People of the modern type appeared on Earth about 40 thousand years ago. In connection with the peculiarities of natural and geographical conditions, differences arose in the external appearance of a person. For example, dark skin color protects against solar radiation. Curly hair forms an air cushion on the head and protects from overheating.
Where people with a yellowish skin tone live, there are often winds, dust and sand storms. Therefore, the eyes of those people look like a narrow slit with a skin fold covering the inner corner of the eye. People of different continents, countries differ in body structure, skin color, hair, eyes, shape and size of the nose, lips, etc. These signs are called racial. They were formed over a long historical period and are passed down from generation to generation.
human races - these are large groups of people connected by a common origin and external signs.
According to external signs, they distinguish four main races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid(or equatorial) And australoid.
To the Caucasian race includes almost half of the planet's humanity. The name itself suggests that most of the peoples of this race live in Europe. With the discovery of America and Australia, Caucasians settled all over the world. They have fair skin, soft straight or slightly wavy hair, a narrow nose, thin lips, and eye color may vary. In addition to Europeans, Indians, Tajiks, Armenians, and Arabs belong to this race. All Slavs, including Ukrainians, are Caucasians.
People live in Africa and America negroid race. The peoples of this race live in equatorial regions. They have dark skin, hair and eyes, hair is curly or wavy, the hair on the face and body is poorly developed, most of them have a wide nose, the upper jaw protrudes forward, and the lips are thick.
TO Mongoloid race belongs to almost 40% of the world's population. The peoples of the Mongoloid race settled in the vast expanses of Asia, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and on both continents of America. The Mongoloids have a yellowish skin color, black straight hair, eyes as narrow as slits, a flat face, a wide nose, thin, slightly thickened lips. This race includes the Mongols, Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and other peoples of Asia, as well as the Indians - the indigenous population of America.
Representatives australoid race inhabit the northeast of the mainland of Australia and the eastern part of about. New Guinea. This race is characterized by dark skin, hair, eyes. The hairline is well developed on the face, the nose is wide and flat.
With the growth of the population of the Earth, peoples of different races communicated with each other more and more. So there were mixed race — mulattoes(descendants of blacks and Europeans), mestizos(then-ki Indians and Europeans), sambo(descendants of Indians and Negroes). material from the site
For a long time, Europeans did not recognize the equality of races. Representatives of the Mongoloid race, and especially the Negroid, were considered to be at the lowest stage of development and incapable of creating their own civilization. One of the first to refute this erroneous and inherently racist theory was the world-famous scientist, great-grandson of the Zaporizhzhya Cossack Makhlai N. N. Miklukho-Maclay. He was a famous traveler, lived for many years among the Papuans of New Guinea and proved that they are in no way inferior to Europeans in their mental development. He argued that all people, regardless of place of residence, skin color, hair and other external signs, are the same in their biological characteristics. The Papuans considered Nikolai Nikolaevich their friend. On the coast of New Guinea has a territory named after him Maclay coast.
On this page, material on the topics:
Human races Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid photo
Curly hair in people of the Negroid race protects against
Distribution countries of races (Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid
Report on the topic of human races Mongoloid race
The proportion of the Mongoloid race on earth
Questions about this item:
No matter how interesting and vivid all these facts and considerations, no matter how attractive they are due to their wide coverage, synthesis of both biological and historical phenomena in one whole, perhaps it would not be worth devoting a separate article to them, if not for the absolute conviction of the author that this not the past, but the present and even the future of anthropology, its pillar path, that the application of genetic patterns to the interpretation of anthropological facts opens up wide opportunities for cardinal generalizations, that, finally, the law discovered by N. I. Vavilov can find further application in anthropology. I would like to show the latter on the example of the origin and formation of the Caucasoid race.
What is the Caucasoid race as a whole now as a definite unit of anthropological classification, as a morphological unity? Its representatives are characterized by a strongly protruding narrow nose, a high nose bridge, a sharply profiled face, thin lips, straight or broadly wavy soft hair. Compared with Negroids and even Mongoloids, Caucasoids are much more fair-skinned, light-haired and light-eyed, and the latter is true even for the inhabitants of the Mediterranean, Western and Central Asia - the darkest-eyed people among Caucasoids. A completely natural and logical conclusion from this morphological unity is the assertion of a genetic relationship and a common origin of Caucasoid types.
