2.3.1 Monitoring pollution sources
The Stockholm Conference (1972) on the environment marked the beginning of the creation of global environmental monitoring systems (GEMS / GEMS), including a system for monitoring the state of atmospheric air. The latter is a complex information system that operates with data on all terrestrial scales and levels, from the global level to the imact levels.
In general, it is convenient to represent the entire air monitoring system in the form of a pyramid, at the very top of which background measurements are carried out in the cleanest places on the planet, thousands of kilometers away from places of active human activity (i.e., global background monitoring is carried out. Below this pyramid is the system regional monitoring, even lower - impact.The last term comes from the English word "impact", which means direct influence (impact).Thus, impact monitoring systems are geographically located in places of active human activity.
The system would be incomplete if it did not include monitoring of emission sources at the enterprises themselves (source monitoring). It was assumed that such observations should be carried out at the enterprises themselves by the services available or being created there, or using external services. In the conditions of a well-established economy and a developed regulatory and legal framework of market countries, the latter rather quickly (although not painlessly!) adapted to control the environmental situation from actually two sides (meaning a combination of control of impact zones and control at the enterprise itself, which, of course, is also included in the impact zone).
Monitoring of sources at Russian enterprises is also carried out by internal services. However, this is not done everywhere, but only at the largest, most advanced enterprises or enterprises of increased danger. Moreover, the recent economic situation has become a major obstacle to the development of in-plant control of emission sources. In reality, the said air monitoring pyramid in Russia turned out to be "hanging in the air." That is why the project of the unified state system of environmental observations (EGSEN) assigns an important place to the monitoring of sources in the overall system of environmental observations.
It is advisable to isolate all possible sources of gas emissions, and direct the collected gases to the appropriate purification and neutralization systems. In this case, not only environmental goals can be achieved, but also a certain economic benefit can be obtained from the recovery of valuable components. In this case, one speaks of organized sources of gas emissions. Unfortunately, not all sources can be isolated; a purposeful outflow of gases through pipes and gas ducts into the treatment process equipment is organized.
Depending on the degree of perfection of production, organized sources in terms of capacity range from 0% (imperfect production) to almost 100% (perfect production). For Russian enterprises, this figure is close to 30% on average. The remaining 70% of gas emissions are dissipated through windows, skylights and other workshop leaks. This creates an unorganized, as a rule, areal release.
According to the geometric features of the sources, they can be divided into point, linear and areal sources. The conditionality of these concepts is obvious. The city, as a source of air pollution, can be considered as a point (on the map). At the same time, it cannot be considered as a point when describing the spread of pollutants over distances on the order of the diameter of the city itself. In this case, the city is an areal source. An example of a linear source is a highway. The concepts introduced are important in modeling the processes of impurity propagation in the atmosphere.
Types of pollutants. Along with the nature of the sources, it is important to take into account the degree of conservatism of 3B. An admixture is considered completely conservative if the substance dispersed in space does not react, is not absorbed by raindrops, does not undergo photochemical transformations, is not adsorbed by soil, etc. Such substances have a very long lifetime in the atmosphere and therefore are transported over long distances by air currents without change. It is believed that if the lifetime of a pollutant exceeds 1 year, then it can be classified as global. Global 3B, being emitted in one place, after a year are so well mixed in the atmosphere that their concentration becomes almost the same. CO2, freons and super-ecotoxicants such as dioxins, dibenzofurans and PCBs can serve as examples of global pollutants. GZV create problems on a planetary scale.
Regional 3Bs either have a shorter lifetime or are emitted in an amount that is significant only within the region, and not the entire planet; they arise as a result of regional human activity and create problems at the regional level.
Local 3Bs have either an even shorter lifetime, or their number is so small that the impact of such 3Bs at the regional level should not be taken into account. The impact of these 3B is significant only in this location. In the vast majority of cases, local environmental committees have to deal with local 3Bs.
