Science is in a state of constant development. In the course of scientific knowledge, the totality of urgent problems changes, new facts are discovered and introduced into consideration, old theories are discarded and more perfect ones are created. In the very philosophy and methodology of science - the problem of dynamics. If in the lane. floor. XX century, the problems associated with the logical analysis of the scientific language, the structure of the theory, the procedures of deductive and inductive inference prevailed, then from the second. floor. XX century, the turn from logic to history becomes very noticeable. The dynamics of science, the laws and driving factors of its development, the problems of the relationship and commensurability of old and new theories, the relationship between conservatism and radicalism in science, the issues of rational overcoming scientific disagreements and rational transition from one theoretical position to another are the object of the problematic. Cumulativeism- the development of knowledge occurs by gradually adding new provisions to the accumulated amount of knowledge. Proponents of cumulativeism represent the development of scientific knowledge as a simple gradual increase in the number of accumulated facts and an increase in the degree of generality of laws established on this basis. Stephen Toulmin's concept is brought to the fore by a different type of organization of scientific thinking, based on understanding. Understanding is driven by standards and issues. According to Tulmin, a scientist considers understandable those events or phenomena that correspond to the standards he has accepted. Anything that does not fit into the “matrix of understanding is considered an anomaly, the elimination of which (ie, improvement of understanding) acts as a stimulus for the evolution of science. The decisive condition for the survival of certain concepts is the significance of their contribution to the improvement of understanding. Sometimes the model of cumulativeism is explained on the basis of the principle of generalization of facts and generalization of theories; then the evolution of scientific knowledge is interpreted as a movement towards ever greater generalizations, and a change in scientific theories is understood as a change in a less general theory to a more general one. Anti-cumulativeism - assumes that in the course of the development of cognition there are no stable (continuous) and persistent components. The transition from one stage of the evolution of science to another is associated only with the revision of fundamental ideas and methods. The history of science is portrayed by representatives of anti-cumulativeism in the form of an incessant struggle and change of theories, methods, between which there is neither logical nor even meaningful continuity. An example of Thomas Kuhn's model of scientific revolutions. The main concept of this concept is a paradigm, that is, the dominant theory that sets the norm, a model of scientific research in any field of science, a certain vision of the world by scientists. The paradigm is based on faith. The structure of the paradigm: 1. Symbolic generalizations such as Newton's second law, Ohm's law, Joule-Lenz's law, etc. 2. Conceptual models exemplified by general statements of this type: "Heat is the kinetic energy of the parts that make up the body." 3. Value attitudes adopted in the scientific community and manifest themselves in the choice of areas of research, in assessing the results obtained and the state of science as a whole. 4. Samples of solutions to specific problems and problems that inevitably faced, for example, a student in the learning process. Uniqueness begins to come to the fore in the 70s. In works of this kind, first of all, the need to focus attention on a separate event from the history of science that occurred in a certain place and at a certain time is emphasized. The process of individualization of the studied historical events, which began with the advancement of the thinking structure of a certain era as a subject of study, which is radically transforming during the global scientific revolution, ends with situational studies, which are already a direct antipode of cumulative, linear models of the development of science. In historical works of the previous type, the historian strove to study as many facts as possible in order to find something in common in them and, on this basis, to deduce the general laws of development. Now the historian studies a fact as an event, an event of many features of the development of science, converging at one point in order to distinguish it from others. Research is focused not so much on some ready-made fact, the final result of a scientific discovery, but on the event itself, as integral and unique as possible. A small event is taken: it is, as a rule, not the culture of some long period of time in history, not the culture of a large region, no, localized events are studied, such as a separate text, a scientific dispute. The ability to characterize events as a kind of funnel into which both previous events and subsequent events are drawn. Anarchism. Paul Feyerabend was destined to complete the development of the logical-analytical direction in the philosophy of science, which was then still just emerging within the walls of the University of Vienna. 1. The principle of proliferation. every scientist - generally speaking, every person - can invent and develop his own concept. 2. The principle of incommensurability. Theories cannot be compared with each other, protects any concept from external criticism from other concepts. So, if someone has invented a completely fantastic concept and does not want to part with it, then nothing can be done about it: there are no facts that could be opposed to it. There is not a single methodological rule or norm that would not be violated at one time or another by one or another scientist.
The social status of science (N). F-tion of science.
In quality social Yavl N incl. in itself 3 sost. parts: knowledge system; activities for their production; social institution. Some textbooks on philosophy also indicate the status of science as a productive force and as a form of social consciousness. N. as a system of knowledge represents an integral, developing unity of all its constituent elements (scientific facts, concepts, hypotheses, theories, laws, principles, etc.). This system is constantly being updated thanks to the work of scientists. N. as an activity is a specific, organizational process of the production of reliable knowledge, carried out by people specially trained for research - scientists. In other words, science is a form of the spirit-th figure. people, aimed at the production of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and the discovery of objective laws. Science as a system of knowledge is the result of creative, scientific activity. N. as a social institution is a constellation of specific organizations, institutions, unions, schools, creative groups, temporary formations that are engaged in forecasting, organizing, implementing, monitoring research, fixing and disseminating (introducing) scientific knowledge. As a social institution, science emerged in the 17th century. in Western Europe. The decisive reasons for the acquisition of the status of a social institution by science were: the emergence of disciplinary organized science, the growth of the scale and organization of the practical use of scientific knowledge in production; the formation of scientific schools and the emergence of scientific authorities; the need for systematic training of scientific personnel, the emergence of the profession of a scientist, the growth of the authority of science, its transformation into a factor in the progress of society and the formation of scientific activity as a permanent condition of the life of society, its transformation into a relatively independent sphere. The transformation of science into a productive force lies in the ever-expanding trend of interdependence of the development of research, implementation and production activities, in the growth of the economic efficiency of the application of scientific knowledge, in the progressive renewal of equipment and technology based on them, in increasing labor productivity and improving the quality of products. As a form of social consciousness, science is a reflection of reality in the system of knowledge. Functions of science: 1) cognitive- consists in the fact that science is engaged in the production and reproduction of knowledge, which allows a person to navigate in the natural and social world; 2) cultural and worldview- not being a worldview itself, science fills the worldview with objective knowledge about nature and society and thereby contributes to the formation of the human personality as a subject of knowledge and activity; 3) educational fills the educational process meaningfully, i.e. provides the learning process with specific material, science develops methods and forms of education, forms an education strategy based on developments in psychology, anthropology, pedagogy, didactics, and other sciences; 4) practical- this function has acquired a special role in the course of the scientific and technological revolution of the middle of the 20th century, when there is an intensive "learning" of technology and "technization" of science, i.e. science becomes a direct productive force, participating in the creation of modern production, at the same time introducing itself into other spheres of society - health care, means of communication, education, everyday life, forming such branches of science as sociology of management, scientific organization of labor, etc.