However, anthropologists do not agree in understanding the ways in which the Caucasoid race appeared. In accordance with one point of view, which received the name monocentric, all races of modern man originated in Western Asia from neutral forms of Neanderthals, who combined the features of all three large races; according to another hypothesis, called polycentric, each race goes back to a separate group of Neanderthals who lived on the same continent. The author shares the polycentric hypothesis, proceeding from the undoubted morphological continuity between Caucasoids and European Neanderthals, between the Mongoloid races and Sinanthropus, as well as from archaeological data that paint a picture of a gradual transition from the Lower Paleolithic to the Upper, not only in Asia Minor, but also in Europe, China, Southeast Asia, etc. On the other hand, the undoubted fact of the greater proximity of Caucasoids to Negroids than to Mongoloids, confirmed by the presence of an intermediate Australoid race and the wide distribution of Negro-Australoids in the Upper Paleolithic in southern Europe and Caucasoids in the Mesolithic in North Africa, and the formation of racial characteristics in the process of growth. (Children of blacks and Europeans are more similar to each other than adult blacks and Europeans. Mongoloids, on the contrary, differ from other races most of all in childhood.) The common origin of Caucasians and Negroids is very likely, and it can really go back to Western Asia, where the skeletons of Neanderthals were found, which were characterized by both Caucasoid and Negroid features.
Rice. 1. Geographic variations of skin color in Europe: 1 - very light skin (overwhelming predominance of shades 1-12 on the F. Lushan scale);
2 - slightly darker skin (shades 13-15 are quite common)
In this original group of Neanderthals, both Caucasoid and Negroid features were expressed, however, to a lesser extent than in modern races.
The formation of a typically Caucasoid combination of characters, as we now know it, obviously took place under the influence of many factors starting from the Upper Paleolithic. First of all, this is the influence of the mixing of groups of Near Asian origin with European Neanderthals; this is evidenced by the strong protrusion of the nose in representatives of the Caucasian race, the same as in European Neanderthals.
This is also evidenced by the highly developed relief on many early Upper Paleolithic skulls from Europe, a feature typical of European Neanderthals. In addition to mixing with local groups of Neanderthals, one should point to an adaptation to the harsh conditions of glacial Europe: a narrow nose limited the simultaneous inhalation of large amounts of cold air and protected the nasopharynx. Finally, in the occurrence of pigmentation characteristic of the Caucasoid race, the role of genogeographic patterns is undoubtedly great.
Rice. 2. Geographic variations of hair color in Europe: 1 - less than 50% of dark hair (shades 27.4-8 on the E. Fisher scale); 2- 30-80% dark
hair; 3 - more than 80% dark hair
The Caucasoid race is subdivided into northern and southern branches. The northern branch is the population of Scandinavia, Iceland and Ireland, England, the northern regions of the GDR and the FRG, Finland, the Baltic republics of the Soviet Union, and the northern regions of the European part of the RSFSR. Southern_Caucasoids are the population of the northern part of India, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey, Arabic-speaking countries, Turkmen and Azerbaijan, Armenian and Georgian SSR, Southern Italy and Southern France, Spain and Portugal. The areas intermediate between these zones are occupied by a population that occupies a middle place in the anthropological classification between northern and southern Caucasians. In all
In these countries, anthropological features vary greatly; local anthropological types are distinguished. But it is not the slightest difficulty even for non-specialists to distinguish, for example, a Georgian or an Armenian from a Swede in appearance at a glance.
However, variations of all the features characteristic of local Caucasoid types are characteristic of them, they do not cover several peoples or groups of peoples, they reveal, as anthropologists say, a mosaic distribution on a geographical map. The only signs that oppose the population of the north and south of Europe, separating the northern and southern Caucasians, are signs of pigmentation, eye, hair and skin color. Anthropologists zealously, at first, I would say, just frantically looking for some more features with which to distinguish northern Europeans from southern ones, the northern or Baltic branch of the Caucasoid race from the southern or Mediterranean. The search was in vain: they were never successful, not a single sign was found, except for pigmentation, the variations of which would differ in a strictly regular distribution on the map of Europe. And since the pigmentation of the ancient population remains unknown, the ancient areas of the northern and southern Caucasoids, their ratio on the European geographical map in the early eras of the formation of the Caucasoid race remain unknown.
