Topic 5. Physiological bases and mechanisms of formation of professional activity.
Psychological mechanisms of activity formation.
Physiological bases of labor processes.
A source: Subbotina L. Yu. Psychological mechanisms of activity formation. /
Activities are carried out using a system of various actions. Action can serve as an element of activity analysis, i.e., the smallest subsystem that retains all the characteristics of the whole and is indivisible into smaller parts. Action is a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving a certain, intermediate for the activity as a whole and conscious goal. The action can be both external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, and internal, performed internally.
Despite being involved in activity, action is a relatively independent process. A sign of independence is the direction of action to achieve a consciously set goal. In contrast to the actual activity, the action often does not have its own motive, but obeys the general motive of the activity. Relative independence is also expressed in the fact that one action can be included in different activities. At the same time, the main goal of the action is preserved, but only the motivation and meaning for the subject change. In different types of labor, actions differ, but they also have common features:
Expediency (purposefulness);
Adequacy to the current state of the object of labor;
Multi-effect (the ability to perform one action with the help of different muscle groups);
A certain ratio of automatic (fixed) and rebuilding (changeable) components;
Social conditionality of labor actions. Actions are classified:
By type of mental activity (mnemonic, intellectual, perceptual);
According to the degree of awareness (volitional, impulsive);
By belonging to the type of activity (labor, educational, gaming, communication).
There are special classifications of actions of labor activity. According to their goals, they are divided into actions:
indicative- to determine the purpose and conditions of activity, to find out the means and ways to achieve the goals. Orientation actions are of two types - theoretical, which are aimed at obtaining the necessary information to develop a working hypothesis that determines the Purpose, process and result of the activity; practical, which are included in the performance in order to control and evaluate the process of activity and its compliance with the overall goal;
performing - consistently realizing the overall goal of the activity;
corrective- actions of amendments, clarifications, changes, information actions about errors;
final - related to checking the quality of the implementation of all actions at the final stage of activities based on their results.
From the point of view of the psychological analysis of activity and action as an element of analysis, a holistic action has the following structure:
Orientation basis;
Performing part;
control standard.
Accordingly, the criteria for action will be:
Execution level;
Generalization;
Abbreviation;
The degree of development.
No activity is carried out by means of a mechanical sum of actions. For the implementation of any, even the most elementary labor process, actions are combined into a system. Adaptation of activity to a person occurs through the formation of a psychological system of activity. It is thanks to the formation of the system that activity acquires a subjective character. Any professional activity appears to the student in the form of a generalized and consolidated experience and abilities of previous generations. This experience is described in training programs, instructions, algorithms and is transferred to the subject by a professional master. This is the reference version of the activity. What is passed on to the student is normatively approved way of activity - way of performing labor activity, generalized and fixed by instructions. In the process of mastering the activity, the student de-objectifies the normatively approved method of activity and carries out the activity in his own way, as he knows how and in the most convenient way for him. In other words, it turns it into individual way of doing things, due to the individually peculiar nature of taking into account the objective and subjective conditions of activity. In the course of this process, the formation of a psychological system of activity takes place. Further improvement of activity leads to the formation of the subject's personal and professional level of performance of activities, when professionalism becomes "a person's second nature". A stable system of techniques, methods, guidelines, aspirations, levels of achievement in the performance of activities is being formed. This individual style of activity - a system of activity formed on the basis of individual characteristics of the individual. The individual style of activity is a stable and effective adaptation of the individual to reality.
The system-forming factor of activity is the “motive-goal” vector. The main functional blocks are built around it: motives of activity; goals of activity; activity programs; information basis of activity; decision making; professionally important qualities.
The process of formation of the psychological system of activity is called systemogenesis. In the course of system genesis, the component composition of the system is determined, functional relationships are established, and individual components develop.
To assess the effectiveness of labor activity, the following parameters are used: productivity, quality, reliability. The goal and result are evaluated from the side of qualitative and quantitative indicators. The specific way to achieve the goal is way of activity. Each action acts as a subsystem of the general psychological system of activity and can serve as an element of its analysis. The process of mastering individual actions is subject to the general laws of system genesis. The main ones are - heterochrony And irregularity formation of the components of the activity system.
The development of individual actions is uneven. Various actions in the overall structure of activity are formed at a different pace and quality. At a certain stage of mastering the activity, some actions may reach the required professional level, while others lag far behind. There are differences in the intensity of the growth of performance indicators in the development of various actions in the same person. The heterochrony of the development of various actions must be taken into account when modeling and mastering activities. For example, during the development of activities, it is necessary to achieve a certain level of productivity, quality and reliability in general. But in the process of real development, a certain level is first achieved in one indicator and in some group of actions, and then other actions and indicators are pulled up.
Labor activity exists in a chain of actions. However, the practical implementation of activities is associated with specific ways of performing these actions. For example, in the sewing activity, there is an action of attaching a button. It can be done by hand with a needle and thread, machine, machine, glue on a button, etc. All these will be different ways to perform the action of attaching a button to the fabric. The specific way in which an action is performed is called operation. The action is transformed into an operation. The same goal of an action can be achieved under different conditions, so one action is realized by different operations.
Operation - it is the way in which the action is performed. It is determined not by the goal itself, but by the conditions in which the goal is given. An operation is a system of movements that make up an action when subordinated to a specific task. The formation of the operation occurs in stages. The general mechanism for the formation of an operation is:
Generalization of the original action;
Its gradual interiorization;
Automation;
Translation into a more complex action.
Allocate production operation and labor movement. A production operation is the smallest relatively completed part of a technological process, carried out with a single production goal, at one workplace, by one worker or group, using the same type of tools, fixtures and combinations of labor techniques. Manufacturing operations are divided into main(aimed at a given transformation of the object of labor) and auxiliary(providing the conditions for such a transformation).
