudal lord on lease, but for this he had to bear special duties in favor of the feudal lord. There were two of these duties: either the peasant gave part of the product (harvest, meat, etc.) received on the leased plot (such a duty was called quitrent), or he had to work several days a week on the land of the feudal lord (on a plot that the feudal lord did not leased out to peasants) - such a duty was called corvee (the word meant that the land belonged to a "master" - a feudal lord). The class of feudal lords included the king, knights and the church (clergy), since it was they who owned the land in the Middle Ages.
Over time, the feudal lords attached the peasants to the land: if earlier the peasant could move from one feudal lord to another, when he did not like the growth of corvee and quitrent, now the peasant, together with his family, was always forced to work for his master. Moreover, the feudal lords received judicial power over the peasants (the feudal lord himself examined the disputes of all the peasants who lived on the feudal lord's estate) and the right to interfere in the private life of the peasants (to allow or not to allow them to move, marry, etc.). This complete dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord (both land, judicial, and personal) was called serfdom.
Questions:
1. Make a table "Differences between estates and classes", independently choosing the criteria from the studied text
|
criteria |
classes |
estates |
2. Complete the diagram: "Two ways of dividing medieval society into groups"
|
class name |
who entered |
duty in society |
|
class name |
relation to property |
|
had __________, but did not work on it and handed it over to _____________ did not have their __________, but rented it from _________ for two duties - ___________ (processing the land of the feudal lord) and ____________ (giving part of the harvest to the feudal lord) |
3. Why did the estates get numbers from first to third?
4. Estates in the Middle Ages were divided into higher and lower: the higher were honorable, their representatives had more rights than duties, and the lower - on the contrary. Think about which estates belonged to the upper, and which - to the lower?
5. The position of which of the estates was the most difficult? What requirements were put forward by representatives of this class?
6. What was considered the main wealth in the Middle Ages? Support your answer with the knowledge you have about the Middle Ages.
7. What estates possessed land ownership in the Middle Ages and therefore can be considered a class of feudal lords?
8. What are duties? What were the main duties in the Middle Ages?
9. Why were attempts to move from one class to another considered sinful?
10. Did wealth influence which class a person belonged to?
11. How was the relationship between the classes of peasants and feudal lords?
12. What is serfdom?
13. Remember, from what word came the name of feudalism and the class of feudal lords?
14. In the Middle Ages, the peasants did not own land, but at the end of the ancient era, many peasants had land (in Rome, many released slaves received land, the Germans owned the land to peasant communities). Think and name several ways in which the peasants were deprived of their land, and the feudal lords received it.
Introduction …………………………………………………………………… .3
1. Formation of estates in Russia at the end of the 18th-beginning of the 19th centuries …… 5
2. The estate system of Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries ...................... ... ..6
2.1. Nobility ……………………………………………………….… 6
2.2. Bourgeoisie ……………………………………………………………… .10
2.3. Peasants ………………………………………………………… .13
2.4. The clergy ……………………………………………………… .17
Conclusion …………………………………………………………… ..18
List of used literature ………………………………… 19
Introduction
In the late 18th - early 19th centuries, with a significant lag behind the West, the estate system finally took shape in Russia. The formation of the domestic estate structure is characteristic of the era of "enlightened absolutism," which aimed to maintain the order in which each estate fulfills its purpose and function. The elimination of privileges and the equalization of rights, from this point of view, were understood as "general confusion", which should not be allowed.
The Russian estate structure was formed from groups of Moscow society and consisted of 4 estates. The estate system included: the gentry (nobility), the clergy, the bourgeoisie (from the urban townspeople) and the peasantry. The main feature of the Russian estate system of that time was the presence and inheritance of personal rights, wealth and corporate rights and obligations.
The relevance of this topic lies in the need to consider the estate system of Russia in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, in order to study the composition of the estates that developed at that time in the Russian state, their features, rights, differences. Consideration of this topic from various points of view makes it possible to clarify the question of why the estate system in Russia took shape much later than in European countries.
The object of this work is the process of the formation of the estate system in Russia in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, its composition and characteristics. The subject of study is the policy of Russia on the formation of the estate structure, through the adoption of normative acts (Certificate of Merit, Table of Ranks, etc.).