Non-conservative 3B undergoing physical and chemical transformations are transformed into other substances and products that may turn out to be either less or more toxic than the original (primary 3B). Secondary substances and products, having different properties than primary ones, find their own geophysical and biological barriers that prevent them from moving in space. For the organization of monitoring (especially complex, when observations are carried out in all environments, including the biotic one), it is very important to detect these barriers, because 3B accumulates precisely on the barriers and in their immediate vicinity. Such an ideology makes monitoring much cheaper, since it opens up a monitoring method that does not require detailed observation of environmental pollution in space and time.
It is known that the effective transport of 3B over long distances in space is carried out mainly through air, even for those substances that have very low partial pressures of their vapors (for example, PCBs, dioxins). However, in this case, the transfer occurs in a state adsorbed on aerosol particles, and barriers (soils, bottom sediments, places of accumulation of mortmass of animal and plant organisms, etc.) become the depositing elements of ecosystems.
Not all 3B should be considered as objects of observation in various monitoring programs, but only priority ones. This is primarily due to the widely differing effects of 3B on human health. Since the monitoring programs discussed in this manual are aimed specifically at preserving human health (the homocentric concept of monitoring), the sanitary and hygienic aspects are the main priority in determining the priority. In general, the methodology for selecting priority substances was demonstrated by a group of experts who prepared the decisions of the already named Stockholm Conference (a group of experts that worked until 1972 in Nairobi). According to this methodology, the determining factors in choosing the priority of substances are the following:
1) the size of the actual or potential impact on human health, climate and ecosystems;
2) tendency of 3B to degradation or accumulation in human tissues and elements of its trophic chains;
3) the possibility of 3B transformation in various environments and systems, as well as the possibility of the formation of secondary 3B that are more toxic or more prone to accumulation in human tissues;
4) mobility 3B;
5) actual or possible trends in 3B concentrations in the environment;
6) frequency of exposure;
7) the possibility of monitoring 3V.
2.3.2 Features of monitoring programs
Let us consider a systematic approach to the analysis of observational data in various monitoring programs and identify what features the factor of the geographical scale of observations introduces into the execution of a particular program.
Source monitoring. The composition of gas emissions in the source is completely determined in qualitative and quantitative terms by technology and its perfection. The levels of 3B concentrations in the source exceed MPCs by tens of thousands of times. The analytical task is not difficult, since the composition is known and quite stable, and the concentration levels are high and do not require pre-concentration of the sample. The weight of the difficulty is associated with taking a representative sample from the source, since gas flows are often heterogeneous, heated to a high temperature and non-uniform in time and diameter of the gas duct. Non-contact methods of analysis that do not require sampling are promising here. This level of monitoring is not covered in this manual.
Impact monitoring. The composition and concentration levels are largely (but not completely) determined by the production technologies that create pollution. In this case, physical and chemical processes in the environment and meteorological conditions begin to play a significant role in creating the observed levels of 3B concentrations. The latter sometimes exceed MPCs by dozens of times. There is a close relationship between the location of sources, their characteristics, wind direction and speed, and 3B concentration fields. Observations are carried out at stationary, mobile and under-torch posts. Stationary posts are equipped with meteorological equipment and devices for monitoring 3-4 priority substances. Mobile posts - laboratories on wheels that serve to clarify the location of stationary posts. Such clarification is required in connection with the dynamism of economic activity and changes in the nature of development. Under-flare posts monitor the spread of emissions from the factory chimneys, reporting cases of critical situations, especially in the conditions of NMU. Such services are also equipped with mobile laboratories.
Regional monitoring. A significant distance from the enterprises leads to the fact that the levels of 3B concentrations are closer to the background, usually within the MPCs or even lower. The analytical task becomes more complicated not only due to the need for preliminary concentration of impurities, but also due to the strong variability of their values and qualitative composition. Monitoring in this case refers to aeroanalytical tasks in which the role of air currents is exceptionally large. It is necessary to take into account all regional activities, including agricultural activities, and it is not easy to establish a direct link between atmospheric pollution and specific technologies. Usually one has to deal with a number of secondary substances resulting from photochemical and biological processes.