When studying operations performed by a group of persons, methods of social psychology are used. The data obtained are used in the design of labor activity. Operations are realized through movements. Movement is the concrete execution of operations. They are defined by trajectory, pace, speed and power.
Work (labor) movements are included in the labor process as a way of its implementation. The following groups are distinguished
movements: basic, corrective, additional, emergency, superfluous, erroneous, economical-uneconomical.
With the help of movements, first of all, objective actions are realized. An analysis of numerous objective actions shows that they all consist of three relatively simple movements: take (raise), move, release. In addition, in psychology, it is customary to distinguish other types of movements: speech, somatic, expressive, locomotor, etc.
In all cases, coordination and consistency of movements with each other is necessary. There are three main parameters of labor movements: force, spatial, temporal. As the technique develops, the movements become more and more dosed. Large power movements are divided into smaller ones, up to the appearance of micromovements.
Each working movement, which implements the psychomotor process, has three sides: mechanical, physiological, psychological.
Given the structure of the movement and the need to comply with this structure of the working area, the following are distinguished at workplaces:
Sensory field - elements of the workplace, informationally influencing human analyzers;
Motor field - elements of the working field, on which the worker's motor influence can be directed.
In all cases, coordination of movements and their consistency with each other is necessary. An analysis of the working movements of a person shows that they depend on the fitness of a person and on a specific professional activity.
The study of actions and operations involves the allocation of their psychological essence and mechanisms. One of these most important mechanisms is the mechanism of skills formation.
Formation of professional skills and abilities
As already mentioned, the specific way the Action is performed turns the latter into an operation. Quite often, the goal of an Action ceases to be actualized in consciousness, and a specific operation is used as a way to achieve the goal of another, larger action. The possibility of performing an operation without actualizing its purpose in the mind appears as a result of the development of appropriate skills. A skill is an automated element of a conscious action that is developed in the process of its implementation, representing a coordinated ability to solve one or another type of motor, sensory, intellectual or mental task.
There are different types of skills: sensorimotor, intellectual, perceptual, etc. In any skill, one can distinguish between "psychological and physiological aspects. Motor skills are one of the first to be developed in phylo- and ontogenesis, as they are developed, becoming more complicated by sensory and intellectual components. A motor skill is a necessary adaptive element for the normal functioning of a person and his interaction with the environment.
The general scheme of skill formation is as follows. In the process of repeated exposure of the body to similar stimuli of the external and internal environment, a certain program of behavior is formed in a person as a reaction to these stimuli. It is the ability to act in a certain situation with a high degree of adaptability to this situation. The trigger mechanism for any skill is a sensory signal that provides information about the state of the environment. The development of a skill is an active psychomotor activity. Speaking of a program of behavior, we inevitably assume some kind of initially laid down systems of actions. For habit, the system of response actions appears as a set of those automatisms due to which this standardized activity takes place. A skill is a structure developed during a lifetime. Not only the beginning of the skill, its trigger is formed in the form of a sensory signal, but the subsequent adjustment of the skill is carried out using sensory information. An important point of any activity is its awareness, and therefore, evaluation. Evaluation is inherent in the performance of a skill. Skill assessment is carried out consciously - the results and subconsciously - the process.
The main cerebral structures are responsible for the formation of a skill. The skill, being formed, is localized at different levels - depending on the automation of certain components. The neural model for the implementation of a skill is the afferent synthesis. Afferent synthesis - it is the neurophysiological basis of the psychological system of activity or action. Afferent synthesis leads to the solution of the question, what kind of result should be obtained at the given moment. Afferent synthesis is the material base of the information basis of activity, which ensures goal setting. Afferent synthesis underlies the activation support of a skill. Each activity in its development acquires features of efficiency. The goal to be achieved in this action appears in the form of an image - a standard. By carrying out methods of action, a person perceives a mismatch between the actual state of the object and the one that should be achieved as a result of this action. The organization of a substantive action requires that this discrepancy be assessed against the background of all available information about the situation that has developed at that moment. The neurophysiological mechanism of such an assessment is action acceptor, i.e., a neural model of the parameters of the anticipated real outcome. According to the mechanism of the action acceptor, the skill is adjusted.
The intermediate stage of mastering a new way of acting on the basis of knowledge that has not reached the level of skill is called skill. Skill is knowledge that is understood by the student and is correctly reproduced, acting in the form of a correctly performed action and acquiring some features of efficiency.
At the stage of skill, the learned mode of action is regulated by knowledge; as training progresses, the transformation of Skill into skill is achieved. In this case, there is a change in the orienting basis of the action.
In labor activity, motor skills are of greater importance as a necessary adaptive element of the normal functioning of a person. A motor skill is a coordination structure, which is a mastered ability to solve one or another type of motor task. In this regard, most of the research is devoted specifically to motor skills. The structure of motor a was analyzed by N.A. Bernstein, who believed that in the process of exercise, a skill is built. Each motor skill represents a multilevel structure. ON THE. Bernstein identifies five such levels, starting with the lowest, located in the spinal cord, and ending with the highest, the cortical. In each skill, some level will be leading - the rest will be background. (For example: posture - rubrospinal level; writing - cortical.) When the conditions of activity change, there may be a switch of the leading level, although this is very difficult. Each stage of the development of a motor skill is an active psychomotor activity that forms a skill in the content and performance aspects.
The formation of a motor skill is a whole chain of sequentially replacing each other phases of different meanings and qualitatively different mechanisms. The development of a motor skill is a semantic chain action.
In building any skill, N.A. Bernstein identifies two periods.