Incommensurability of theories is the thesis, according to which it is impossible to determine rational criteria for comparison, comparison of various theories related to the same empirical area. The concept of incommensurability is borrowed from Greek mathematics, where it meant the absence of a general measure. The concept of incommensurability of theories was introduced into the philosophy of science at the beginning. 70s T. Kuhn and P. Feyerabend.
There are two formulations of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories, different in strength and content (respectively, TH1 and TH2). According to TH1, there is no common basis for their comparison that remains in the transition from one theory to another. According to TH2, there are no absolute estimates on the basis of which one could make an unambiguous choice between theories.
TH1 is based on the conviction that the traditional for the philosophy of science concepts of comparing sequential theories are simplified and do not correspond to real scientific practice. The “traditional” concepts of comparing theories were as follows. Let there be two competing theories T1 and T2. El follows from T1, and E2 from T2, where El and E2 are consequences of the theories T1 and T2. Let it be possible to carry out an experiment confirming El and not confirming E2. Based on the result of this experiment, T1 is believed to be correct and T2 is incorrect, and the former is preferred.
TH1 proponents argue that traditional beliefs are based on two incorrect premises. One of them consists in the assumption that the meaning of terms common to two theories is preserved in the transition from one theory to another. Another is the assumption that there is, if not theoretically free, then at least neutral in relation to the theories being compared, the language of observation.
Rejecting the first assumption, supporters of TH1 argue that the meaning of terms does not remain unchanged when fundamental theories change.
TH2 is a weaker version of TH1: the existence of only absolute criteria and assessments is denied. And if TH1 is inadequate to scientific practice, then TH2, with some reservations, is fair: there really are no absolute criteria and evaluations of theories. It makes no sense to pose the question of which of the successively replacing theories is “better” if we use this word in the sense of a greater correspondence of the “best” theory to some abstract ahistorical standard for evaluating theories. The new theory is a deeper, more accurate and specialized reconstruction of reality, and with this in mind, we can talk about progress in the development of scientific knowledge.
Supporters of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories consider not only TH2, but also TH1 to be fair. P. Feyerabekd's position is characteristic in this plak. Recognition as fair TH1 serves as the basis for him to search for extra-empirical standards for evaluating theories. P. Feyrabend points to a number of formal and informal criteria for comparing theories. However, he believes that these claims are largely subjective. Affirming on this basis the inevitability of the transformation of the assessment and selection of theories from a simple procedure into a complex solution based on the struggle of opinions, preferences, etc., Feyerabend concludes that it is impossible to rationalize the process of changing fundamental scientific theories.
INCOMMENDABILITY OF THEORIES(in the philosophy of science) - the thesis according to which it is impossible to define rational criteria for comparison, comparison of various theories related to the same empirical area. The concept of incommensurability is borrowed from Greek mathematics, where it meant the absence of a general measure. Segments of a certain length were considered commensurable if there was some common measure of their comparison. Not all line segments are commensurable: the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side. In the philosophy of science, the concept of incommensurability of theories was introduced at the beginning. 70s T. Kuhn and P. Feyerabend. The authors of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories drew attention to the fact that successively replacing each other fundamental scientific theories, describing the same circle of empirical data, proceed from different ontological assumptions, operate with the same name, but different in meaning, put in the center of research activity different problems. At the same time, adherents of the old and new paradigms use different criteria for evaluating and selecting theories (these criteria turn out to be paradigmically dependent), which raises the question: is it possible (and if so, how) to compare and choose between theories?
There are two formulations of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories, different in strength and content (respectively, TH1 and TH2). According to TH1, there is no common basis for their comparison that remains in the transition from one theory to another. According to TH2, there are no absolute estimates on the basis of which one could make an unambiguous choice between theories.
TH1 is based on the conviction that the traditional for the philosophy of science concepts of comparing sequential theories are simplified and do not correspond to real scientific practice. The "traditional" views on the comparison of theories were as follows. Let there be two competing theories T1 and T2. From T1 follows E1, from T2 - E2, where E1 and E2 are consequences of the theories T1 and T2. Let it be possible to carry out an experiment that confirms E1 and does not confirm E2. Based on the result of this experiment, T1 is believed to be correct and T2 is incorrect, and the former is preferred.
TH1 proponents argue that traditional beliefs are based on two incorrect premises. One of them consists in the assumption that the meaning of terms common to two theories is preserved in the transition from one theory to another. Another is the assumption that there is, if not theoretically free, then at least neutral in relation to the theories being compared, the language of observation.
Rejecting the first assumption, supporters of TH1 argue that the meaning of terms does not remain unchanged when fundamental theories change. Reference is made to such examples as the change in the meaning of the concepts "mass", "length", "time interval", etc. in the transition from classical mechanics to the special theory of relativity (SRT) or the change in the meaning of such fundamental concepts of classical physics as "coordinate", "momentum", etc., in the transition to quantum. In SRT, the concept of mass acquires such a property that the corresponding concept in classical physics did not have: dependence on speed; the concepts of coordinate and momentum in quantum mechanics are so different from the concepts of the same name in classical mechanics that they can be consistently applied only in an additional way.