Regional monitoring makes it possible to connect the data of the impact and the data of the global background monitoring, and also makes it possible to identify the main ways of spreading 3B over long distances. Direct information about the state of air pollution at the regional level can be obtained from observations in small settlements located far from large cities, provided that there are no sources of air pollution in these points. Information about regional background air pollution is also obtained from data from a network of observation posts for transboundary transport of pollutants.
An indirect indicator of the state of atmospheric pollution can be data on the chemical composition of samples of atmospheric precipitation and snow cover. These data characterize the pollution of the atmospheric layer in which clouds form, gas exchange occurs, and from which precipitation and dry matter fall in the absence of precipitation.
Data on the content of substances in the snow cover are the most important material for assessing regional atmospheric pollution in winter over large areas of the country and identifying the distribution area of pollutants from industrial centers and cities. Chemical analysis of the content of harmful substances is carried out by methods used in the study of either precipitation samples or air samples.
Global monitoring. The growth of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere as a result of industrialization and urbanization processes leads to an increase in the content of impurities at a considerable distance from pollution sources and to global changes in the composition of the atmosphere, which in turn can lead to many undesirable consequences, incl. and to climate change. In this regard, it is necessary to determine and constantly monitor the level of atmospheric pollution far beyond the zone of direct action of industrial sources and the trend of its further changes.
In the 1960s, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) created a worldwide network of stations for monitoring background atmospheric pollution (BATTMon). Its goal was to obtain information on the background concentration levels of atmospheric constituents, their variations and long-term changes, which can be used to judge the impact of human activities on the state of the atmosphere.
The growing severity of the problem of environmental pollution on a global scale led to the creation in the seventies of the United Nations Committee on the Environment (UNEP), which decided to create a Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS), designed to monitor the background state of the biosphere as a whole and in primarily for the processes of its pollution.
Background atmospheric monitoring stations (BAP-MoN stations) are responsible for conducting observations and timely sending the received primary data to the hydrometeorological departments (UGM) and the Main Geophysical Observatory (GTO) named after A.I. A.I. Voeikova.
The UGM is charged with the tasks of ensuring and controlling the operation of background stations, as well as introducing new methods for monitoring the background state of the atmosphere proposed for the network. GGO is a national scientific and methodological center for background atmospheric monitoring within the framework of the BAP-MoN program.
Station placement. Integrated background monitoring stations (ICFM) should be representative of the given region in terms of their landscape and climatic characteristics.
After selecting the area, it is necessary to take into account the sources of pollution available in the area. In the presence of large local sources (administrative and industrial centers with a population of more than 500 thousand people), the distance to the SKFM observation site should be at least 100 km. If this is not possible, then the SCFM should be located in such a way that the repeatability of the air flow, which causes the transfer of pollutants from the source in the direction of the station, does not exceed 20-30%.
The SCFM includes a stationary observation site and a chemical laboratory. The observation site consists of sampling sites, hydroposts and, in some cases, observation wells. At the site, sampling of atmospheric air and precipitation, water, soil, vegetation is carried out, as well as hydrometeorological and geophysical measurements.
A site measuring 50x50 m, on which sampling installations and measuring instruments are located, is called the reference (base) site of the background station. It should be located on a flat area of the landscape with a low degree of horizon closure, away from buildings, forest belts, hills and other obstacles that contribute to the occurrence of local orographic disturbances. The site will be equipped with air sampling units, sediment collectors, gas analyzers, and a standard set of meteorological instruments.
The chemical laboratory of the station is located at a distance of no closer than 500 m from the reference site, the laboratory processes and analyzes that part of the samples that cannot be sent to the regional laboratory: the content of suspended particles (dust), sulfates and sulfur dioxide in the atmospheric air; measurement of pH, electrical conductivity, concentration of anions and cations in atmospheric precipitation.
BAPMON stations - background stations are divided into three categories: base, regional and continental.
Base stations should be located in the cleanest places, in the mountains, on isolated islands. The main task of base stations is to control the global background level of atmospheric pollution, which is not influenced by any local sources.
Regional stations should be located in rural areas, at least 40 km from major sources of pollution. Their purpose is to detect long-term fluctuations in atmospheric components in the station area due to changes in land use and other anthropogenic impacts.