How are all three signs, reflecting the development of the pigment, geographically distributed now? The most dark-skinned people live in the northern part of India, Afghanistan, the Turkmen and Azerbaijan SSR, in the Arab countries. Persians, Armenians, Georgians and other peoples of the Caucasus, Greeks, Bulgarians, southern Italians and French, Spaniards and Portuguese are more light-skinned, although they seem dark-skinned when compared, say, with Russians. Let's remember Italian films - don't the characters in them give the impression of very dark people? But they have people not only from southern, but also from northern Italy, whose population is noticeably lighter than southern Italians. Northern French and Belgians, Germans of the southern and central regions of Europe, Croats and Slovenes, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Russians of the southern regions have even lighter skin. The Russians of the central regions, Belarusians, Poles, Germans of the northern regions are almost as fair-skinned as the Scandinavians, who make up the last step in the scale of skin color shades - very little pigment is deposited in them (Fig. 1). Maps of the distribution of different shades of hair and eye color - from the darkest to the lightest - in the population of Europe differ little from the map of the distribution of skin color (Fig. 2, 3). Thus, in Europe, it is possible to distinguish, as it were, several zones from south to north, and the population of each subsequent more northern zone will be noticeably lighter-skinned, light-eyed and fair-haired than the peoples living in the previous zone.
From morphology we now turn to geography and consider the geographical outlines of the Old World, and in particular Eurasia. If the formation of the Caucasoid race or that combination of anthropological features on the basis of which the Caucasoid race was formed took place in Western Asia, then Europe can rightly be considered in relation to this zone as a peripheral region.
Rice. 3. Geographical variations in eye color in Europe: 1 - light eyes (shades 9-12 on the scale of V.V. Bunak), occur in more than 60%
cases; 2 - 40-60% light eyes; 3 - 20-39.9% of light eyes; 4 - less than 20% light
eye
Asia Minor lies in the center of the Old World, in the area where all three continents meet, while Europe looks like a monstrous peninsula of the single continent of Eurasia. From this point of view, it is curious that the most intense depigmentation in Europe is typical not for the population of the entire northern zone, but specifically for the peoples of Scandinavia, that is, for those peoples who are farthest from the center of the Old World - Western Asia. The sequence, the gradual lightening of the hair, eyes and skin of people in the direction to the northwest from Western Asia, which is not in all other directions, is also noteworthy.
If the reader has not yet guessed where the author is driving, then, in any case, he is prepared for this: the author believes that the only successful explanation of all the facts noted, and, moreover, an explanation that does not require any additional hypotheses, can be N.I. Vavilov about pushing recessives to the peripheral regions from the center of the range. Skin color also appears to be a recessive trait, as do other features associated with depigmentation. All depigmentation thus acts as a single complex, although the accumulation of several recessive genes in the genotype leads to complete depigmentation. Pushing them to the outlying areas fully explains why in Europe the color of hair, eyes and skin brightens from south to north (gradual pushing away from the center of race formation), why the greatest depigmentation is characteristic of the population of Scandinavia (the greatest distance from the center of race formation), why this process manifested itself precisely during the formation of the Caucasoid race, and not any other (a peculiar geographical position of Europe as a peninsula of the Eurasian continent and, therefore, a geographical prerequisite for isolation). So, the law of the displacement of recessive mutations to the outskirts of the species or racial range, the law, the effect of which is brilliantly illustrated in relation to a person using the example of the population of the Western Hindu Kush and Scandinavia, can also be extended to a much more general phenomenon - the emergence and formation of one of the main racial trunks of modern humanity. . Genogeography and population genetics make a great contribution to the clarification and understanding of the extremely important problem of race formation, and Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov was one of the pioneers in introducing their methods and laws into anthropology almost 60 years ago.
G. F. Debets told the author that after talking with N. I. Vavilov for half an hour, he remembered this conversation for the rest of his life - N. I. Vavilov’s judgments on anthropology, ethnogenesis, and ancient history were so deep and subtle. A huge mind, which accumulated vast and diverse knowledge, discovered general laws that operate at all levels of life and the interaction of biological systems, laws that are widely applicable to explaining the biological characteristics of a person.
Anthropologist Stanislav Drobyshevsky about the common features of the Caucasoid race, the main groups and ways of settling its representatives. What are the characteristics of the Caucasian race in general? What groups can be distinguished among Caucasians? What is the reason for the variability within one race? Candidate of Biological Sciences Stanislav Drobyshevsky talks about this.