The chronological framework of the topic under study is quite wide - the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th centuries. At this time, reforms are underway in Russia, along with this, a revolution is taking place in the social life of society - the legalized stratification of society into estates.
The study of this topic assumes the achievement of the following goal - to consider the estate system of Russia in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, and to determine its role in the post-reform structure of the country's social and economic life.
The formulated goal assumes the solution of the following tasks:
Give a description of the social and internal political situation in Russia in the late 18th - early 19th centuries;
Determine the prerequisites for the stratification of society;
Find out, in accordance with which normative acts, the stratification occurred in the society;
Consider the estate system of Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. (nobility, philistinism, peasantry and clergy);
Study the characteristics of each class: rights (personal, property, exclusive, corporate, etc.), position in society, self-government, etc.;
Analyze the information received and draw conclusions.
When writing the work, such research methods were used as the historical-comparative method (the rights of each class in relation to others, the organization of self-government within each class, etc. are compared); the historical and typological method (a certain period was identified - the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th centuries - and it was determined what changes took place over this period on the basis of certain signs: in the situation in the country before the formation of estates and after, in internecine relations of estates, in the public life of the country etc.).
In historiography, this topic has a fairly wide coverage. In this work, the works of such authors as Belkovets L.P., Belkovets V.V., Vladimirsky - Budanov M.F., Efremova N.N., Indova E.I., Isaev V.I., Rogov V A., Semevsky V.I., et al.
The structure of the work is as follows. The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of used literature.
1. Formation of estates in Russia at the end Xviii -beginning XIX centuries
The formation of the domestic estate structure is characteristic of the era of "enlightened absolutism," which aimed to maintain the order in which each estate fulfills its purpose and function. The elimination of privileges and the equalization of rights, from this point of view, were understood as "general confusion", which should not be allowed.
The final formation of estates in Russia took place during the reign of Catherine II. It was Catherine who determined the meaning, rights and duties of different classes. Letters to the nobility and cities became the program documents.
In 1785, the Certificate of Merit was granted to the nobility, which determined the rights and privileges of the nobility, which was considered the main support of the throne after the Pugachev revolt. The nobility finally took shape as a privileged estate. The nobility turned into the politically dominant class in the state.
In the same 1785, the Certificate of Merit to the cities was promulgated, which completed the structure of the so-called urban society. This society was made up of ordinary people belonging to the tax-paying estates, that is, merchants, bourgeois and artisans.
The privileges of the townspeople against the background of noble permissiveness seemed imperceptible, the bodies of city government were tightly controlled by the tsarist administration.
A system of estate courts was created: for each class (noblemen, townspeople, state peasants), its own special judicial institutions were introduced. In the counties, county courts were introduced for the nobility, city magistrates for merchants and petty bourgeoisie, lower reprisals for foreigners and state peasants.
2. The estate system of Russia at the end Xviii -beginning XIX centuries
2.1. Nobility
The nobility was formed from different categories of service people (boyars, okolnichy, clerks, clerks, children of boyars, etc.), received the name of the gentry under Peter I, renamed under Catherine II into the nobility (in the acts of the Legislative Commission of 1767), turned over a century from the service class to the ruling, privileged. Some of the former service people (noblemen and children of the boyars), settled on the outskirts of the state, by decrees of Peter I in 1698-1703, who formalized the gentry, were not enrolled in this class, but transferred under the name of one-householders to the position of state peasants.
The leveling of the position of feudal lords of all ranks was completed by the decree of Peter I of 1714 "On single inheritance", according to which estates were equated to fiefdoms, assigned to nobles on the basis of ownership. In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" established methods of obtaining the nobility through service. She also secured the status of the ruling class for the gentry.
According to the "Table of Ranks", all those in the public service (civil, military, naval) were divided into 14 ranks or ranks, from the highest field marshal and chancellor to the lowest — adjutant to lieutenants and collegiate registrar. All persons, from rank 14 to 8, became personal, and from rank 8 - hereditary nobles. Hereditary nobility was passed on to his wife, children and distant descendants through the male line. Daughters who got married acquired the estate status of a husband (if he was higher). Until 1874, of the children born before receiving hereditary nobility, only one son received the status of a father, the rest were registered as "honorary citizens" (1832), after 1874 - all.