Continental stations cover a wider range of studies than regional stations. They should be located in remote areas so that there are no sources within a radius of 100 km that could affect local pollution levels.
2.3.3 Observation programs at integrated background monitoring stations
At CPM stations, one of the principles of background monitoring is implemented - a comprehensive study of the content of pollutants in ecosystem components. In this regard, the SCFM observation program includes systematic measurements of the content of pollutants simultaneously in all media (see Table 10), supplemented by hydrometeorological data.
The list of substances included in the program is compiled taking into account such properties as their prevalence and stability in the environment, the ability to migrate over long distances, the degree of negative impact on biological and geophysical systems of various levels.
In the atmospheric air, average daily concentrations are to be measured:
1) suspended solids;
3) oxides of carbon and nitrogen;
4) sulfur dioxide;
5) sulfates;
6) 3,4-benz(a)pyrene;
7) DDT and other organochlorine compounds;
8) lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic;
9) indicator of aerosol turbidity of the atmosphere;
In precipitation, the concentrations to be measured in total monthly samples are:
1) lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic;
2) 3,4-benz(a)pyrene;
3) DDT and other organochlorine compounds -RN;
4) anions and cations.
Meteorological observations include observations of:
1) air temperature and humidity;
2) wind speed and direction;
3) atmospheric pressure;
4) cloudiness (amount, shape, height);
5) sunshine;
6) atmospheric phenomena (fog, snowstorms, thunderstorms, dust storms);
7) atmospheric precipitation (quantity and intensity);
8) snow cover (height, moisture content);
9) soil temperature (on the surface and in depth);
10) the condition of the soil surface;
11) radiation (direct, scattered, total and reflected) and radiation balance;
12) gradients of temperature, humidity and wind speed at a height of 0.5-10m;
13) temperature gradients, soil moisture at a depth of 0-20cm;
14) heat balance.
The obligatory program of observations at BAPMON base stations includes observations of sulfur dioxide content, aerosol turbidity of the atmosphere, radiation, suspended aerosol particles, chemical composition of precipitation (Table 2.6).
At regional stations, the observation program includes the measurement of atmospheric turbidity, the concentration of suspended aerosol particles, and the determination of the chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation.
Any observations under the background monitoring program must be accompanied by mandatory meteorological observations. Therefore, it is desirable to carry out background observations on the basis of meteorological stations.
Table 2.6 - List of components to be controlled for SCFM
Discharge of pollutants can be carried out in various environments: atmosphere, water, soil. Emissions to the atmosphere are the main sources of subsequent pollution of waters and soils on a regional scale, and in some cases on a global scale.
In industrial centers, the degree of atmospheric air pollution may in some cases exceed sanitary and hygienic standards. The nature of the temporal and spatial variability of the concentrations of harmful substances in the atmospheric air is determined by a large number of various factors. Knowledge of the patterns of formation of levels of atmospheric air pollution, trends in their changes is essential to ensure the required cleanliness of the air basin. Observations of the state of air pollution serve as the basis for identifying regularities.
The service of observations and control of the state of atmospheric air consists of two systems: observations (monitoring) and control. The first system provides monitoring of atmospheric air quality in cities, towns and territories located outside the zone of influence of specific pollution sources. The second system provides control of sources of pollution and regulation of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere.
Observations of the state of atmospheric air are carried out in areas of intense anthropogenic impact (in cities, industrial and agro-industrial centers, etc.) and in areas remote from pollution sources (in background areas).
Background observations under a special program of background environmental monitoring are carried out in biosphere reserves and protected areas.
Biosphere reserves assess and predict atmospheric air pollution by analyzing the content of suspended particles, lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, benz (a) pyrene, sulfates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide, ozone, DDT and other organochlorine compounds in it . The background environmental monitoring program also includes the determination of the background level of pollutants of anthropogenic origin in all environments, including biota. In addition to measuring the state of atmospheric air pollution, meteorological measurements are also made at background stations.