Changing the meaning of concepts creates problems of two kinds. One of them belongs to the field of the psychology of science. The non-invariance of the meaning of the same (by name) terms complicates mutual understanding between adherents of different paradigms, and therefore the question of communication between them becomes nontrivial. Another problem is epistemological and concerns the comparison of theories, the impossibility of which is precisely stated in TH1. Many researchers noted, however, that, contrary to the opinion of the supporters of TH1, the change in the meaning of concepts is not an obstacle to comparing theories. If, following G. Frege, a distinction is made between the meaning (intensionality) and the referent (extensionality) of the term, the problem becomes solvable. In establishing the relationship of contradiction between the consequences of theories, which is required for the choice between theories, the stability of meaning is not necessary. If two theories have overlapping areas of applicability (in the case of two successive theories, this condition is satisfied), then, despite the change in the meaning of common terms, the consequences of these theories can be compared due to the fact that the terms have a common reference. Another difficulty - the absence of a language of observation that is neutral with respect to successively replacing theories - is really real due to the fact that these theories are used in the interpretation of an experimental result, which is intended to play the role of a test result in relation to them. In a number of works, however, it was shown that there is a layer of empirical data in cognition, which, being theoretically loaded, nevertheless turns out to be neutral in relation to the theories being compared, since other, different from the compared theories, participate in its interpretation. It is capable of playing the role of an observation language that is neutral in relation to the theories being compared.
Thus, TH1 is too strong to correspond to the real process of cognition. Contrary to the assertions of the supporters of TH1, there is a possibility of comparing theories already on an experimental basis. The incompleteness and ambiguity of such a comparison is partly compensated by the use of various non-empirical considerations, for example. comparative simplicity or various aesthetic considerations.
TH2 is a weaker version of TH1: the existence of only absolute criteria and assessments is denied. And if TH1 is inadequate to scientific practice, then ΤΗ2 is valid with some reservations: there really are no absolute criteria and evaluations of theories. It makes no sense to ask which of the successive theories is “better” if we use this word in the sense of a greater correspondence of the “best” theory to some abstract ahistorical standard for evaluating theories. The new theory is a deeper, more accurate and specialized reconstruction of reality, and with this in mind, we can talk about progress in the development of scientific knowledge. But, while remaining within the framework of scientific knowledge itself, it is impossible to indicate an unambiguous criterion of progress - for this, it is necessary to enter the field of the relationship between theories and practical activities of people taken in their historical development.
Supporters of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories consider not only TH2, but also TH1 to be fair. P. Feyerabend's position is characteristic in this regard. Recognition as fair TH1 serves as the basis for him to search for extra-empirical standards for evaluating theories. P. Feyrabend points to a number of formal and informal criteria for comparing theories. However, he believes that these claims are largely subjective. Affirming on this basis the inevitability of the transformation of the assessment and selection of theories from a routine procedure into a complex solution based on the struggle of opinions, preferences, etc., Feyerabend concludes that it is impossible to rationalize the process of changing fundamental scientific theories. In modern literature, this conclusion is subject to thorough criticism.
Literature:
1. Kuhn T. The structure of scientific revolutions. M., 1975;
2. Porus V.N. Actual problems of the analysis of "scientific revolutions". - In the book: Analytical reviews of foreign literature. M., 1983, p. 7-40;
3. Feyerabend P.K. Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism. - Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science: Scientific Explanation, Space and Time. Minneapolis, 1962, vol. 3, p. 28-97;
4. Putnam H. Mind, Language and Reality. Philosophical Papers, vol. 2. Cambr., 1979.
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ENERGYECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
The purpose of this study was to develop theoretical and - methodological foundations of energy-economic assessment of costs associated with the production of agricultural products.
This problem attracts the attention of many foreign scientists, including G.<...>Karl Marx saw the commensurability of the fertility of the land, as a productive force, with the invested material<...>Economic problems of stabilization and development of the agroindustrial complex of Russia. M.,. 1995. 1 pp ... 3.<...>Problems and prospects for the development of agricultural mechanization. In the book.<...>Actual problems of scientific and technological progress in the agroindustrial complex. M.
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The analytical materials presented in this article on the implementation of social projects of Gazprom transgaz Stavropol show that the social component of the company's activities is diverse and multifaceted. and cultural programs. At the general meeting of shareholders of OAO Gazprom, serious tasks were set in the field of gas production and transportation. It is impossible to solve them without paying attention to the social sphere of activity, therefore the human worker is the basis for fulfilling these tasks and creating conditions for effective work will allow the company to implement the economic and social policy.
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex 3/2015 36 UDC 658.386.4<...> <...>Agency Book-Service "Copyright OJSC" Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Problems<...>Their topics are diverse: "The problem of water and the rational use of water resources", "The problem of energy consumption<...>"," Waste problem "," Global warming ", etc.
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The relevance of energy saving and energy saving in buildings is beyond doubt. The transition to a market economy is accompanied by significant increases in fuel and energy prices, as well as rising operating costs. The experience of a number of countries in the renovation of existing buildings shows that the maximum efficiency of energy saving measures is achieved if the design solutions are based on the following principles: complexity (technical), optimality (economic) and balance (environmental)
The "moisture problem" is the main problem in the application of effective thermal insulation in multilayer<...>The misconception that the "moisture problem" only concerns reflective insulation is rather a result of
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The article contains an analysis of approaches to the formation of a unified terminology and the experience of classifying innovations in the field of management. An approach to the definition of managerial innovations is proposed, options for their typology are considered
the essence of managerial innovations, as well as options for grouping, "clustering", are closely related to the problem<...>The classification constructed in this way includes a number of problematic innovative situations ("the problem of choice<...>the nature of growth "," the problem of forming a strategy and structure based on self-organization "," the problem<...>Administrative innovations in the USA: the problem of implementation / Ed. Yu. A.