Under Peter I, the service of nobles with compulsory training began at the age of 15 and was lifelong. Anna Ioanovna somewhat eased their situation by limiting the service to 25 years and attributing its beginning to the age of 20. She also allowed one of the sons or brothers in a noble family to stay at home and do the housework.
In 1762, Peter III, who had lingered on the throne for a short time, abolished by a special decree not only the compulsory education of the nobles, but also the compulsory service of the nobility. And the "Certificate on the Rights and Advantages of the Russian Nobility" of Catherine II of 1785 finally turned the nobility into a "noble" estate.
So, the main sources of the nobility in the 18th century. were - birth and length of service. The term of service included the acquisition of the nobility through an award and an indigenate for foreigners (according to the "Table of Ranks"), through the receipt of an order (according to the "Charter of Charity" of Catherine II). In the XIX century. to these will be added a higher education and an academic degree.
Belonging to a noble rank was confirmed by an entry in the "Velvet Book", instituted in 1682 during the destruction of parochialism, and since 1785 by entering into local (provincial) lists - noble books, divided into 6 parts (according to the sources of the nobility): award, military length of service, civil service, indigenate, title (order), prescription. From Peter I, the estate was subordinate to a special department - the Heraldry Master's Office, and from 1748 - to the Department of Heraldry under the Senate.
Rights and benefits of the nobility:
1. Personal rights: the right to nobility, the right to the protection of honor, personality and life, exemption from taxes, duties and corporal punishment, from compulsory public service, etc.
2. Property rights: full and unlimited ownership of the acquisition, use and inheritance of any type of property. The exclusive right of the nobles to buy villages and own land and peasants was established, the nobles had the right to open industrial enterprises (build factories and plants) on their estates, develop minerals on their land, trade in the products of their lands in bulk, purchase houses in cities and conduct maritime trade.
In pre-revolutionary Russia in the 19th century, there were the following estates:
1) Aristocrats
Or the highest nobility - Grand Dukes (members of the royal family), princes, counts and barons
2) Nobility
It was divided into hereditary and personal - former boyars and deserving nobility representatives of the lower classes.
3) the clergy
(white - priests and black - monks);
4) The estate of honorary citizens
The historical predecessor of honorary citizenship was the estate of eminent citizens, allocated by Catherine II in the Charter of 1785 from the urban inhabitants. They were exempted from corporal punishment; they were allowed to have gardens, country courtyards, to ride in a carriage in pairs and fours, it was not forbidden to start and maintain factories, factories, sea and river vessels.
By a decree on January 1, 1807, the title of eminent citizens was abolished for the merchants and retained only for scientists and artists. But due to the fact that belonging to the merchant was conditioned only by the registration in the guild, even the most respectable merchant family, which for some reason was not able to declare capital (that is, it was not assigned to one or another guild), was immediately transferred to the class of petty bourgeois or rural ordinary people, and at the same time was subject to recruitment, and a capitation salary, and corporal punishment.
The abnormality of this order of things prompted the Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin back in 1827 to come in with a proposal to establish a special honorary citizenship, which was implemented by the manifesto on April 10, 1832.
5) Merchants
Those. hereditary merchants. They were divided into guild classes according to the amount of capital, the merits of the family to the state and the quality of trade. There were 3 guilds in total. 1st - was considered the highest. Many came from wealthy peasants.
6) Commoners (Intelligentsia)
In the exact legal sense, several groups of people belonged to the category of commoners. Among the commoners were ranked lower courtiers, civil servants and retired military servants who did not enroll in either the merchant class or the guilds. In everyday life, commoners were people who received education, thanks to him, they were excluded from the unprivileged taxable estate in which they were previously, or could not belong to a taxable state, while they were not in active service, as a rule, they had the right to apply for them honorary citizenship, but did not issue it. In this sense, people from the clergy, merchants, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, petty officials belonged to the commoners. Retired soldiers and soldiers' children constituted a significant share among the commoners.