- The Caucasoid race is most often called so, although the term "Eurasian race" is accepted in Russian anthropology. One could call it a "Eurasian-African race", but there is no such term. The Caucasoid race is far from being settled only in Europe, its range is much wider, not even counting the fact that Caucasoids have now settled anywhere: in Australia, in America, in Africa.
Even the original area of the addition of the Caucasoid race included, in addition to Europe proper, also the north of Africa, to the Sahara, and at some time the Sahara was a rather important region, and probably the same people lived there, and the entire Middle East, which is geographically Asia, and further, up to Northern India. Currently, approximately half of the population of India is, strictly speaking, Caucasoids. In total, the Caucasoid race is one of the most widespread from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean, around the entire Mediterranean Sea. And it is natural that on such a vast territory it is very heterogeneous, but there are common features that allow it to be distinguished.
Caucasian race characterized by the lightest color of skin, eyes and hair, but all northern Caucasians and those living outside the equatorial belt have much lighter skin, while the southernmost Caucasians are still darker. The center of lightness of the skin of Caucasians is located in the Baltic Sea, in the Baltic States, Finland, Karelia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the farther south, the darker the skin becomes.
The eyes and hair of some Caucasians can be of different shades, some generally have the lightest hair and eyes on the planet, while other Caucasians have very dark eyes and hair. The hair and eyes of Caucasians in the Mediterranean countries are almost all only dark, but there are also lighter shades.
In North Africa, light eyes and hair are extremely rare. Approximately 2% of light eyes are found in Caucasians of Northern Egypt. Blond hair and eyes are found among Kabyles, for example, in the Atlas Mountains, in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, but this is rare. Sometimes it slips, say, in the Hindu Kush and Pakistan. And these individual light-colored people in the southern populations gave rise to talk about the soldiers of Alexander the Great, who, of course, were blond and reached India, about the vandals who passed through Africa to Tunisia and settled there, and now their blood is in the Kabilas. It is unlikely that the soldiers of Alexander the Great, and the vandals, could have so strongly influenced the locals. Moreover, fair-haired, light-eyed people in the south are individuals, and their fractions of a percent, as a rule, or 2% maximum for eyes in Egypt. There is variation from north to south. This variability is quite cunning, it is not consistent everywhere, because the territory of both Europe and the entire western part of Asia is not blocked by some transcendent geographical barriers. There are, of course, the Alps in the middle of Europe, there is the Caucasus, there is the same Hindu Kush, but they are quite bypassed on the sides. And Europe has always been a place of rapid population movements, people did not sit still. I'm not talking about the 20th century, but about earlier times: both in the Bronze Age and in the Neolithic, people wandered back and forth, and from north to south, and from south to north, from west to east, from east to west. Therefore, at present, it is extremely problematic to single out any strict variants of Caucasians.
There are several main groups of Caucasians. In the Mediterranean zone and further up to India lives indo-mediterranean race, having the darkest pigmented skin. Facial features, like all Caucasians, regular, thin lips, narrow nose. To the south live equatorials with a wide nose, and the contrast in appearance is very sharp. In India, the Dravidian race is very different from the South Indian race, and in West Africa the facial features of the Ethiopian race are different from the Negroids. In history, there was no period of isolation of the Proto-Caucasians from the Proto-Equatorial peoples and races. On a Caucasoid scale, the Indo-Mediterraneans are relatively small in body size, they are quite graceful, but on a global scale they cannot be called particularly small. Although there are groups of almost pygmy growth. For example, in the Sahara, Biasutti described the so-called Paleo-Saharan type of people; they are also found in Egypt. These are Bedouins, their height is about a meter and fifty. Low population growth occurs in conditions of isolation from all neighboring tribes, living in oases are closed within their tribe and enter into closely related relationships, which leads to the degeneration of the people.
North of the Indo-Mediterraneans live groups of the Balkan-Caucasian race. The Balkan-Caucasian race is distributed mainly in the Balkans, including the Carpathians, nearby territories, and in the Caucasus. The question arises: to what extent are the Caucasian and Balkan populations related to each other? They could have acquired similar traits independently, but with a high probability they were related to some extent. Sometimes they are called dinar type . The Balkan-Caucasian race is different increased massiveness of the chest, and large sizes of the face and nose. The widest faces in the world are found in the North Caucasus. In Georgia, the population is distinguished by a very powerful growth of hair on the whole body, and on the face - especially thick beards and mustaches. Such powerful vegetation was still found only among the white people of the Ainu, the first inhabitants of the Japanese islands, who have now become mestizos, mixed with the Japanese Mongoloids who came to the islands.