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Theory and practice of forming a responsible attitude of schoolchildren to nature in the process of teaching biology
M .: PROMEDIA
S. 2-13; Philosophical problems of the global ER logni. M., 1983. Monoszon E.I ..<...>School and problems of nature conservation. M., 1981; Sidelkovsky A.P.<...>Problems of methods of teaching biology. M., 1974; B.V. Vsesvyatsky<...>Problems of biology didactics. M., 1969; Myagkova A.N., Komissarov B.D.<...>progress; the third (1516 years) problem of controlled evolution; the fourth (16-17 years old) problem of the poosphere.
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Historical mindsets and engineering
M .: PROMEDIA
statement of the problem, but not enough to solve it "" "..<...>Scientific interest in the problem of -needs-originated-still-in-deep antiquity. "<...>the process of philosophical comprehension-problem.<...>Problems and contradictions with which the subject of irimbe?<...>* I-42, 2, Way of thinking of the era and engineering activity (experience of formulating a problem).
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M .: PROMEDIA
<...> <...> <...> <...>
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The development of the pedagogical creativity of the future teacher in the process of studying the course of computer science. author. dis. ... Cand. ped. sciences
Various aspects of this problem are highlighted in the works of A.S. Belkin, E.I.Boyko, Yu.N. Kuljutkin, V.A. Slastenin<...>The research problem is to find ways to overcome the contradiction between the increased needs of society<...>The relevance and professional significance of the problem under consideration, its insufficient theoretical and<...>A theoretical and empirical basis for further research on related problems has been created.<...>The first chapter "Development of pedagogical creativity of the future teacher as a pedagogical problem" consists of
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Psychological views of Alexander Fedorovich Lazursky
M .: PROMEDIA
Useful information on this issue is contained in the works of S.L. Rubinstein, who analyzed the problems<...>Taking into account the above, the choice of the research topic was made, the problem of which was formulated as follows:<...>The solution to this problem is the goal of the study.<...>In accordance with the problem, object, subject and purpose of the study, the following tasks were formulated<...>Considering the solution of the problem of methods of psychology a necessary condition for the stage of formation of a new branch of science
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EXCHANGE OF СО2 GENOTYPES OF SOY, DIFFERENT IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC CHARACTERISTICS AND PRODUCTIVITY ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE FOR BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE AZERBAIJAN SSR
The aim of this work was to study carbon dioxide gas exchange, daily and ontogenetic dynamics, as well as its components in leaves of different soybean genotypes, differing in photosynthetic traits and productivity, in connection with the formation of crop yield under different growing conditions.
<...>a chemical conference on the topic "Chemistry and Agriculture" (Baku, 1989); at the All-Union meeting on the topic "Problem<...>Matln Zsssouzp. ksny. on the topic "The problem of nitrogen in the intensive land of delia".
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M. Bakhtin's Solution
The book contains an analysis of the main philosophical, methodological and literary-aesthetic ideas that make up the core of the scientific heritage of Mikhail Bakhtin, a well-known Russian philologist and thinker of the 20th century. The author examines the connection between M. Bakhtin's discoveries and phenomenological and neo-Kantian traditions, examines the key concepts of Bakhtin's heritage: dialogism, monologism, polyphony, carnivalization, polyphony, ambivalence, official and laughing culture, chronotope, one's own and someone else's word. Particular attention is paid to the problems of metalinguistics and speech activity. At the same time, A. Pankov draws attention to the paradoxes and dilemmas that arise in the concept of M. Bakhtin in connection with the address of the latter to issues requiring a systematic approach. In this regard, little-known concepts of Russian methodologists who were actively working in the 50-80s in the field of the General Theory of Activity (works by G.P. Shchedrovitsky and others) are used to interpret the theoretical material. An essential place is given to Bakhtin's understanding of genres, "poetic language", and the history of the novel. The book talks about the artistic perception of the world as a subject of literary research and the role of literary criticism in the processes of the reproduction of literary activity. Particular attention is paid to the category "reflection" and "reflexive" motives in the work of M. Bakhtin. The originality of Bakhtin's view of the medieval culture and work of Dostoevsky is revealed.
with the problems of peda gogy ...<...>Obviously, in terms of system access, the problem of "out-of-access" can be interpreted as a problem<...>In the article "Text problem ..."<...>Here is the problem of the historian-observer, and the problem of sociological ontology, which works when considering<...>(Problems of lexicology.
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NITROGEN ROTATION PROCESSES IN THE SOIL - PLANT SYSTEM AND THE EFFICIENCY OF THEIR REGULATION BY AGROCHEMICAL METHODS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
M .: ALL-RUSSIAN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE UD
Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the processes of transformation and interaction of nitrogen fertilizers with soil and plants, development and theoretical substantiation of methods for agrochemical regulation of nitrogen circulation as a condition for effective and environmentally balanced use of fertilizers
Copyright OJSC "CDB" BIBCOM "& LLC" Agency Book-Service "GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK Urgency of the problem<...>in the environment "(Pushchino, 1989)," The problem of nitrogen in intensive agriculture "(Novosib1grsk, 1990),<...>5 that the degree of mineralization of azoe of microbial biomass and oat biomass with a narrow C: N ratio is comparable<...>the lily equation of the relationship between the difference and isotopic coefficients in a large array of variables is comparable<...>estimated by the dynamics of changes in its reserves, as well as plant material with a narrow ratio C: N (8-15) is comparable
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GOOD speech is the most important condition for the full development of children. The richer and more correct a child's speech is, the easier it is for him to express his thoughts, the wider his possibilities are in cognizing the surrounding reality, in communicating with peers and adults, the more actively his mental development is carried out. Therefore, it is so important to pay attention in time to the formation of the child's speech, to its purity and correctness, preventing and correcting various speech disorders.