The first period is the actual building of the skill. The main task of the operations of the first period is to ensure the accuracy and standardization of the performance of the skill. It includes phases:
establishing a leading level. At this phase, the brain level that dominates in the initial stage of building a skill is determined. This phase is almost a foregone conclusion. In childhood, this is the level of spatial orientation, in adults it is the level of objective action. These levels hold a monopoly on the role of leaders at the initial stage of all formed skills:
determining the motor composition of a skill, i.e., the form and external character of the movement. In this phase, there is an individual coordination of the features of the motor composition and personal properties of the subject;
identifying adequate sensory corrections. Corrections are internal sensory cues that govern a skill. This is the most difficult of all phases. All incoming signals carry the information necessary for the implementation of the skill. Therefore, at this phase, the signals are sorted into significant and insignificant.
Automation is the switching of a number of coordinating elements of a motor act to lower levels that are more adequate for these corrections. Automation can consist in the use of ready-made backgrounds and in the development of special automatisms. In each skill, only the composition determined by its leading level is realized. If the leading level is very high, then the unconscious background goals of corrections can be very complex in composition and long in time. The external form of such parts of skills is called mechanical actions. The second period is stabilization. The range of external and internal conditions within which the implementation of the skill will be effective is being expanded. The second period includes phases:
activation of skill elements. As mentioned above, skill adjustment is carried out at various brain levels. Information processing is provided by background and leading levels. This process must be internally consistent. The difficulty of triggering is that all the flows of information and corrective signals fall on the same executive system. This so-called phenomenon simultaneous interference. If it proceeds painfully, then a plateau of already automated action appears, i.e. the skill does not improve, but stabilizes at the same level;
standardization. There is a struggle to ensure that the movement does not go beyond the level of acceptable variability. The central nervous system develops certain corrections and automatisms for standardization, aimed at maintaining a stable form of movement;
stabilization. The stability of the motor skill, the resistance to its confounding influences are being worked out. External and internal obstacles and complications can act as confounding influences. Particular attention should be paid to the possibility of de-automation of the skill. Deautomatization is the partial or complete disintegration of a skill. Deautomatization occurs when, for some reason, a subordinate level becomes the leading one, or when the movement itself switches to a different, unusual level. Based on this mechanism, a method of artificial deautomatization has been developed.
Despite the complexity of the skill, the actual process of capturing the necessary connections can happen at lightning speed. This is due to the multi-level active skill building. The dynamics of skill development is that where there is development, each next exercise is better than the previous one, that is, it does not repeat it. In fact, there is a repetition without repetition. When forming a skill, an exercise is not a repetition of a movement, but its construction. A correctly conducted exercise repeats over and over again not the means used to solve this problem, but the solution process itself, changing and improving its form from time to time.
Skill building is distributed over time. This is due to the fact that the active search for the most adequate solution, which takes place in the central nervous system, requires a significant amount of time. Adds time-consuming non-standard tasks and the background of the general environment in which the building of the skill takes place.
Based on Bernstein's concept of any sensorimotor skill, it is possible to determine what period and phase it is in at the moment and what brain structures are involved. Therefore, it is possible to model the process of skill formation.
The problem of learning
The problem of learning is closely related to the problem of building a habit. The development of activity significantly changes the expedient behavior of the individual, both externally and internally. The process associated with a change in human behavior and actions is called learning. Learning is a sustainable, purposeful change in physical and mental activity (behavior) that occurs due to previous activity (or behavior), and is not caused directly by innate physiological reactions of the body.
Learning as a psychological mechanism includes two aspects: functional and structural.
Functional aspect characterizes how successfully learning changes in terms of achieving the goal (i.e., the result - what is achieved).
Structural aspect characterizes a change in the very mode of behavior, its structure (i.e., the method of achievement - how and when it is achieved.) In relation to a person, learning is expressed in the assimilation of certain knowledge and certain actions by a person. Any experience (knowledge, skills, abilities) can be acquired through learning. The main content of learning is the formation of cognitive, sensorimotor and kinesthetic structures. The physiological essence of learning is expressed in the formation of a neurofunctional system of a behavioral act.
The learning criteria are indicators:
Formation of individual components of the system at the cognitive level;
Ability development;
Efficiency of performing activities;
Physiological mechanisms of activity.
In the course of training and repeated repetition of exercises in the course of learning, a change in behavior and forms of human activity occurs.
Any type of learning belongs to the associative or intellectual mind. Associative the type of learning is realized by the formation of connections based on adjacency, intellectual the type of learning is the reflection and assimilation of essential connections, structures, relations of objective reality.
Any kind of learning can act on a reflex or cognitive level. At the reflex level, learning can be sensory and motor, as well as sensorimotor (a combination of these types). The sensory concept emphasizes the informational, cognitive nature of learning (reflective activity of the psyche). The motor concept emphasizes the active, purposeful nature of learning (regulatory activity of the psyche). Such learning is characteristic of both man and animals.
At the cognitive level, learning acts as the learning of knowledge and concepts; skills and abilities; thinking. The above classification is rather conditional. Real learning includes all types and levels in various combinations. "Regardless of the type of learning, the main way to implement it is training - repeated repetition of a series of exercises in the same operation.
The understanding of learning as a change in activity as a result of training has been quite constructive for a long time. However, from today's standpoint, this definition has two shortcomings. Learning can take place:
No change in activity;
Without training (by observation with instructions).
The modern approach to understanding learning makes extensive use of the concept of a person as an information processing system. According to this concept, a person is an active participant in the learning process. In the process of processing information, the information flow that occurs at the stage of perception undergoes a series of cognitive changes that culminate in a person's reaction or a change in the state of memory. For example, when looking at a picture, we first perform an image recognition operation, then establish an associative link with something that we have already encountered before, and then store the image by memorization.
Within the framework of this concept, much attention is paid to the question of how to interpret incoming information. The informational approach compares a person with a computer, and considers learning as a process consisting of three stages: coding, memorization, reproduction.
Information units in learning will be judgments and associative links. Of particular importance are predictive conclusions structured in human memory. The memory elements responsible for predictive conclusions are called in engineering psychology scripts(schemes, frames).