When monitoring the background levels of atmospheric air pollution, models of the transfer of impurities are developed, and the role of hydrometeorological and technogenic factors in the processes of transfer is determined. At background stations, the following are studied and refined: criteria for creating an observation network, lists of controlled impurities, methods for monitoring and processing measurement data, methods for exchanging information and instruments, methods for international cooperation. Thus, for example, according to international agreements, a baseline and regional monitoring station should be located at a distance of 40-60 km from large sources of pollution on the leeward side. In the territories adjacent to the station, within a radius of 40-400 km, the nature of human activity should not change. It was also determined that air samples should be taken at a height of at least 10 m above the vegetation surface.
At background monitoring stations, atmospheric air quality is monitored by physical, chemical and biological indicators.
The need to organize the control of atmospheric air pollution in the zone of intense anthropogenic impact is determined by preliminary experimental (within 1-2 years) and theoretical studies using mathematical and physical modeling methods. This approach makes it possible to assess the degree of pollution by one or another admixture of atmospheric air in a city or any other settlement where there are stationary and mobile sources of emissions of harmful substances.
In order to obtain representative information on the spatial and temporal variability of air pollution, it is necessary to conduct a preliminary survey of meteorological conditions and the nature of the spatial and temporal variability of air pollution using mobile vehicles. For this, a mobile laboratory is most often used to take and sometimes analyze air samples during stops. This method of examination is called reconnaissance. It is widely used abroad.
A regular grid is applied to the map-scheme of the city (settlement, district) with a step of 0.1; 0.5 or 1.0 km. On the ground, according to a specially developed program of random sampling, samples are taken and analyzed at points coinciding with the nodes of the grid superimposed on the schematic map. To obtain statistically reliable average values of the measured concentrations, the analysis of combinations of points on the grid, united in squares, for example, with an area of 2-4 km 2, is carried out, taking into account wind directions in directions. This method allows you to identify both the boundaries of industrial complexes and nodes, and the zone of their influence. This provides the possibility of comparing the obtained results with the calculated data of mathematical models. The use of modeling methods in these works is mandatory.
If it is found that there is a possibility of an increase in the concentration of an impurity above the established standards, then the content of such an impurity in the identified zone should be monitored. If there is no such probability and there are no prospects for the development of industry, energy and motor transport, the establishment of stationary observation posts for the state of atmospheric air is not advisable. This conclusion does not apply to the organization of observations of the background level of air pollution outside settlements.
Having established the degree of atmospheric air pollution by all impurities emitted by existing sources and those planned for construction and commissioning, as well as the nature of changes in the concentration fields of impurities over the territory and in time, taking into account air pollution maps built based on the results of mathematical and physical modeling, one can begin to develop a scheme placement of stationary observation posts on the territory of the city and the program of their work. The program is developed based on the tasks of each measuring point and the characteristics of the variability of the concentration of each impurity in the atmospheric air.
When placing observation posts, preference is given to residential areas with the highest population density, where cases of exceeding the established threshold values of hygienic indicators of MPC are possible. Observations should be carried out for all impurities whose levels exceed the MPC.
It is mandatory to measure the main, most common air pollutants: dust, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides. The choice of other substances requiring control is determined by the specifics of production and emissions in a given area, the frequency of exceeding the MPC.
An important method for controlling the transboundary transport of global flows of impurities transported over long distances from the place of release is a system of ground and aircraft stations associated with mathematical models of the distribution of impurities. The network of transboundary transfer stations is equipped with systems for sampling gas and aerosols, collecting dry and wet fallouts and analyzing the content of impurities in the samples taken. Information comes to meteorological synthesizing centers, which carry out:
· collection, analysis and storage of information on the transboundary transfer of impurities in the atmosphere;
· forecasting the transfer of impurities based on meteorological data;
· identification of emission areas and sources;
registration and calculation of precipitation of impurities from atmospheric air onto the underlying surface and other works.
For the purpose of comparability of the results of observations obtained in different geographical and temporal conditions, unified unified methods of sampling and analysis of samples, processing and transmission of information are used.