7) philistinism
The bourgeoisie originates from the townspeople (residents of cities and townships) of the Russian state, mainly artisans, small homeowners and merchants. It is believed that the name comes from the Polish and Belarusian names of small towns - "shtetl". Officially, the estate of the bourgeoisie was formalized in the Charter of Charity to the cities of Catherine II in 1785. The name "bourgeoisie" in it was defined as: "city dwellers", "middle-class people", small traders and artisans. The petty-bourgeois estate in terms of its position stood below the merchant class. It was the bourgeois who owned most of the city's real estate. As the main payers of taxes and taxes, the bourgeoisie, along with the merchants, belonged to the category of “correct urban inhabitants”.
The townspeople of the city united into a “philistine society”.
8) The Cossacks are hereditary, in the state service. It had its own privileges. It was one step higher than the peasantry in the class hierarchy. In fact, it was equated with the bourgeois and commoners.
9) Peasantry
This estate was divided into personally free odnokvatels and black-haired peasants, as well as appanage and serfs dependent on the feudal lords. The Russian peasantry in the estate system was divided into a number of categories: state peasants living on lands belonging to the state, monastic peasants, landlord peasants, appanage peasants living on lands belonging to the imperial family, persecution (assigned peasants), assigned to certain factories, one-family farmers.
10) Exiles, serfs, fugitives, shackles (prisoners), prisoners of war - not an estate. People without rights. We stood at the very bottom of society. They did not even have the right to move around the country. But serfs could get free and become free peasants. So serfdom was completely abolished in 1861.
The formation of the domestic estate structure is characteristic of the era of "enlightened absolutism", which aimed to maintain the order in which each estate fulfills its purpose and function. The elimination of privileges and the equalization of rights, from this point of view, were understood as "general confusion", which should not be allowed.
The process of legal consolidation of the nobility began in the Peter the Great era. The "decree on single inheritance" prepared the unity of the property base of this class and specially emphasized its official function, which became mandatory (the nobles were forced to serve),
The Manifesto of Peter III "On the Liberty of the Nobility", confirming the special position of the nobility in society, canceled the obligation of the service that burdened the nobility. It outlined new areas of application of the noble initiative (except for state and military service) - trade and industry.
The most important act that carried out the legal consolidation of the nobility was the "Charter to the nobility" (1785).
Back in 1771, as a result of the work of the commissioned commission, a project was prepared, which later became the basis for the "Charter to the nobility". In the project, the entire population was divided into three classes, the first of which is called "noble". The project developed the provisions of Catherine's "Order" on the special status and purpose of the nobility.
The privileges of the nobility were defined quite broadly: first of all, the position of the Manifesto of 1762 "On the freedom of the nobility", on the freedom of nobles to serve, leave the service, travel to other states, and renounce citizenship was consolidated.
The political corporate rights of the nobility were established: the right to convene and participate in provincial congresses, the right to elect judges by nobles.
"Certificate of Merit to the Nobility" (full title "Certificate of Law and Advantages of the Noble Russian Nobility") consisted of an introductory manifesto and four sections (ninety-two articles).
It established the principles of organizing local noble self-government, the personal rights of nobles, and the procedure for compiling genealogies of noble books.
Dignity of nobility was defined as a special state of qualities that served as the basis for the acquisition of a noble rank. The title of nobility was considered as inalienable, hereditary and hereditary. It applies to all members of the nobleman's family.
The grounds for deprivation of the noble rank could only be criminal offenses, in which the moral downfall of the criminal and dishonesty were manifested. The list of these crimes was exhaustive.
The personal rights of nobles included: the right to noble dignity, the right to the protection of honor, personality and life, exemption from corporal punishment, from compulsory public service, etc.
Property rights of the nobility: full and unlimited ownership, to acquire, use and inherit any type of property. The exclusive right of the nobles to buy villages and own land and peasants was established (the nobles had the right to open industrial enterprises on their estates, trade in the products of their lands in bulk, purchase houses in cities and conduct maritime trade.
The special judicial rights of the nobility included the following estate privileges: the personal and property rights of the nobility could be limited or liquidated only by a court decision: a nobleman could be tried only by an estate court equal to him, decisions of other courts did not matter to him.
The estate self-government of the nobility, regulated by the "Letter of Grant", looked like this: the nobles created a society or Assembly, endowed with the rights of a legal entity (which had its own finances, property, institutions and employees). The assembly was endowed with certain political rights: it could make representations to local authorities, central institutions and the emperor on matters of "public benefit".