The most important properties of such memory structures are:
Inheritance of traits, i.e., the ability of memory elements to inherit some higher-order memory property. For example: "The company offers all types of overlogs, knitting and widge machines." We do not know what overlogs and widge machines are, but we know that a machine is some kind of mechanism, so we assume that these objects represent some kind of knitting mechanisms. The phrase becomes relatively intelligible; fuzziness of meanings, i.e., the ability to imply the existence of certain qualities at one price or another in a particular situation, even when they are not explicitly reported. For example, in this example, we can assume that there are some moving parts in overlogs and vision machines, as all machines have them.
Such predictive judgments greatly facilitate communication and learning.
Current learning research focuses on how a person acquires complex cognitive skills. (For example, computer programming; solving political and sociological problems.)
Within the framework of this understanding, the presence of three types of learning is fixed:
Building up - the accumulation of knowledge about new facts in memory (knowledge, what can be done);
restructuring - the initial formation of associative links in memory (receiving procedures, i.e. knowledge, how to do something);
setting - the formation of mnemonic techniques for the purpose of faster and more reliable use of operational images.
Having knowledge of the mechanisms of learning, one can successfully design the learning process in all its forms. The problem of skill formation is directly reflected in the organization and implementation of labor activity. The work of a manager, operator, politician or any other specialist cannot be realized without an appropriate psychological system of activity, a set of professional actions and skills. The solution of these practical problems cannot be carried out without appropriate scientific developments. Recently, the issue of designing educational systems, such as computer programs, has become acute. Depending on the work of the designer, it is possible to significantly increase the power, flexibility and reliability of the human-computer system. It is the human factor that is characterized by the greatest uncertainty in this system, and its effectiveness can be increased only through the study of the psychological mechanisms of the formation of Activities, actions, skills and learning.
A source: Myshkin I. Yu. Physiological bases of labor processes. . / in the book: Labor Psychology: Proc. for stud. higher textbook institutions / Ed. prof. A. V. Karpova. - M.: Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS, 2003. - 352p.
One of the contradictions of scientific and technological progress is that, along with huge positive results, modern production, widely equipped with complex technical systems, makes increased demands on a person. They force a person to work at the limit of his psychological capabilities, and often in extremely difficult working conditions. At the same time, a person is responsible for the effective functioning of large control systems, and a mistake made can lead to very serious consequences. Basic physiological characteristics of work
An important pattern of social development was the division of labor into two forms: mental labor and physical labor. From this point of view, when working, the specific weight of the muscle load, or the specific weight of one of the components of the nervous load - the mental load, is taken into account. Labor is classified as physical with the predominance of the muscular component, as mental - with the predominance of the mental component.
To characterize and evaluate the physiological cost of work, the terms "severity" and "labor intensity" are used. Both terms are covered by a single concept of "functional stress of the body at work." Functional stress is determined both by the nature of the workload and by the working environment. When working, the body is presented with two types of load: muscular and nervous. Therefore, the functional stress of the body during work should, depending on the type of load, be characterized either as the severity or as the intensity of labor. The intensity of labor is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of muscle load. The severity of labor is the involvement of the musculoskeletal system and energy supply functions in the labor process.
The assessment of the severity of labor is given on the basis of energy consumption during work. This is explained by the fact that energy costs reflect well the dynamic load on the musculoskeletal system and ensure the performance of vegetative functions under this load - respiration, blood circulation. However, static work has relatively little effect on the level of energy consumption. Therefore, indicators such as the weight of the load being held (the force of holding the load), the nature of the working posture, the stationarity or non-stationarity of the workplace are also used. The intensity of labor is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of nerve load. In physiological terms, human labor activity can be characterized in two ways: firstly, in terms of labor and the functional stress it causes (the qualitative side); secondly, according to the degree of this Functional tension (quantitative side).
Classification and types of labor activity
I. Forms of labor that require significant muscle activity.
This group includes professions of heavy and medium physical labor. Examples are the professions of a digger, a loader, a blacksmith, a bricklayer, and agricultural professions. All these works are characterized by increased energy costs of the order of 4000-7000 kcal/day. or in units of work - 200-300 thousand kgm per shift. An essential negative feature of physical labor is its social inefficiency. To achieve any performance that justifies itself, a high, non-optimal strain of the physical forces of a person is required. Another drawback in the physiological plan is that physical labor always develops the muscular system one-sidedly, and often causes muscle hypertrophy.
II. Forms of mechanized labor.
The group includes numerous professions in all industries. Energy costs in these groups are 3000-4000 kcal/day, and mechanical work can be up to 100 thousand kgm per shift. A distinctive feature of mechanized labor, in addition to reducing the muscle component in work, is the development of speed and accuracy of movements. The program of actions becomes more complicated, which is associated with two circumstances: the maintenance of mechanisms requires knowledge of their design; before the execution of the work, it is planned, calculated according to the drawings. Therefore, professions of mechanized labor require the accumulation of special knowledge and motor skills.
III. Forms of labor associated with semi-automatic and automatic production.
These are forms of labor associated with the further mechanization of the production process. In semi-automatic production, a person is completely switched off from the processing process. Its task is to feed the material for processing into the machine, start the mechanism, and remove the finished product. The main feature of these works is monotony. No high qualification required. Almost all the work is addressed to the motor apparatus, which requires, first of all, the speed and accuracy of movements. Automation dramatically changes the role of a person in the labor process. It ceases to complement the mechanism, which now performs not only the main, but also auxiliary functions. The worker controls the machinery. Its job is to keep things running smoothly. The main feature of the action in all cases is the readiness for action and the urgency of reactions associated with it.
IV. Forms of group work.
A typical type of group work is conveyors. The basis of labor productivity on the assembly line is the automation of motor skills, leading to a minimum of time for their implementation. The group form of labor is inconceivable without synchronization of the work of its participants, which determine the cycle of the conveyor, i.e., the time interval provided to the worker to perform the next operation. The smaller the interval, the more monotonous the work. The most significant feature that characterizes the operation of the conveyor is monotony.
v. Forms of work associated with remote control.