In Europe, the Montenegrins and some peoples of the Caucasus, for example, Ossetians of very tall stature, have the largest body sizes. The Balkan-Caucasian race apparently arose in conditions of rather powerful isolation, in mountainous conditions, and there are clearly traces of adaptation to mountain conditions, including at the biochemical level. For example, the increased development of muscles, because the muscles store blood well and, accordingly, oxygen, the development of the respiratory tract, that is, large lungs and, accordingly, a large chest, a large nose with a hump.
Further north is the distribution zone of the Central European, or middle Caucasian race. This is probably the largest part in terms of numbers, if we take the population within the Eurasian race. Although, given that India has a population close to a billion, Pakistan also has a lot, then maybe the Indo-Mediterranean race roughly gives the same number.
The Central European race in the Caucasian race is a little average: with a straight nose, with small face sizes, most often with blond, as a rule, wavy hair - light blond, dark blond. Men sometimes grow beards and mustaches. Basically, representatives of the Central European race settled in other parts of the world during the Age of Discovery, that is, they came to America, Australia, South Africa, India and Asia, there are not very many of them.
The facial features of people of the Central European race are very variable, there are many options. Many anthropologists have tried to find some logic in the distribution of these variants, but they are not very successful. The external signs of people of the Central European race change randomly when viewed from north to south, from west to east. The maximum approximation in the similarity of facial features of the Central European race was found by Vasily Evgenievich Deryabin, who discovered that in the central part of Russia, signs of similarity among Russians are distributed not from west to east or from north to south, but along river valleys.
Perhaps, in a similar way, it will be possible to determine in Western Europe the signs of the similarity of people of the Central European race. Since ancient times, the main roads in Russia have been rivers, tribes settled along the rivers in summer on boats, in winter on sledges. That's why the groups living along the river are similar to each other. All trade routes of Russia passed from hand to hand - the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" connected the Baltic Sea with the Pont Aksinsky (Black Sea), the "Great Silk Road" was also laid along the rivers. And since the rivers flow in cunning zigzags, the distribution of anthropological features of people of the Central European race in Russia turns out to be cunning zigzags.
The northernmost Caucasians are divided into two races. West - Atlanto-Baltic race , is a fairly tall, large people, with very white skin, blond hair and eyes, with a straight narrow nose and an elongated, not wide face.
And further east, in the area of the White Sea - White Sea-Baltic race , its representatives are shorter, their faces are wider, a slightly snub nose, more often the back of the nose is concave, smaller eyes, beards and mustaches in men do not grow well. Of course, this description may give the impression that by looking at a person, you can determine what race he belongs to. This is not entirely true, because the described differences in the appearance of people are rather sketchy and average, and cannot be an accurate marker of the difference between races. In each particular settlement, you can find completely different types of people, so determining the type “by eye”, from a photograph or even from individual measurements, is impossible, that is, in general, a race can only be determined by studying the entire population of people.
Stanislav Drobyshevsky - Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, scientific editor of the Anthropogenesis.ru portal
Based on video
Straight or wavy, as a rule soft (particularly in the northern groups), the eyes have a wide slit, although the palpebral fissure is small, the nose is medium or strongly protruding with a high nose bridge, the lips are thin or moderately thick, strong or medium hair growth on the face and body. Wide hands and feet. The color of the skin, hair and eyes is varied: from very light shades in the northern groups, to very dark in the southern and eastern populations.
Subgroups
| Check information. |
Origin of Caucasians
The Caucasoid race in the modern version was formed not earlier than the Holocene.
The most likely assumption is that the bulk of the large Caucasoid race had its original area of origin somewhere within a vast area that covered some areas of southwestern Asia, as well as southern Europe and northern Africa. The range of proto-Caucasoids probably also included some areas of Western Asia, which had a foothill character, and also, partially, the Mediterranean with its arid coastal regions. From here, the Proto-Caucasians could settle in different directions, gradually occupying the whole of Europe and northern Africa.
In the population of Europe, blue eyes were already widespread among hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic era, but the gene responsible for light skin pigmentation was fixed at 100% frequency only by the Bronze Age.