Of course, during the implementation of this program, problems arose and it was not always possible to solve them, however<...>A huge problem is the lack of communication.<...>"The problem of tolerance and other issues raised have nothing to do with the emergence of a new subject",<...>According to him, the problem raised by the proposed course is serious, but it must be solved differently.
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The article substantiates the mechanism of endogenous salt release. Salt strata of rocks of different geological periods and their tectonic intrusions in the form of salt domes and stocks are predominantly endogenous. They occur as a result of crystallization of deep salt-saturated solutions erupting through crustal faults and dislocation of the sedimentary cover through gas "fistulas". Brines are formed due to the inflow of surface water into the semi-melting zone of gas-saturated rocks of the asthenollens, which is associated with crustal depressions and a large river runoff.
Gubkin noted back in 1937 that “the problem of salt domes is one of the most difficult and confusing
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According to Ronaldo Coase, pollution producers are interested in minimizing their internal costs, and they usually ignore external, external costs. The article proposes a mechanism for internalizing externalities and coordinating the interests of subsoil users and the state on the issue of well abandonment.
A special case of negative externalities: the problem of well abandonment * Special case of negative externalities<...>The solution to the problem lies in the field of internalization of externalities - this is the process of including externalities in the market<...>The first to identify the existence of the problem of implementation was a graduate student of the Financial University under the Government<...>In his work, he considered the solution to the problem of external externalities in the dichotomy of the views of Arthur Cecil<...>Resolving the problem of liability for past environmental damage, including for wells
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M .: PROMEDIA
Assessment of the market value of a business.
Actual problems of modern science, № 1, 2011 15 Bachurin A.P., candidate of technical sciences, associate professor Dadugin<...>Domestic researchers on the problems of business valuation include V.V. Grigoriev, Ostrovkin<...>Copyright OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBKOM "& LLC" Agency Book-Service "Actual problems of modern science, No. 1<...>"Problems of Economics" No. 1 (35), Publishing House "Sputnik +", 2010 - pp. 57-59 8.<...>Azgaldova "The Problem of Assessment Coordination and Its Possible Solution" / Assessment Issues, 1999, No. 4 12. O.
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The article provides a literary review of the work of Y. Trifonov "Time and Place
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ESTIMATION OF THE QUALITY OF Sperm of Boars SUBJECTED TO ONE TIME TOTAL GAMMA IRRADIATION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE FOR BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
ALL-UNION ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF LIVESTOCK
The aim of our work was to study in time the quality of the seed of breeding boars of the Large White and Landrace breeds after their single total gamma irradiation in doses of 100, 200, 300 and 400 R at a radiation power of 100 R / h and an energy of 0.66 MeV.
This work is related to the problem of sustainability of livestock management in a radiation environment.<...>researches were reported at the 42nd 43rd scientific and methodological conferences of graduate students and young scientists on the topic "Problem<...>semennikov kryakov / / Abstracts of the reports of the 43rd scientific and methodological conference of graduate students and young scientists "Problems
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Expressive movements of students and their psychological classification
M .: PROMEDIA
Many reputable researchers of the problem of expressive movements note a great paradise between practical<...>First, the problem is its poor performance.<...>dyvali, debated and were presented at the republican scientific and practical conference di "Problems<...>set out in 128 pages of typewritten text, including 4 1 introduction, 2 three, chapters: chapter one "Problem<...>In the book: Problems of personality formation in collective activity and communication.
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Arsenal of education: characteristics, preparation, design of educational publications (monograph. - M .: Kniga, 1986. - 288 p.)
M .: PROMEDIA
In the 70s and 80s in the USSR, more than 98 dissertations were defended on the problems of textbooks.<...>The problem of formulating its principles is now one of the most important;<...>Kraevsky "The problem of scientific substantiation of education" (1977), I.K. Zhuravleva, L. Ya. Zorina.<...>The study of the problem is generalized by defining a group of criteria for the quality of educational books.<...>School textbook problems. Issue 5-2. M .: Enlightened, 1974.-27 A.L. (comp.).
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AGROPHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL BASES OF INCREASING YIELD AND FERTILITY OF SODDY-PODZOLY SOILS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
AGROPHYSICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
The purpose of the research. To establish the agrophysical and biological foundations for increasing the productivity of crops and the fertility of automorphic sod-podzolic soils in field crop rotations. The main tasks of research 1. To identify agrophysical and biological criteria and to establish indicators of changes in the fertility of sod-podzolic soils. 2. To develop an ecologically adapted and resource-saving field crop rotation for the production of crop products and increase the fertility of sod-podzolic soils of automorphic moistening.
General characteristics of the work Relevance of the problem.<...>chemical ameliorants in agroecosystems "M., Moscow State University, 1997; International scientific and practical conference "Problem<...>Moisture content in the full soil profile The problem of fertility is considered by us exclusively in relation to<...>"Problems of nature protection in the Non-Chernozem zone in connection with the intensification of agricultural production<...>Problems of nature protection in the Non-Chernozem zone in connection with the intensification of agricultural production
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The introduction of modern technologies for diagnostics, treatment, prevention of various diseases, the level of satisfaction of the population with the quality of medical services provided do not go beyond negative assessments, as evidenced by the results of sociological studies conducted by VTsIOM, Levada Center, the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, as well as at the initiative of the authors of the article ... Based on the theoretical approaches of sociologists to the study of the peculiarities of the functioning of social institutions of modern society, the authors point out as one of the main reasons for the paradoxical development of the institute of medicine in Russia at the present stage, the instability of patient confidence in its main actors and structures. The article examines the types of trust in medicine and the factors influencing their formation, among which the authors indicate as the key the social status of a doctor in modern Russian society, his economic and legal status, stereotyping of public consciousness by the media and the creation of a negative image of a medical worker. as well as the lack of health-preserving behavior among the population. Particular attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal trust, which, according to the authors, is a key determinant in the formation of relations in the doctor-patient system in modern conditions of the transformation of the hierarchical structure of social interactions into a linear one, which is due to the objective processes of further informatization of society.