Remote control of production arises on the basis of mechanization and automation. From a physiological point of view, there are two main forms of remote control of the production process. In some cases, control panels require frequent human actions, and in others - rare ones. At the same time, workers have different functional states. In the first case, the uninterrupted attention of the worker receives a discharge in numerous movements or speech-motor acts. In the second case, the worker is mainly in a state of readiness for action, but his reactions are few.
VI. Forms of intellectual labor.
There are two forms of intellectual (mental) labor: 1) Professions employed in the sphere of material production, but not directly related to the objects of labor. These are the professions of an engineer, designer, programmer. 2) Professions related to scientific work, professions of applied knowledge (teachers, doctors), professions in the field of literature, art (actors, painters, writers).
The sphere of material production to a greater extent requires the application of forces in terms of technization and organization. Among the professions of an engineering profile, two types can be distinguished: one is associated with the design and forecasting of the production process (designers); the task of the second is the implementation of operational functions (operators, technicians, dispatchers, accountants, statisticians). Intellectual labor with little muscle activity is the most energy efficient. Daily costs are 2400-2800 kcal/day. (i.e., they exceed the main metabolism by only 600-1000 kcal.). These savings are due to reduced physical activity and are not positive. Brain activity is deprived of support from the muscles, which can lead to negative consequences (various cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the musculoskeletal system). The main features of intellectual labor are the complexity and variability of the action program. The more signals of different content and meaning are received by the employee, the more difficult it is to choose the right action, the more stressful the work.
Methods for assessing the severity and intensity of labor
To assess the severity and intensity of labor, various indicators and criteria are used. Usually there are four degrees of severity and intensity of labor. As criteria for assessing the severity of labor, both external indicators are used - the characteristics of the work, and internal - the cost for the body. To assess tension, such a gradation is not always acceptable.
Evaluation of the severity of labor. The severity of physical labor is determined by the following indicators of dynamic and static work: the weight of the load being moved and the power of work; the magnitude of the static load; the nature of the working posture.
The power of external work is determined by the amount of physical energy expended by a person. To calculate the power of external work, the amount of work performed per unit of time is calculated. Since physical work is associated with the movement of any goods or materials over a distance, the calculation takes into account: lifting the load; move it horizontally lowering the load. The calculation of the work performed is carried out according to the formula:
A \u003d [P x H + (P x 1/9) + (P x h) / 2] x k,
where A is the amount of work in kgm; P is the weight of the cargo in kg; H is the height of the load from the initial state; 1 - distance of movement of cargo horizontally; h is the distance of lowering the load; k - coefficient equal to 6.
To calculate the power of work, the formula is used:
N \u003d (A / t) x k,
where N is the power of work in watts / s; A is the amount of work in kgm; one; - the time for which this work is done in seconds; k - conversion factor kgm to watts, equal to 10.
The maximum value of the transported load is the main indicator for determining the severity of labor.
In everyday life, static work manifests itself in two forms: maintaining a posture and holding a load. In most cases, when holding a load or maintaining a working posture, the opposing force is gravity. In some cases, static contraction may be directed to overcome another external force, such as pressing a pedal. The static load associated with the maintenance of effort by a person without moving the body or its individual links is characterized by the magnitude of the retained load or effort. The static load is determined by the product of the force and the holding time. The value of the static load is expressed in kg/s. An indicator of the static load is also the magnitude of the angles of inclination and the duration of stay in a particular position in full relation to the duration of the work shift. Posture - maintaining the human body in a certain position. Posture determines the psychological effect, which is expressed in the concept of comfort.
For a practical assessment of the severity of labor, we can recommend the indicators given in Table. one.
The intensity of labor characterizes that side of labor activity that requires the mobilization of higher mental functions of a person, such as perception, attention, working memory, and analytical and synthetic activity of the central nervous system. Different degrees of tension of these functions are little or almost not reflected in such indicators as gas exchange, energy consumption, blood circulation. If we limit mental labor to those types of activities that are widely used in production, and leave aside the highest forms of creative and performing labor (scientists, artists, public figures), we can distinguish the following indicators used to assess labor intensity: 1) the degree of attention strain; 2) density of perceived signals; 3) pace of work; 4) the density of the work shift; 5) intensity of analyzer functions; 6) the degree of emotional stress; 7) intellectual tension; 8) monotony of work; 9) memory load; 10) shift work. Let's consider these indicators in more detail.
Attention. There is no single reasonable criterion for assessing the intensity of attention in a production environment (depending on the activity). It is recommended that the assessment of labor intensity in terms of the attention parameter be carried out according to production criteria. With regard to operator activities, we can talk about the number of objects of simultaneous observation or control, i.e. how many of the total number of objects of observation are the most important and require simultaneous observation. (For example, out of 100 objects, 5 or 10 are the most important and require constant monitoring: machine tools, console signals, in essence, we are talking about the volume of the information field.) Another indicator that characterizes attention is the duration of concentrated observation. This indicator is calculated as a relative value as a percentage of the total shift time. Since the operator is required to be able to quickly switch attention, the frequency (average, maximum) of these switches can serve as an indicator of labor intensity.
Density of perceived signals. This indicator characterizes the degree of labor intensity depending on the amount of incoming information per unit of time. An assessment of the degree of labor intensity according to this indicator should take into account the nature of the activity, the quantity and nature of information transformation. The signal density calculation is calculated as the product of the number of information features per unit of time. For example, the number of messages is 60, each message has 4 features. The total is 4 x 60 = 240 per unit of time (usually per hour). Thus, this indicator characterizes the amount of information per unit of time.