As part of the Caucasians, two branches are distinguished - northern and southern. The differences between them relate mainly to the pigmentation of the skin, eyes, hair. Between these two branches are peoples occupying an intermediate position. Back in the 1930s, the Soviet ethnographer and doctor of historical sciences N. N. Cheboksarov suggested that southern Caucasoids, intermediate variants and northern Caucasoids are the result of a consistent process of depigmentation of the initially dark-pigmented population. Southern Caucasians are closer to the original type than northern ones.
History of terms
Caucasian race
The scientific term "Caucasoid" (eng. Europoid, German Europide) is formed by combining the word "European" and the suffix "-oid", which means "similar".
caucasian race
Currently the term caucasian in English is one of the official terms for Caucasians (for example, used to indicate race in the IAFD database).
mediterranean race
In the 19th century, in order to avoid the often occurring confusion, the German researcher F. Müller proposed another term - mediterranean race(German Mittellandische Rasse), since the peoples belonging to it reached the height of their development on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This term was then accepted by most ethnologists (Peschel, Helwald and others) and by the end of the 19th century almost supplanted the term Blumenbach in scientific works, but now it is used in this sense as an integral part of the larger Indo-Mediterranean race.
Write a review on the article "Caucasoid race"
Notes
- // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia 1969-1978
- // Big Medical Dictionary
- Caucasian race- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd edition).
- Glushkova V. G., Simagin Yu. A. .
- // Bogatenkov D. V., Drobyshevsky S. V. Anthropology
- Human races, Human races. Retrieved September 30, 2012. .
- Origin of Caucasians., Origin of Caucasians. Retrieved September 30, 2012. .
- // Small Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 4 volumes - St. Petersburg. , 1907-1909.
- Biographical details are in Charles Coulston Gillispie, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 1970:203f s.v. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach.
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
- Caucasian variety - “I have taken the name of this variety from Mount Caucasus, both because its neighborhood, and especially its southern slope, produces the most beautiful race of men, I mean the Georgian ; because all physiological reasons converge to this, that in that region, if anywhere, it seems we ought with the greatest probability to place the autochthones (birth place) of mankind" - Blumenbach J.F. De generis humani varietate nativa.- 3rd ed., 1795, trans. Bendyshe (1865). Cit. e.g. in: | Keith A. Blumenbach's Centenary // Man, 1940.- Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
- Oxford English Dictionary : "a name given by Blumenbach (a1800) to the "white" race of mankind, which he derived from the region of the Caucasus".
- Blumenbach , De generis humani varietate nativa(3rd ed. 1795), trans. Bendyshe (1865). Quoted e.g. in Arthur Keith, Blumenbach's Centenary, Man, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1940).
Links
- (video lecture)
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
An excerpt characterizing the Caucasoid race
“This one, it seems, was Natasha,” Nikolai thought, and this one is m me Schoss; or maybe not, but this is a Circassian with a mustache, I don’t know who, but I love her.- Aren't you cold? - he asked. They didn't answer and laughed. Dimmler was shouting something from the rear sleigh, probably funny, but it was impossible to hear what he was shouting.
“Yes, yes,” answered the voices, laughing.
- However, here is some kind of magical forest with iridescent black shadows and sparkles of diamonds and with some kind of enfilade of marble steps, and some kind of silver roofs of magical buildings, and the piercing squeal of some kind of animals. “And if this is indeed Melyukovka, then it is even stranger that we drove God knows where, and arrived at Melyukovka,” thought Nikolai.
Indeed, it was Melyukovka, and girls and lackeys with candles and joyful faces ran out to the entrance.
- Who it? - they asked from the entrance.
“The counts are dressed up, I can see by the horses,” the voices answered.
Pelageya Danilovna Melyukova, a broad, energetic woman, in glasses and a swinging bonnet, sat in the living room, surrounded by her daughters, whom she tried not to let get bored. They quietly poured wax and looked at the shadows of the coming out figures, when steps and voices of visitors rustled in the front.
Hussars, ladies, witches, payas, bears, clearing their throats and wiping their frost-covered faces in the hall, entered the hall, where candles were hurriedly lit. Clown - Dimmler with the mistress - Nikolai opened the dance. Surrounded by screaming children, mummers, covering their faces and changing their voices, bowed to the hostess and moved around the room.