The information received on the observation network is divided into three categories according to the degree of urgency: emergency, operational and regime. Emergency information contains information about abrupt changes in the levels of atmospheric air pollution and is transmitted to the relevant (controlling, economic) organizations immediately. Operational information contains generalized results of observations for a month, and regime information - for a year. Information on the last two categories is transmitted to interested and controlling organizations in the terms of their accumulation: monthly and annually. Regime information, containing data on the average and highest levels of air pollution over a long period, is used in planning measures to protect the atmosphere, setting emission standards, and assessing the damage caused to the national economy by air pollution.
In 2012, monitoring of the state of atmospheric air was carried out at 36 automatic air pollution monitoring stations (ASKZA), which around the clock, in real time, measure the content of 22 pollutants in the atmospheric air, typical for emissions from anthropogenic sources in Moscow, including suspended particles from less than 10 microns and less than 2.5 microns in size (PM10 and PM2.5, respectively) and organic compounds. In 2012, work was completed on the commissioning of the Lyublino ASKZA, temporarily decommissioned in previous years, in the South-Eastern Administrative District of Moscow. Stations are located in all districts, at different distances from the city center and cover various functional areas. Near highways there are 3 stations and 7 stations on the third transport ring, in residential areas - 9, natural - 2, 9 stations are located in residential areas that are directly affected by emissions from industrial enterprises (according to the behavior of the group of "indicator" substances under known weather conditions, significant influence of such enterprises as JSC Gazpromneft-Moscow Oil Refinery, Kuryanovsky and Lyubertsy wastewater treatment plants, CHPP-26, CHPP-21, solid waste landfills in Kozhukhovo and some others). There are two stations outside the city to control the transfer of pollution and a three-level station at the Ostankino television tower (including for analyzing the impact of emissions from tall CHP pipes on the formation of a surface level of pollution). Pollutants typical for emissions from most anthropogenic sources, such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), nitrogen oxide (NO), total hydrocarbon compounds (CH x), ozone (O 3), suspended solids with sizes less than 10 microns and less than 2.5 microns (PM 10 and PM 2.5 respectively), sulfur dioxide (SO 2) is controlled throughout the city, the content of specific substances (H 2 S, NH 3) is controlled near sources, on the third transport ring 16 pollutants are measured (including formaldehyde, phenol, benzene, toluene, styrene, ethylbenzene, etc.).
In terms of the provision of Moscow with automatic stations, controlled parameters, methods and means of control, the Moscow monitoring system also meets the requirements of EU directives (Dir. 2008/50/EC).
Measurements at the stations are carried out in accordance with federal requirements for the uniformity of measurements, instruments are regularly calibrated and verified. Earlier, in 2011, Mosecomonitoring devices passed interlaboratory comparative tests as part of the European Intercalibration of Automatic Instruments for Measuring Ozone, Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxide and Dioxide, and Sulfur Dioxide organized by the Center for Cooperation with WHO under the Federal Environment Agency of the Federal Republic of Germany (laboratories from countries in the WHO European Region took part in the intercalibration).
Data on air pollution from ASKZA are sent in real time to the Unified City Fund for Environmental Monitoring Data (on the server of GPBU "Mosecomonitoring"). The information and analytical center stores, analyzes and processes monitoring data. Work is carried out daily to ensure data quality. Quality assurance activities include quality assurance of measurements (operation of measuring instruments) and daily data quality control (more than 51 thousand indicators per day), annual data ratification.
In addition to measuring the concentrations of pollutants at automatic stations, meteorological parameters are monitored that affect the conditions for the dispersion of harmful impurities. The measurement results are necessary for the analysis of air pollution monitoring data and the development of atmospheric pollution forecasting methods. Wind speed and direction, temperature, pressure and humidity are controlled at all stations. From the Ostankino television tower (high-altitude post), data are received on the temperature and wind profile up to a height of 503 m, as well as pressure, humidity and temperature of the "dew point" at the surface level. The Volna-4 meteorological acoustic radar (sodar) and the MTP-5 temperature profiler were installed, which measure temperature and wind profiles in real time and allow determining the intensity of vertical air mixing and the height of the mixing layer, 9 automatic rain gauges.