Particular attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal trust, which, according to the authors, is key.<...>60%), ... every fifth of the respondents who called an ambulance encountered certain problems.<...>Analysis of sociological data shows that, along with problems in organizing the work of medical<...>in almost 80% of cases, emergency doctors are forced not only to deal with a specific problem<...>Trust issue. M .: Idea-press; 2002. 12. Freik N.V. The concept of trust in P.
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THE USE OF NUTRITIONAL SUBSTANCES OF DIETS CONTAINING NITRATES BY NON-BODIES AND HEALING COWS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF VITAMIN C ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
The purpose and objectives of the research. The purpose of this work is to study the effect of ascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate on the possibility of reducing the negative effect of nitrates contained in feed on the absorption of nutrients in rations, productivity and some indicators of reproduction in animals.
All-Union Conf. young scientists and specialists "Problems of milk production and processing".<...>"Problems of nitrogen metabolism". Volgograd, 1990.S. 28-29. 3.<...>"The problem of nitrates in animal husbandry and veterinary medicine." 1 Kiev, 1990, 4. Buryakov N.P., Skoblin V.G.
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Systematization and consolidation of students' knowledge in the process of solving problems in the study of vectors in the course of high school planimetry
M .: PROMEDIA
Analysis of psychological, pedagogical and methodological literature on the problem of assimilation of knowledge, observation<...>To solve the set tasks, the following Methods were used: theoretical study of the problem; analysis<...>scientific and methodical literature on the problem under study; monitoring the work of teachers and students<...>literature on the problem under consideration.<...>Problems of the psyche of memory. M., 1966. C. I92.
Preview: Systematization and consolidation of students' knowledge in the process of solving problems when studying vectors in the course of high school planimetry.pdf (0.3 Mb)25
AGROECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF NITROGENERALIZING CAPACITY OF WATERING IN THE MOSCOW REGION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE FOR BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
M .: MOSCOW AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K.A.TIMIRYAZEV
Research goals and objectives. The aim of this work was to assess the possibility of using the value of the nitrogen-mineralizing capacity of soils (AMC) to solve the problems of ecological-agro-geochemical monitoring and to identify the factors that determine the quantitative changes in the pool of mobile nitrogen using the example of various agricultural and natural landscapes of the Moscow region.
Successful solution of the problem of rational use of natural nitrogen resource, including its ecological<...>The research results were reported at the All-Union conference "Problems of rational use<...>and environmental protection "(Minsk, 1990); All-Union meeting" The problem of nitrogen in intensive agriculture<...>on the level of mineralization of nitrogen-containing organic compounds // Physico-chemical and ecological problems
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SUBSTANTIATION OF PARAMETERS OF THE LEVELING WORKING BODY OF THE RIPPER-LEVELING UNIT ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES
UZBEK RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF MECHANIZATION AND ELECTRIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE
The purpose of the research. Substantiation of the shape and parameters of the leveling working body of the ripper-leveler for pre-sowing soil cultivation.
Determination of the height of the extruded & the outer // Collection of scientific papers of the international scientific-project conference "Problem
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Loneliness and alienation in adolescence and adolescence
M .: PROMEDIA
The conducted study of the problem of alienation is based on the following, put forward by us, the provisions<...>In the second chapter "Methods of researching the problem" Alienation and loneliness in adolescence and youth<...>Socio-psychological problems of mentality. Smolensk, 1993.S. 11 2) Dolginova 0.B.<...>Actual problems of social psychology and pedagogy.<...>Socio-psychological problems of mentality. Smolensk, 1996.S. 125-128 1 GOS. RIGHT.
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The value aspect of the historical development of the individual
M .: PROMEDIA
The problem of values is not a recent invention.<...>One of the first major works devoted to the problem of values was the monograph published in 1960<...>"., 1903, p.23. 2. Chag1.l BL The problem of value and evaluation in the light of the works of K. Marx, V. Engels, I." !.<...>Lenin, In the book: The problem of value in philosophy ~:. , 1966, p. 13.<...>In this collective work, the problem of values is considered from various positions of the social-philosophical
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Cross-cultural study of aggressive behavior in adolescents in Russia and Yemen
M .: PROMEDIA
The urgency of the problem is due to the increase in the number of adolescents with antisocial orientations, with a high<...>and empirical research on various aspects of the problem under study.<...>In Russian psychology and criminology, special attention is paid to the problem of aggression.<...>The approach to the problem of personality from the point of view of the system of relations, presented by Myasishchev V.N., 1994 and<...>Aggressive behavior and its causes in adolescents // Problems of psychology. No. 2.
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Interdisciplinary connections in teaching physical geography
M .: PROMEDIA
Some questions of this problem have been studied in a number of Candidate-Danish dissertations-1.<...>At the second stage, the main ways of solving the problem were outlined, a training experimental<...>The main provisions of the dissertation research were reported at the All-Union conference on the problem<...>In the first chapter "The problem of interdisciplinary connections in pedagogy and teaching methods of geography"<...>p e d m e t about in; development of the age-related aspect of this problem; with s t and in l e
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Psychological foundations of intellectual activity
M .: PROMEDIA
Problems of heuristics "," High school ", I., 1969.-е.152173.<...>"Problems of psychological diagnostics", Tallinn, 1977. p. 67 -83. fourteen . 0 paths to creativity.<...>"The problem of activity in Soviet psychology", part I, I., 1977. p. 1 1 2 1 2 0. 16 .<...>Methodological and methodological problems of the study of goal-setting.<...>Methodological problems ", Yaroslavl University Publishing House, 1986. p. 3 6 4 2. 3 1.