The pace and density of the work shift. These indicators characterize the degree and uniformity of the workload per shift. Depending on the nature of the activity, two types of activity can be distinguished: 1) motor, 2) control and observation. The “activity coefficient” can serve as an integral indicator of the work shift density. This is an indicator of the ratio of the total duration of active (adjusting, performing) actions to the total time of observation, control, but not the duration of the shift. The low weight of active actions, when it is necessary to maintain constant vigilance, creates the conditions for a motivational conflict, which requires significant nervous tension (less than 0.2). At the same time, too high "activity coefficient" (more than 0.8) reflects the intensity of work associated with increased physical activity.
Intensity of analyzer functions associated with the detection and selection of signals of various modalities (vision, hearing, smell, tactile sensitivity). By physical strength, the signals are divided into: 1) weak - below the operational threshold; 2) optimal - within the intervals of the boundaries of the operational threshold; 3) annoying - above the operational threshold. Another approach to assessing the degree of load on the analyzers is that the degree of load is compared with the category of normative indicators. The degree of visual strain is determined according to SN 245-75 of the category of visual work, where 6 categories of visual work are distinguished depending on the size of the object in the field of view. The degree of tension of the organ of hearing can be determined in two ways. First, by the audibility of speech from a distance or by the intelligibility of speech as a percentage of the ratio with the level of the mind. Secondly, according to the norms of permissible sound pressure levels and sound levels at workplaces
| Table 1 | ||||||||
| - | ||||||||
| Criteria for the severity of physical labor | ||||||||
| Signs Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor | ||||||||
| (indicators of external work) | ||||||||
| Physical labor | I - easy | II - medium | III - heavy | IV - very severe | ||||
| Up to 5 | 6 to 10 | from 11 to 30 | over 30 | |||||
| Maximum value | ||||||||
| transported cargo, kg | ||||||||
| External power | To 10 | up to 22 | Up to 45 | over 45 | ||||
| work, Tue, with participation | ||||||||
| shoulder girdle, | ||||||||
| with the participation of the lower | ||||||||
| limbs and torso | ||||||||
| The value of the static load per shift, kg / s., When creating forces: with two hands with the participation of the body and legs | up to 20 | up to 45 | up to 90 | over 90 | ||||
| up to 43 200 | up to 97 200 | up to 208 800 | over 208800 | |||||
| up to 61 200 | up to 129 600 | up to 266 400 | over 266 400 | |||||
| Working posture and movements in space | Stationary workplace. Free posture. | Stationary workplace. Tilts up to 30° | Stationary workplace. Tilts up to 30° 100 - 300 times per shift or stay | Stationary place. Tilts up to 30° or more more than 300 times per shift or stay | ||||
| 50 - 100 times per shift or stay in an inclined position up to 30° 10-25% of the working time. Walking up to 4 km per shift. | inclined position up to 30° 25-50% of the working time. Walking up to 7 km per shift. | in an inclined position more than 50% of the working time. | ||||||
| Walking up to 15 km per shift. | ||||||||
| Physiological cost: | Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor (internal indicators - cost for the body) | |||||||
| in terms of energy costs (basal metabolism - 1.1 kcal / min.); | 150 kcal/hour. 172 j/sec. | 150-200 172-232 | 200-300 232-293 | over 300 over 293 | ||||
| by pulse rate (rest - 60-70 bpm; safety limit - 140-150 bpm) | 75-100 | 100-125 | 125-150 | 150-175 | ||||
| by oxygen consumption (rest - 0.2 l / min.) | up to 0.5 l/min. | up to 0.8 l/min. | up to 1.5 l/min. | over 1.5 l/min. | ||||
Labor intensity criteria
| signs | I - relaxed | II - a little tense | IV - very tense |
| 1. Attention, the number of simultaneously observed objects; duration of concentrated observation (as a percentage of the duration of the work shift) | up to 5 up to 25 | 6-10 26-50 | over 25 over 75 |
| 2. Tension of analyzer functions: Vision. Dimensions of the object, mm, with the distance of the object to the worker's eyes up to 1 m Hearing | more than 5 mm | 1-5 mm | less than 0.3 mm |
| No interference | There are interferences against which speech is heard: | ||
| up to 2.5 m | up to 1.5 m | ||
| 3. Density of signals (messages) per hour: simple complex | Up to 60 up to 15 | 61-150 16-40 | over 400 over 60 |
| 4. The amount of RAM. Must be kept in memory Memory load (by number of process parameters) | up to 2 items less than 2 hours | up to 2 items over 2 hours | more than 5 items more than 5 hours |
| up to 50 | up to 100 | over 200 | |
| 5. Intelligent voltage | No need to make independent decisions | Work according to simple instructions | Heuristic (creative) activity |
| 6. Monotonicity: repeatability (per hour) number of elements in the operation duration per second. Time of active actions as a percentage of the duration of the shift (activity ratio) | more than 10 more than 100 10-20% 0.5-0.3 | 181-300 10-6 100-45 20-50% 0,2-0,3 | more than 600 3-1 19-1 more than 80% less than 0.2 more than 0.8 |
| 7. Emotional stress | Work according to an individual plan | Work on an individual schedule | Responsibility for the safety of others, personal risk |
Emotional stress. In real working conditions, the degree of emotional stress is a significant factor determining the success and reliability of the activity. Gradations of emotional tension are evaluated according to production criteria that create the prerequisites for the emergence of unfavorable emotional states. These factors will be: 1. Temporary factors (work according to an individual plan, work according to an exact schedule, work under time pressure). 2. Motivational significance of violations in the process of activity (emergency situations, work associated with personal risk, with responsibility for the safety of others).
Intellectual stress. The magnitude of the intellectual voltage cannot be accurately categorized. The factors that determine it can be: work related to the need to develop algorithms for activities of varying complexity; work related to decision-making at various levels; work related to the need for the participation of a non-standard, creative component of the activity.