The developed software will make it possible to quickly detect violations of the established standards for the permissible content of pollutants in the atmospheric air, and to carry out a statistical analysis of measurement series.
automatic control air monitoring
Regional problems related to the composition of atmospheric air must be considered without interruption from the characteristics of human activity and natural conditions.
Despite the differences in climate, meteorological, natural and landscape conditions, there is much in common in the composition and regularities of atmospheric processes in urbanized regions. This is what makes it possible to discuss the problem from a deterministic standpoint and carry out monitoring, which, as mentioned, consists of three stages: observation, assessment and forecasting of the state of the atmosphere in cities, suburban regions and transition zones between places of active human activity and places of its complete absence.
One of the main pollutants by mass is carbon dioxide. Together with oxygen, it is one of the biogens of the atmosphere, which is mainly controlled by biota. In the XX century. there was an increase in the concentration of CO 2, which increased by almost 25% over the course of a century.
Russia's contribution to carbon emissions into the atmosphere is very large and amounts to about 800 million tons/year, i.e., somewhat less than 13% of the total amount of carbon emitted into the atmosphere. One of the reasons for the increase in the concentration of CO 2 is deforestation - about 50 million tons / year, another reason - the loss of humus on arable land - about 80 million tons / year. In the drained areas, “peat burning” occurs due to the activity of fungi and microorganisms (the drainage area is 6.2 million hectares), but it is difficult to estimate the annual carbon emission. It is also difficult to estimate carbon dioxide emissions resulting from its partial release from cold traps in Russia's wetlands, but the amount can be in the hundreds of millions of tons per year.
The processes taking place in the swampy and waterlogged territories of the North of Russia also contribute to the emissions of another greenhouse gas - methane CH 4, since as a result of anthropogenic impact, the activity of the bacterial "methane filter" in moistened soils is disrupted. Another source of methane is gas leaks from oil and gas wells (mainly in Western Siberia).
An important greenhouse gas (a group of gases) is chlorofluorocarbons, gases of purely anthropogenic origin. Carbon dioxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons provide, respectively, 49%, 19% and 14% of the possible greenhouse effect.
The leading role in greenhouse gas emissions belongs to CO 2 , the main source of which is the energy sector - the combustion of fossil fuels (Fig. 2.1). Some decrease in the share of nitric oxide N 2 0 in the total emission is associated with a decrease in the use of nitrogen fertilizers, due to the economic situation of agricultural producers.
Rice. 2.1. Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases in RF excluding land use, land-use change and forestry
In 123 cities (54.2 million people, which is 52% of the urban population of Russia), the population is exposed to high and very high air pollution, of which 13 subjects (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Astrakhan, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Orenburg, Samara and Sverdlovsk (and Yekaterinburg) regions, Kamchatka and Khabarovsk territories, the Chuvash Republic, the Republic of Khakassia and the Taimyr Autonomous Okrug) - more than 75% of the urban population.
The priority list of Russian cities with very high levels of air pollution (API > 14) in 2012 included 28 cities with a total population of 19.1 million people (Fig. 2.2), and in 2013 - 30 cities with they have 18.7 million inhabitants.
In almost all cities, very high levels of pollution are associated with significant concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene, formaldehyde, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and phenol (Table 2.1).
The Priority List includes three cities with petrochemical and oil refining enterprises, six cities with non-ferrous metallurgy and chemical industry enterprises.
Number of cities (%) where pollution levels are very high (API>14) , high (7-13) . elevated (5-6), low (
Rice.
Table 2.1.The trend of changes in the average concentrations of impurities in the cities of the Russian Federation for the period 2008-2012.
laziness. In many cities, fuel and energy companies and motor vehicles make a decisive contribution to pollution.
Air currents carry pollutants far beyond the boundaries of cities and industrial zones, as a result of which pollutants are found almost everywhere on the territory of Russia. The regional features of background air pollution in Russia correspond to the distribution of population and industry: it is greatest in the European part, and in Siberia and the Far East, as a rule, it is an order of magnitude lower.
In the main part of the territory of Russia, there is no significant distribution of acid precipitation (pH of melt water is usually 5.5-6.0), which falls mainly in the north-west of the European part of Russia - in Karelia and on the Kola Peninsula.