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The motivational component of psychological readiness to choose a profession in early adolescence (on the example of the profession of a foreign language teacher)
M .: PROMEDIA
Chapter I "The problem of psychological readiness to choose a profession in early adolescence * includes<...>three paragraphs devoted to the theoretical analysis of the problem of psychological readiness to choose<...>Analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem / M. I. Dyachenko, L. A. Kandybovich, 1976; V.G. Podmarkov<...>CDB "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" Our research included the following stages; I / problem study<...>Actual psychological and pedagogical problems of foreign language teacher training. Bitter.
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The article presents the results of the analysis of the works of the late XIX - first quarter of the XX century, devoted to the problems of social hygiene. It has been established that the emergence of social hygiene was directly related to a radical revision of ideas about the causes and essence of diseases, which created the necessary conditions for the transfer of ideas and methods of political economy, sociology and eugenics to medicine. It is proved that the emergence of social hygiene was a natural consequence of those cardinal changes in the mass medical consciousness that characterize the scientific revolution in medicine in the last quarter of the 19th - first half of the 20th century.
Russia The article presents the results of the analysis of the works of the late XIX - first quarter of the XX century, devoted to the problems<...>For citation: Problems of Social Hygiene, Public Health, and the History of Medicine. 2015; 23 (6): 14-18<...>Single attempts to draw the attention of colleagues to the problems of socio-economic Copyright OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBCOM<...>"The problem of the constitution," wrote T.<...>Problems of social hygiene, health care and the history of medicine. 2015; 3: 49-56. 14. Bogomolets A.A.
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Formation of psychological readiness of the curator of the academic group for educational work
M .: PROMEDIA
JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Agency Book-Service G; OEDAYA CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK AND LL \ urgency of the problem<...>Unfortunately, the problem of preparing the teacher!<...>At the same time, the problem of the formation of psychological readiness and pedagogical activity and future<...>The analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem of readiness for pedagogical activity showed<...>In the book: Psychological pedagogical problems of motivation for educational and work activities: Abstracts. report all-union
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ECONOMIC ISSUES OF IMPROVING WORKING CONDITIONS OF MECHANIZERS IN CONNECTION WITH TECHNICAL PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE AUTHOR'S ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M .: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND THE ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV
Objectives: 1. To reveal from the Marxist-Leninist point of view the main theoretical issues in the study of working conditions. Define and disclose the content of working conditions. 2. To reveal the influence of scientific and technological progress on the working conditions of machine operators, taking into account the peculiarities of agricultural production. 3. Consider the main methodological points in assessing the economic efficiency of improving the working conditions of tractor drivers. 4. Determine the main ways to increase labor productivity and the objectivity of social production in connection with the reduction of losses of working hours while improving the conventional labor of machine operators.
... :, "" "..." "." ". The economic aspects of the problem of improving working conditions in recent years have attracted<...>The relevance of the problem and its socio-economic significance for socialist agricultural<...>Abstracts of reports and scientific and technical coy ^ erenpai SO VASYASH a CaSJSO "The problem of rational use
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INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF MOLYBDENUM POLISHING ON THE CROP AND QUALITY OF GRAIN OF PEA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
INSTITUTE OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UKRAINIAN SSR
The aim of the work was to study the effect of molybdenum on the yield and quality of pea grain on meadow-chernozem podzolized soil with different methods of its use / pre-sowing enrichment of seeds, row application of molybdenized superphosphate, foliar feeding of plants with a solution of ammonium molybdenum /.
All-Union interuniversity meeting on the problem: "Trace elements and natural radioactivity".<...>"The problem of nitrogen and harvest in Polesie". / In print, in collaboration with A. Pechura, V. Ivchenko /.
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AGROCHEMICAL JUSTIFICATION OF THE USE OF FRESH PHOSPHORITES OF THE SYUNDYUKOVSKY DEPOSIT FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS ON THE EXTRACTED CHERNOZEMS OF THE TATAR ASSR ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
M .: ALLOYOZNAYA ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES NAMED AFTER V.I.LENIN
The purpose of the research was to identify the feasibility of using raw-ground phosphorite from the Sindyukovskoye deposit on the leached chernozems of the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
conference "Biology in agriculture" (Kazan, IS87), All-Union at the scientific and technical conference "Problems<...>Abstracts of the All-Union Scientific and Technical Conference "The problem of soil fertility of soil in conditions
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MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF PIG KIDNEY CELLS IN VITRO TO THE INTRODUCTION OF ALIEN GENETIC MATERIAL ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE FOR BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF LIVESTOCK BREEDING
The aim of our work was to find and develop an optimal method for genetic transformation of the cell culture of domestic animals, taking into account their morpho-physiological response to the introduction of foreign nucleic acid molecules.
When solving * this problem, researchers are faced with "the problem of using those or other methods<...>- "BIZ. 1990. at the All-Union" meeting "The problem of the development of biotechnology in animal husbandry." -.<...>cells of agricultural animals "// Abstracts of the All-Union Scientific and Technical Meeting" Problems
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M .: PROMEDIA
YosledovAnad advice of teachers and psychologists on the Problem of preparation, * (^ ov “and“ uy№rAVl * yYa<...>The solution to this problem is the goal of the study.<...>The problem, subject and object of research determined the following tasks: 1.<...>During this period, there was a creative comprehension of the problem, an analysis of its current state.<...>The conducted research makes a certain contribution to the solution of the Problem of improving aesthetic educationThe first works on the problem of creativity / N. A. Berdyaev, F. A.<...>The worldview nature of the problem of creativity, like any other problem, is determined by the degree of its<...>The solution to the problem of creativity is logically connected with the solution of a number of philosophical problems / problems<...>Since most often the problem of subjective psychological factors of creativity is associated with the problem<...>I in the study associates with the problem of the creative potential of the individual. ^ Analysis of the first problem leads
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PROBLEMS OF WOMEN'S LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT IN THE VILLAGE IN THE CONDITIONS OF FORMATION OF A MARKET ECONOMY ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
Moscow: ALL-RUSSIAN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ECONOMY, LABOR AND AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
The aim is to develop the main directions for improving the employment of rural women, taking into account the whole complex of social, economic, demographic and regional characteristics.
INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS, TREDA, AND AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT As manuscript Natalya N. PETRIK PROBLEMS<...>The transition to market relations, not supported by<...>It is a complex problem, ultimately based on an economic factor. teaching students the application of theoretical analyzes in scientific literature and practice
The article discusses some mechanisms of formation of zones of fracturing and faults, in which fluids have a significant impact on the bedding parameters. A hypothesis of fluid origin of listric faults in the consolidated crust and upper mantle has been substantiated
Fluid regime of endogenous processes in the continental lithosphere and problems of metallogeny // Problems of global<...>Fluid Regime of the Earth's Mantle // Problems of Global Geodynamics: Proceedings of the Theoretical Seminar OGGGGN<...>/ Granulite complexes in the geological development of the Precambrian and Phanerozoic: materials II Ros. conf. on issues<...>Gubkin noted back in 1937 that “the problem of salt domes is one of the most difficult and confusingProblems<...>Studies of the problem of education in Russia in the early 90s of the X X century made it possible to establish that the main<...>The number of scientific publications on the problem under consideration over the past 60 years is insignificant.<...>Copyright OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBCOM "& LLC" Agency Book-Service "6 links p. study of the problem of family<...>The problem of the research is to identify the contribution of the institute of class teachers of Russia in the half of the XIX
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Spiritual and ecological content and forms of folk games as a means of development of younger adolescents
The problem of man, his relationship to nature, to another person and to himself at all times appeared<...>: "Spiritual and ecological content and forms of folk games as a means of development of younger adolescents", problem<...>In the first chapter "The problem of ecological education of adolescents in modern pedagogical science and practice<...>Of course, the game is not designed to solve all the problems and contradictions of the formation of the personality of a teenager, but it can<...>On the issue of ecological and aesthetic development of the personality by means of the folk game // Problems of education on
Preview: Spiritual and ecological content and forms of folk games as a means of development for younger adolescents.pdf (0.1 Mb)<...>analysis of general and special psychological and pedagogical literature on the research problem.<...>The data of the conducted research and observations prove the relevance of the problem posed in the work.Preview: Teaching Functions of Tests in Modern Schools.pdf (0.2 Mb)associated with the name of the French mathematician Poincaré - formulated at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, no concept of science is complete without taking into account conventionalism. Conventionalism is a direction that considers an agreement between scientists as the basis of a scientific theory. Agreements between scientists are conditioned by considerations of convenience and simplicity and are not directly related to the criteria for the truth of scientific knowledge. The emergence of conventionalism was facilitated by the existence of various systems of geometry: Euclid, Lobachevsky and Riemann. Each of the systems is consistent with experience, but which is the true one? Within the framework of conventionalism, the following answer was proposed: they came to the conviction that the laws of geometry are not statements about the real world, but are only agreements on how to use scientific terms. Within the framework of conventionalism, the concept of scientific law is being rethought. A scientific law from the point of view of conventionalism is a convention (agreement) necessary for the most convenient description of the relevant phenomena. Thus, within the framework of conventionalism, it was realized that scientific theories are not direct generalizations of experimental data. And in this sense, such conventional elements are inevitable from science. In addition, within the framework of conventionalism, the thesis about the incommensurability of scientific theories is formulated. From the point of view of this thesis, all scientific theories use different methods, and therefore their comparison (more precisely, rational comparison) is impossible. A scientist does not choose this or that scientific theory because he is convinced by rational arguments. The choice of a scientific theory is based on ideological and socio-psychological preferences.
The principle of incommensurability, which states that theories cannot be compared with each other, from the point of view of the truth of scientific knowledge.
Feyerabend believes that the creation of clear universal standards in separating true from false knowledge is artificial and has a detrimental effect on the development of knowledge.
This principle echoes the principle of incommensurability of paradigms by Thomas Kuhn (it is revealed in T. Kuhn's work "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions"). Scientific textbooks present the development of science as a linear process of knowledge accumulation and a gradual transition from weak or erroneous theories to more complete and true ones. In fact, Kuhn argues, the history of science is a more complex system. In his opinion, in the history of science there are a number of successive changes in scientific paradigms, which the scientific community adheres to. A paradigm is a kind of "philosophy" shared by scientists, a certain approach to scientific research, a common set of symbolic designations, etc.
Science can be in two "states": "the period of normal science" - when the entrenched paradigm develops, solutions are sought within the framework of this paradigm, or the period of the "scientific revolution" - when the old paradigm becomes obsolete and a new paradigm is chosen from a variety of proposed approaches. During the period of "normal science" theories can be compared with each other in terms of fitness for solving the problems posed by the paradigm. However, different paradigms are not comparable with each other.
Unlike Kuhn, Feyerabend does not admit at all the existence of any criteria for comparing theories or a moment in time when they can be compared. Kuhn's two "states" of science for Feyerabend are only two opposite tendencies - towards preservation and change. In his opinion, micro-revolutions in science occur constantly, namely, when some courageous scientist decides to move away from the old proven methods of scientific research or creates a theory that is absolutely incompatible with the old, and opens up new horizons of knowledge.
Thus, there are no rules by which one can separate true knowledge from false one or find out which theory is better or worse. Developing this idea, Feyerabend comes to the conclusion that it cannot be argued that scientific knowledge is more correct and justified than religious or mythological. They are equal ways of knowing reality, and to reject any of them would be a loss, not an gain.