"Oh, you can't find out! And Natasha is! Look who she looks like! Right, it reminds me of someone. Eduard then Karlych how good! I didn't recognize. Yes, how she dances! Ah, fathers, and some kind of Circassian; right, how goes Sonyushka. Who else is this? Well, consoled! Take the tables, Nikita, Vanya. And we were so quiet!
- Ha ha ha! ... Hussar then, hussar then! Like a boy, and legs!… I can’t see… – voices were heard.
Natasha, the favorite of the young Melyukovs, disappeared together with them into the back rooms, where a cork was demanded and various dressing gowns and men's dresses, which, through the open door, received bare girlish hands from the footman. Ten minutes later, all the youth of the Melyukov family joined the mummers.
Pelageya Danilovna, having disposed of the clearing of the place for the guests and treats for the gentlemen and servants, without taking off her glasses, with a suppressed smile, walked among the mummers, looking closely into their faces and not recognizing anyone. She did not recognize not only the Rostovs and Dimmler, but she could not recognize either her daughters or those husband's dressing gowns and uniforms that were on them.
- And whose is this? she said, turning to her governess and looking into the face of her daughter, who represented the Kazan Tatar. - It seems that someone from the Rostovs. Well, you, mister hussar, in which regiment do you serve? she asked Natasha. “Give the Turk some marshmallows,” she said to the bartender who was scolding, “this is not forbidden by their law.
Sometimes, looking at the strange but funny steps performed by the dancers, who decided once and for all that they were dressed up, that no one would recognize them and therefore were not embarrassed, Pelageya Danilovna covered herself with a scarf, and her whole corpulent body shook from the uncontrollable kind, old woman's laughter . - Sachinet is mine, Sachinet is mine! she said.
After Russian dances and round dances, Pelageya Danilovna united all the servants and gentlemen together, in one large circle; they brought a ring, a rope and a ruble, and general games were arranged.
After an hour, all the costumes were wrinkled and upset. Cork mustaches and eyebrows smeared over sweaty, flushed, and cheerful faces. Pelageya Danilovna began to recognize the mummers, admired how well the costumes were made, how they went especially to the young ladies, and thanked everyone for having so amused her. The guests were invited to dine in the living room, and in the hall they ordered refreshments for the courtyards.
- No, guessing in the bathhouse, that's scary! said the old girl who lived with the Melyukovs at dinner.
- From what? asked the eldest daughter of the Melyukovs.
- Don't go, it takes courage...
"I'll go," Sonya said.
- Tell me, how was it with the young lady? - said the second Melyukova.
- Yes, just like that, one young lady went, - said the old girl, - she took a rooster, two appliances - as it should, she sat down. She sat, only hears, suddenly rides ... with bells, with bells, a sleigh drove up; hears, goes. Enters completely in the form of a human, as an officer, he came and sat down with her at the device.
- BUT! Ah! ... - Natasha screamed, rolling her eyes in horror.
“But how does he say that?”
- Yes, like a man, everything is as it should be, and he began, and began to persuade, and she should have kept him talking to the roosters; and she made money; – only zarobela and closed hands. He grabbed her. It's good that the girls came running here ...
- Well, what to scare them! said Pelageya Danilovna.
“Mother, you yourself guessed ...” said the daughter.
- And how do they guess in the barn? Sonya asked.
- Yes, at least now, they will go to the barn, and they will listen. What do you hear: hammering, knocking - bad, but pouring bread - this is good; and then it happens...
- Mom, tell me what happened to you in the barn?
Pelageya Danilovna smiled.
“Yes, I forgot…” she said. “After all, you won’t go, will you?”
- No, I'll go; Pepageya Danilovna, let me go, I'll go, - said Sonya.
- Well, if you're not afraid.
- Louise Ivanovna, can I have one? Sonya asked.
Whether they played a ring, a rope or a ruble, whether they talked, as now, Nikolai did not leave Sonya and looked at her with completely new eyes. It seemed to him that today only for the first time, thanks to that cork mustache, he fully recognized her. Sonya really was cheerful that evening, lively and good, such as Nikolay had never seen her before.
“So that’s what she is, but I’m a fool!” he thought, looking at her sparkling eyes and a happy, enthusiastic smile, dimpled from under her moustache, which he had not seen before.
"I'm not afraid of anything," said Sonya. - Can I do it now? She got up. Sonya was told where the barn was, how she could stand silently and listen, and they gave her a fur coat. She threw it over her head and looked at Nikolai.