The organization of observations of the level of atmospheric pollution in cities and towns is carried out in accordance with GOST 17.2.3.01 - 86 “Nature Protection. Atmosphere. Rules for air quality control in settlements. Atmospheric pollution levels are monitored post, which is a pre-selected place for this purpose (a point in the terrain), on which a pavilion or a car equipped with appropriate devices is located.
Observation posts three categories are installed: stationary, route and mobile (under-flare).
Stationary post designed to provide continuous recording of pollutant content or regular air sampling for subsequent analysis. Stationary posts are distinguished from fixed posts, which are designed to detect long-term measurements of the content of the main and most common specific pollutants.
Route post is designed for regular air sampling when it is not possible (not practical) to establish a post or it is necessary to study in more detail the state of air pollution in certain areas, for example, in new residential areas.
Mobile (under-torch) post serves for sampling under a smoke (gas) torch in order to identify the zone of influence of a given source of industrial emissions.
Stationary posts equipped with special pavilions, which are installed in pre-selected places. Observations at route posts are carried out using a mobile laboratory equipped with the necessary equipment and instruments. Route posts also installed at pre-selected points. One car travels around 4...5 points per working day. The order in which a car goes around the selected route pestles must be the same, so that the determination of impurity concentrations is carried out at regular intervals. Observations under the torch of the enterprise are also carried out with the help of a specially equipped vehicle. Under-torch posts are points located at fixed distances from the source. They move in accordance with the direction of the torch of the surveyed emission source.
Each post, regardless of category, is located on an open area ventilated from all sides (on asphalt, hard ground, lawn).
Stationary and route posts are organized in places selected taking into account the mandatory preliminary study of urban air pollution by industrial emissions, vehicle emissions, household and other sources, as well as taking into account the study of meteorological conditions for the dispersion of impurities through episodic observations and calculations of fields of maximum concentrations of impurities. In this case, the repeatability of the wind direction over the territory of the city should be taken into account. In certain directions, emissions from numerous enterprises can create a common flare, commensurate with the torch of a large source. If the frequency of such wind directions is high, then the zone of the highest average level of pollution will be formed at a distance of 2...4 km from the main group of enterprises, and sometimes it can be located on the outskirts of the city. To characterize the distribution of the concentration of impurities in the city, the posts must be installed first of all in those residential areas where the highest average levels of pollution are possible, then in the administrative center of the settlement and in residential areas with various types of buildings, as well as in parks and recreation areas. The most polluted areas include the zones of the highest maximum one-time and average daily concentrations. These concentrations are created by industrial emissions. Such zones are located at a distance of 0.5 ... 2 km from low sources of emissions and 2 ... 3 km from high ones. Such concentrations can also create highways of heavy traffic, since the influence of the highway is detected only in the immediate vicinity of it (at a distance of 50 ... 100 m).
Regular observations at stationary posts are carried out according to one of four observation programs: complete (P), incomplete (NP), reduced (SS), daily (D).
1.Full program observations is designed to obtain information on one-time and average daily concentrations. Observations in this case are carried out daily by continuous recording using automatic devices or discretely, at regular intervals, at least four times with mandatory sampling at 1, 7, 13 and 19 hours local standard time.
2. Partial program observations are carried out in order to obtain information on single concentrations daily at 07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 local standard time.
3.According to the reduced program observations are carried out in order to obtain information only on single concentrations daily at 07:00 and 13:00 local standard time. Observations under a reduced program are allowed to be carried out at air temperatures below 45 °C and in places where average monthly concentrations are below 1/20 of the maximum one-time MPC or below the lower limit of the measurement range of impurity concentration by the method used.
It is allowed to conduct observations on a rolling schedule: at 7, 10 and 13 hours - on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, at 16, 19 and 22 hours - on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. Rolling graph observations are designed to provide information on single concentrations.
4. Daily program sampling is designed to obtain information on the average daily concentration. In contrast to the full program, observations in this case are carried out by continuous daily sampling, while obtaining one-time concentration values is excluded. All observation programs provide information on average monthly, average annual and average concentrations over a longer period.