The Assembly included all the nobles who had estates in the given province. From among the district leaders of the nobility, the Assembly once every three years elected candidates for the provincial leaders of the nobility. The latter's candidacy was approved by the governor or the representative of the monarch in the province. The nobles who did not have land and did not reach the age of twenty-five were eliminated from the elections. During the elections, the rights of nobles who did not serve and did not have officer ranks were limited. The nobles defamed by the court were expelled from the Assembly.
The assembly also elected assessors to the estate courts of the province and police officers of the zemstvo police.
Assemblies of nobility and district leaders carried out the compilation of noble genealogical books and decided questions about the admissibility of certain persons to the number of nobles (there were about twenty legal grounds for reckoning with the nobility).
The letter of gratitude retained the distinction between the rights of the personal nobility and the rights of the hereditary nobility. All hereditary nobility had equal rights (personal, property and judicial), regardless of the difference in titles and the antiquity of the family. The legal consolidation of the nobility, as an estate, was completed. The rights assigned to the nobility were defined as "eternal and unchanging." At the same time, noble corporations were directly dependent on state power (registration of nobles in genealogical books was carried out according to the rules established by the state, government officials approved the candidacies of elected noble leaders, noble elective bodies operated under the auspices of government officials and institutions).
The legal status of the urban population as a special class began to be determined at the end of the 17th century. Then, the creation of urban self-government bodies under Peter I (town halls, magistrates) and the establishment of certain benefits for the elite of the urban population strengthened this process. Further development of the industry, trade and finance (as special functions of the city) required the publication of new legal acts regulating these areas of activity.
In 1769, a draft regulation “On the neuter race of people” or the legal status of philistinism was developed. This class included: persons engaged in science and serving (white clergy, scientists, officials, artists); persons engaged in trade (merchants, manufacturers, breeders, ship owners and navigators); other persons (artisans, burghers, working people). The "middle clan" of people had the fullness of state rights, the right to life, security and property. Provided for judicial rights, the right to the inviolability of the person until the end of the trial, to the defense in court.
The bourgeoisie were freed from public works, it was forbidden to transfer them to serfdom. They had the right of free relocation, movement and departure to other states, the right to their own intra-class court, to acquire houses, the right to substitute for themselves a replacement according to the recruitment set. The bourgeoisie had the right to own city and country houses, had an unlimited right of ownership to their property, an unlimited right of inheritance.
They received the right to own industrial establishments (with restrictions on their size and the number of employees), organize banks, offices, etc.
When preparing the "Charter of Charter to the Cities" (which began in 1780), in addition to the materials of the commissioned commission, other sources were used: the Guild Charter (1722), the Charter of the Deanery (1782) and the Establishment for Governance of the Province (1775), Swedish Guild Charter and Broker Regulations (1669), Prussian Crafts Charter (1733), legislation of the cities of Livonia and Estonia. "Certificate of Appreciation to Cities" (full title: "Certificate of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire") was published simultaneously with "Certificate of Appreciation to the Nobility" in April 1785. It consisted of a manifesto, sixteen sections and one hundred and seventy-eight articles. The diploma secured a single estate status for the entire population of cities, regardless of professional occupation and occupation.
This was quite consistent with the idea of creating a "middle kind of people." The unified legal status of the urban population was based on the recognition of the city as a special organized territory with a special administrative management system; and the types of occupation of the population.
Belonging to the bourgeois class, according to the legislator, is based on diligence and good-naturedness, is hereditary, associated with the benefits that the bourgeoisie brings to the fatherland (belonging to the bourgeoisie is not a natural phenomenon, like belonging to the nobility). The deprivation of the bourgeois rights and estate privileges could be carried out on the same grounds as the deprivation of the estate rights of a nobleman (a complete list of acts was also provided).
The personal rights of the townspeople included: the right to protection of honor and dignity, personality and life, the right to move and travel abroad.
The property rights of the bourgeoisie included: the right to own property (acquisition, use, inheritance), the right to own industrial enterprises, industries, the right to trade.