"What a beauty this girl is!" he thought. “And what have I been thinking about until now!”
Sonya went out into the corridor to go to the barn. Nikolai hurriedly went to the front porch, saying that he was hot. Indeed, the house was stuffy from the crowded people.
It was the same unmoving cold outside, the same month, only it was even lighter. The light was so strong and there were so many stars in the snow that I didn’t want to look at the sky, and real stars were invisible. It was black and dull in the sky, it was fun on the ground.
"I'm a fool, a fool! What have you been waiting for until now? Nikolay thought, and, running away to the porch, he walked around the corner of the house along the path that led to the back porch. He knew that Sonya would go here. In the middle of the road stood stacked fathoms of firewood, there was snow on them, a shadow fell from them; through them and from their side, intertwining, the shadows of old bare lindens fell on the snow and the path. The path led to the barn. The chopped wall of the barn and the roof, covered with snow, as if carved from some kind of precious stone, gleamed in the moonlight. A tree cracked in the garden, and again everything was completely quiet. The chest, it seemed, was breathing not air, but some kind of eternally young strength and joy.
From the girl's porch, feet pounded on the steps, a loud creak creaked on the last one, on which snow had been applied, and the voice of the old girl said:
“Straight, straight, here on the path, young lady. Just don't look back.
“I’m not afraid,” Sonya’s voice answered, and along the path, in the direction of Nikolai, Sonya’s legs screeched, whistled in thin shoes.
Sonya walked wrapped in a fur coat. She was already two steps away when she saw him; she saw him, too, not in the same way as she knew and of whom she had always been a little afraid. He was in a woman's dress with tangled hair and a happy and new smile for Sonya. Sonya quickly ran up to him.
"Quite different, and still the same," Nikolai thought, looking at her face, all illuminated by moonlight. He put his hands under the fur coat that covered her head, hugged her, pressed her to him and kissed her lips, over which there were mustaches and which smelled of burnt cork. Sonya kissed him right in the middle of her lips and, holding out her small hands, took his cheeks on both sides.
Lesson Plan
1. What human races do you know?
2. What factors cause the evolutionary process?
3. What influences the formation of the gene pool of a population?
What are human races?
Human predecessors are Australopithecus;
- the most ancient people - progressive australopithecines, archanthropes (pithecanthropes, synanthropes, Heidelberg man, etc.);
- ancient people - paleoanthropes (Neanderthals);
- fossil people of the modern anatomical type - neoanthropes (Cro-Magnons).
The historical development of man was carried out under the influence of the same factors of biological evolution as the formation of other types of living organisms. However, a person is characterized by such a unique phenomenon for wildlife as an increasing influence on anthropogenesis of social factors (labor activity, social lifestyle, speech and thinking).
For a modern person, social and labor relations have become leading and determining.
As a result of social development Homo sapiens has acquired unconditional advantages among all living beings. But this does not mean that the emergence of the social sphere canceled the action of biological factors. The social sphere only changed their manifestation. Homo sapiens as a species is an integral part of the biosphere and a product of its evolution.
These are historically formed groupings (groups of populations) of people, characterized by the similarity of morphological and physiological features. Racial differences are the result of people's adaptation to certain conditions of existence, as well as the historical and socio-economic development of human society.
There are three large races: Caucasoid (Eurasian), Mongoloid (Asian-American) and Australo-Negroid (Equatorial).
Chapter 8
Fundamentals of ecology
After reading this chapter, you will learn:
What does ecology study and why does every person need to know its basics;
- what is the significance of environmental factors: abiatic, biotic and anthropogenic;
- what role do the conditions of the external environment and the internal properties of the population group play in the processes of change in its size over time;
- about different types of interactions of organisms;
- about the features of competitive relations and factors that determine the outcome of competition;
- on the composition and basic properties of the ecosystem;
- about energy flows and the circulation of substances that ensure the functioning of systems, and about the role in these processes
Even in the middle of the XX century. the word ecology was known only to specialists, but now it has become very popular; most often it is used, speaking about the unfavorable state of the nature around us.
Sometimes this term is used in combination with words such as society, family, culture, health. Is ecology really such a vast science that it can cover most of the problems facing humanity?
Kamensky A. A., Kriksunov E. V., Pasechnik V. V. Biology Grade 10
Submitted by readers from the website