The monotony of work. Monotonous types of labor include those that are characterized by the following features: 1) a high frequency of repetition of labor actions; 2) a short time cycle for performing operations; 3) low-element quantitative composition of the operation; 4) structural uniformity of labor activities; 5) simplicity of labor actions. These criteria refer mainly to works where the energy factor plays a leading role, i.e., work with a pronounced physical component. Those works where the information factor predominates, i.e., the tension of sensory mechanisms and certain mental functions is required, are considered monotonous if they: 1) are associated with long-term passive observation; 2) have a lack of influx of sensory information; 3) have limited exposure to production signals and stimuli.
Memory. The load on memory is due, firstly, to the necessary amount of information to be remembered; Secondly, from the duration of storage of the necessary information in the process of activity.
Labor shift. According to the degree of intensity of the labor regime, four categories are distinguished: 1) Work in the morning shift is the most optimal. 2) Evening shift. Household load is superimposed on work, activity is worse in the evening. 3) Alternation of shift work: morning, evening, night. 4) Round the clock work. Three-shift and round-the-clock work is the most tiring and not physiological.
Labor intensity criteria are given in Table. 2.
Literature
1. Arkhangelsky S.N. Essays on the psychology of work. - M., 1982.
2. Bernstein ON. Physiology of movements and activity. - M., 1990.
3. Grimak L.P. Communication with yourself. - M., 1991
4. Kazakov V.G., Kondratieva L.L. Psychology. Section 7. - M., 1989.
5. Karpov A.V. Psychology of management. - M., 1999
6. Kudryavtsev T.V. Psychology of vocational training and education. - M., 1985.
7. Kitaev-Smyk LL. Psychology of stress. - M., 1983
8. Leonova A.B., Medvedeva V.I. Functional states of a person in labor activity. - M., 1981.
9. Platonov K.K. Questions of labor psychology. - M., 1970.
10. mental states. Series "Reader in Psychology" / Ed. V. Usmanov. - St. Petersburg, 2000
11. Rosenblat V.V. Fatigue problem. - M., 1975
12. Guide to the physiology of labor / Ed. Z.M. Zolina, N.F. From-merov. - M., 1983.
13. Chebyshev V.V. Psychology of labor training. - M., 1969.
14. The human factor / Ed. G. Salvendi. - M., 1990.
Questions for self-examination
1. What are the main physiological characteristics of labor activity.
2. Describe the physiological basis of labor processes.
In the course of the development of the reflex activity of the brain, new - mental - phenomena arise: sensations, perceptions, etc. Thus, a new object of study naturally arises and new tasks for its study arise - the tasks of psychology.
The reflex activity of the cortex is both a nervous (physiological) activity and at the same time a psychic one (since it is one and the same activity acting in different respects). Therefore, the task of studying it arises, firstly, as a nervous activity determined by the physiological laws of nervous dynamics (processes of excitation and inhibition, their irradiation, concentration and mutual induction), and secondly, as a mental activity (as perception and observation, memorization, thinking, etc.). However, here - as in general - the defining subject of science is its highest, that is, more specific, characteristic.
Each science studies the phenomena of reality in relations specific to the given science. For physiology, reality appears as a set of stimuli that act on the brain, on analyzers; for psychology - as objects of knowledge and action, objects with which a person interacts as a subject.
First - before the emergence of an organism capable of responding to stimuli - being, reality exists in the form of processes and things. With the emergence of organisms, the phenomena of the material world (things, processes) act in relation to the organisms on which they act, and as irritants. This interaction takes place on an "ontological" plane. As long as things act only as irritants, there is still no epistemological plan; there are still neither objects nor subject in the true sense of the word. In the process of exposure to stimuli on organisms that have receptors (analyzers, sensory organs), and their response activity, sensations arise.
The stimuli reflected in sensation may act as signals without being recognized as objects. Experimental proof of this position are experiments that indicate that the subject can correctly respond to a sensory signal without being aware of the signal to which he responds (E. Thorndike, L.I. Kotlyarevsky, etc.). Phenomena (things, processes) that serve as irritants and act as such in relation to the organism, its organs (analyzers), are realized when they act as objects. Awareness of a thing or phenomenon as an object is associated with the transition from sensation, which serves only as a signal for action, for reaction, to sensation and perception as an image of an object (or phenomenon).
Consciousness proper (unlike mental consciousness in general) begins with the appearance of an image of an object (object) in the special epistemological meaning of this term.
The stimuli reflected in sensation, in consciousness, act as objects. The concept of an object is an epistemological category; the concept of stimulus is a physiological category. Since the entire scientific consideration of the world cannot be reduced to a physiological consideration of the world, but necessarily includes epistemological (and psychological) aspects, the concept of an object cannot be reduced to the concept of a stimulus.
The relation to the object is essential both for the epistemological and for the psychological plan. The difference between the epistemological and psychological points of view lies in the fact that epistemology makes this relation to the object itself the object of its study, while psychology considers the mental process in this relation to the object.
The specific tasks of psychology begin in connection with the transition to the study of human mental activity carried out by the brain. Psychology, which studies the mental activity of people, is one of the sciences of man. This is a science that reveals the patterns of human mental activity carried out by the brain.
Two provisions of a fundamental nature determine our approach to human psychology. This is, firstly, the understanding of mental phenomena in general, as a product of the development of the material world; this, secondly, is the understanding of human psychology in its specific features, as a socially conditioned product of history.
The question of the place of psychology in the system of sciences is usually complicated by the fact that they try to solve it on the basis of the opposition of the natural and social sciences, excluding any transitions between them. In the term "social sciences" the more subtle distinctions between the actual sciences of society and the sciences of phenomena that are socially conditioned, such as human psychology, are erased. Psychology is one of the sciences about human nature, a socially conditioned product of history. This is the reason for the connection of psychology both with the sciences of nature (primarily with the doctrine of higher nervous activity), and with the socio-historical sciences.