The entire urban population was divided into six categories:
1) "real city dwellers" who have a house and other real estate in the city;
2) merchants registered in the guild (I guild - with a capital of ten to fifty thousand rubles, II - from five to ten thousand rubles, III - from one to five thousand rubles);
3) artisans who were in workshops;
4) nonresident and foreign merchants;
5) eminent citizens (capitalists and bankers with a capital of at least fifty thousand rubles, wholesalers, shipowners in the city administration, scientists, artists, musicians);
6) other townspeople population.
Merchants of the I and II guilds enjoyed additional personal rights, were exempted from corporal punishment, and could own large industrial and commercial enterprises. Eminent citizens were also exempted from corporal punishment.
The rights and obligations of artisans were regulated by intra-workshop rules and the "Charter on workshops".
The city dwellers, like the nobility, were recognized as having the right to corporate organization. The townspeople constituted the "city society" and could gather for meetings with the approval of the administration.
The townspeople elected burgomasters, assessors-ratmans (for three years), chiefs and judges of verbal courts (for a year).
The assembly could make submissions to local authorities and oversee the observance of laws. The city society was recognized as a legal entity. Participation in the society was limited by a property qualification (payment of an annual tax in the amount of at least fifty rubles) and an age qualification (at least twenty-five years old).
In the city, a general city council was created, which included the elected mayor and vowels (one from each of the six categories of citizens and in proportion to the parts of the city).
The General City Duma formed its own executive body - a six-vowel City Duma from among the vowels, in the meetings of which one representative from each category participated. The mayor presided.
The competence of the city duma included: ensuring silence, harmony and decency in the city, resolving intra-class disputes, monitoring city construction. Unlike town halls and magistrates, court cases were not included in the jurisdiction of the city council - they were decided by the judicial authorities.
In 1785, a draft of one more estate charter was developed - "Rural situation". The document concerned the position of only state peasants. He asserted for them inalienable class rights: the right to a free title, the right to ownership of movable property, the right to acquire real estate (excluding villages, factories, factories and peasants), the right to refuse to pay illegal taxes, fees and duties, the right to engage in agriculture, crafts and trade.
The rural community received the rights of the corporation. Rural "inhabitants" could elect the executive bodies of self-government in the communities, elect the estate court and submit representations to the local administration. Deprivation of estate rights could only be carried out by court.
It was supposed to divide the entire rural population, by analogy with the urban, into six categories, taking into account the declared capital, according to the property qualification. The first two categories (with a capital of more than one thousand rubles) were exempted from corporal punishment.
The project did not become law, but the state and legal policy in relation to the peasantry was clearly defined. The peasant population was subdivided into "state settlers" who belonged to the state and owned land received from the government; free peasants who rent land from nobles or the government and are not serfs; serfs who belonged to the nobles or the emperor.
All categories of peasants had the right to hire workers, put those hired in recruits instead of themselves, teach their children (serfs could do this only with the permission of the landowner), engage in petty trade and handicrafts. The rights of inheritance, disposition of property, entering into obligations for peasants were limited. State peasants and free peasants had the right to be defended in court, and to full ownership, but not disposal of the land provided, to full ownership of movable property.
Serfs were fully subject to the court of the landowners, and in criminal cases - to the state court. Their property rights were limited by the need to obtain permission from the landowner (in the field of disposal and inheritance of movable property). The landowner, in turn, was forbidden to sell peasants at retail.
Cossacks were declared free people. They could not be turned into a serf state, had the right to judicial protection, could own small trading establishments, lease, engage in crafts, hire free people to serve (but could not own serfs), trade in goods of their own production. Cossack foremen were exempted from corporal punishment, their houses - from standing. A uniform and special military-administrative management of the Cossack troops was established: a military chancellery, the leadership of which was appointed by the government, and the members were elected by the Cossacks.
The development of the noble property right took place in line with the legal consolidation of this class. Even in the "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Noble" expanded the concept of real estate, first introduced into circulation by the "Decree on single inheritance." The real estate included courtyards, factories and plants.
The state monopoly on mineral resources and forests, established in 1719, was abolished in 1782 - landowners received the right of ownership of forest lands.
Back in 1755, a landlord's monopoly on distilling was established, and from 1787 the nobles were allowed widespread free trade in grain. In this area, no one could compete with the landowners' households.
Differentiation of the legal forms of noble land tenure is simplified: all estates began to be divided into two types - generic and acquired.
The procedure for inheriting landlord estates was simplified, and the freedom of the testator expanded. In 1791, childless landowners received complete freedom to inherit real estate to any person, even not belonging to the family of the testator.
The "Charter to the Nobility" secured the rights of the nobles to engage in industrial and commercial activities, opening up new prospects for the estate.
The nobles had unlimited ownership of estates of any type (acquired and ancestral). In them they could carry out any activity not prohibited by law. They were given the full right to dispose of estates, they had complete power over the serfs, at their own discretion they could impose various taxes on them, quitrent and use them in any work.
Legislation on entrepreneurship, the formation of a capitalist economy. In the first half of the 19th century, the formation of capitalist relations took place in all sectors of the economy. Agriculture was definitely market-oriented: its products were produced for the purpose of marketing, in the structure of peasant labor and duties, the share of monetary quitrent taxes increased, and the size of the landlord's plowing increased. In a number of districts, a month developed: the transfer of peasants to pay with food, while their allotments were transferred to the aristocratic plowing.
An increasing number of industrial enterprises and manufactories appeared on the estates, which used the labor of serfs. Differentiation of the peasantry took place, the rich invested their capital in industry and trade.
In industry, the use of hired labor increased, and the number of handicraft and small enterprises and peasant trades increased. In the 1930s and 1950s, manufactories were transformed into capitalist factories based on machine technology (already in 1825, more than half of the workers employed in the manufacturing industry were hired peasants, mainly quitrent peasants). The demand for free labor was growing rapidly.
Its replenishment could only be carried out from the peasant environment, for which it was necessary to carry out certain legal transformations in the position of the peasantry. In 1803, the "Decree on Free Plowmen" was adopted, according to which the landowners received the right to release their peasants to freedom for a ransom set by the landowners themselves. In almost sixty years of the decree (before the reform of 1861), only about five hundred agreements on release were approved and about one hundred and twelve thousand people became free farmers.
The release was carried out with the approval of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the peasants received ownership of real estate and participation in obligations.
In 1842, the "Decree on obliged peasants" was issued, providing for the possibility of transferring land to peasants for lease use by landowners, for which the peasants were obliged to fulfill the obligations stipulated by the contract, to obey the court of the landowner. Only about twenty-seven thousand peasants living on the estates of only six landowners were transferred to the position of "obligated" peasants. Arrears from the peasants were collected through the police by the "provincial administrations".
Both of these partial reforms did not resolve the issue of changing economic relations in agriculture, although they outlined the mechanism of the agrarian reform (redemption, the state of "temporary duty", working off), which was carried out in 1861. More radical were the legal measures taken in Estland, Livonia and Courland provinces: in 1816 - 1819. the peasants of these regions were freed from serfdom without land. The peasants switched to lease relations, using the landlord's land, performing duties and submitting to the landlord's court.
A measure aimed at changing serf relations was the organization of military settlements, in which, from 1816, state peasants began to settle. By 1825 their number had reached four hundred thousand. The settlers were obliged to engage in agriculture (giving half of the harvest to the state) and to carry out military service. They were forbidden to trade, go to work, their life was regulated by the Military Regulations. This measure could not give free hands for the development of industry, but outlined the ways for the organization of forced labor in agriculture, which will be used by the state much later.
In 1847, the Ministry of State Property was created, which was entrusted with the management of the state peasants: the quitrent taxation was streamlined, the land plots of the peasants were increased; the system of peasant self-government was fixed: volost gathering - volost administration - village gathering - village headman. This model of self-government will be used for a long time both in the system of communal and future collective-farm organization, but it will become a factor holding back the withdrawal of peasants to the city and the processes of property differentiation of the peasantry.
The new economic relations, however, required changes in the legal status of rural inhabitants. Separate steps in this direction were made in the first half of the 19th century. Already in 1801, the state peasants were allowed to buy land from the landlords.
In 1818, a decree was adopted that allowed all peasants (including landowners) to establish factories and plants.
The need for free wage labor made it ineffective to use the labor of the possessory peasants in factories and factories: in 1840 the factory owners received the right to release the possession peasants and hire free people and quitrent peasants instead.
In cities, in parallel with the class of petty bourgeois and guild (foremen, artisans, apprentices), the social group of "working people" began to grow.