Since mental activity is an activity carried out by the brain, it obeys all the laws of neurodynamics: without their involvement, the explanation of mental phenomena cannot be fully realized. Psychological research can all be opposed to the physiological study of neurodynamics and separated from it; in explaining mental phenomena, all the results of the physiological study of neurodynamics must be taken into account and used. At the same time, the products of this neurodynamics, the new psychic phenomena that arise as a result of it, determine a new plan of psychological research, in which the processes that study the physiological doctrine of higher nervous activity appear in a new, specific quality. Taken as such, they are determined by relationships from which physiology abstracts.
Memorization, for example, that is, memorization organized in a certain way, considered in physiological terms, is the organization of the supply of stimuli affecting the brain. Therefore, it obeys all the laws of neurodynamics of cortical processes. However, when we explain the result of memorization by the action of these regularities, we abstract from a whole series of relationships that are characteristic of memorization as a special type of mental activity. When the same process, which in physiological terms is the response of the brain to a certain organized supply of stimuli, is considered in psychological research as memorization, new dependencies inevitably appear - dependence on human activity, on the relationships that a person enters in the course of this activity, to what they remember (for example, to educational material, to other people, to a teacher, school staff, etc.). In these new dependencies, this process is studied by psychology. Every psychological study uncovers one or another of the dependencies of this kind. Physiology is distracted from them. For the organization of human activity, knowledge of these dependencies and the patterns to which they obey is especially important. The task of revealing them falls on psychology.
We have said that physiology abstracts from the relations essential to mental phenomena as such. This means that physiological phenomena are polysemantic in relation to mental phenomena, taken in their specific properties and relations. Different in their concrete expression, mental phenomena correspond to one and the same physiological process. In addition, there is no point relationship between mental and physiological processes or phenomena: each specific mental process in its physiological expression is represented by a more or less complex dynamic system or a combination of various physiological processes. Because of this, it is in no way possible, without losing the specific differences of one mental process or phenomenon from others, to substitute in the place of any mental phenomenon the physiological “corresponding” to it as its full-fledged equivalent, capable of differentiating this mental phenomenon from others, psychologically different from it. . One and the same physiological value of the variables appearing in the formulas of physiological laws always corresponds to a whole scale of different psychological values. Therefore, mental phenomena, while remaining inseparable from physiological processes, nevertheless differ from them. Physiological and psychological laws cannot be directly brought into agreement by substituting physiological terms into psychological laws. Physiological terms are not adequate to those relations which are expressed in psychological laws.
Obeying the physiological laws of higher nervous activity (the laws of the dynamics of nervous processes), mental phenomena act as an effect of the action of physiological laws, just as the physiological, generally biological, phenomena themselves, obeying, for example, the laws of chemistry, act as an effect of the action of chemical laws. However, physiological processes represent a new, original form of manifestation of chemical laws, and it is this new, specific form of their manifestation that appears in the laws of physiology. Similarly, mental phenomena represent a new, original form of manifestation of the physiological laws of neurodynamics. This specificity of theirs is expressed in the laws of psychology. In other words, mental phenomena remain peculiar mental phenomena and at the same time act as a form of manifestation of physiological laws, just as physiological phenomena remain physiological, acting, however, as a result of biochemical research and as a form of manifestation of the laws of chemistry. The lower regularities are included in the higher areas, but only as a subordinate element, which does not determine their specificity. This is generally the relationship between "below" and "above" lying areas of scientific research. The more general laws of the underlying regions also apply to the overlying regions, but do not exhaust the regularities of these latter. The leading regularities of each area are its specific regularities, which determine the leading specific properties of this area of phenomena.
As a result of the disclosure of the biochemical nature of physiological phenomena, there is not their disappearance as specific phenomena, but a deepening of knowledge about them. No matter how deeply the biochemical patterns of the closure of cortical bonds are revealed, reflexes will not cease to be reflexes; the same must be said of any physiological phenomena. With the progress of the biochemistry of digestion, for example, knowledge of this process will deepen, it will act as a specific effect of chemical reactions, but at the same time remain a specific form of their manifestation - the process of digestion, in this specific form characterizing life, living beings, and not the reactions of chemical elements. The intrinsic nature of phenomena is always determined by their specific laws.
Similarly, psychic phenomena as a result of neurodynamic analysis act as an effect of the action of the neurodynamic laws of the reflective activity of the brain. But this does not abolish the specificity of mental phenomena. From the fact that mental phenomena appear as an effect derived from the action of the laws of higher nervous activity, knowledge of the laws established by mental research does not lose its significance. The relationship between psychology and the doctrine of higher nervous activity fits into the general framework of the relationship between the “lower” and “higher” areas of scientific knowledge.
The relationship between psychology and the doctrine of higher nervous activity is analogous not to the relationship between biology and chemistry, but between biology and biochemistry. The doctrine of higher nervous activity also studies mental activity, but in a special aspect. The laws of higher nervous activity play an important role in explaining mental activity. However, they do not exhaust its laws and are not its specific laws, that is, laws that determine its leading specific properties. These are the laws of psychology.
From such an understanding of the relationship between physiological and psychological laws, the physiological and psychological characteristics of the activity of the brain, the inconsistency of a number of formulations that have become popular is clear.
First of all, the inconsistency of the formula in which the mental and physiological are presented as two coordinated sides of one process is obvious. Its erroneousness is turned off in the fact that it masks that hierarchy of primary and derivative, the basis and form of its manifestation, which expresses the essence of the relationship between physiological and psychological characteristics and erroneously presents them as equally correlated, as coordinated, parallel. Her mistake is that different "sides" are indicated and the ratio of these "sides" is not indicated.
Also untenable is the position sometimes opposed to this formula, according to which physiological and psychological characteristics are adjacent "components" of the characteristics that psychology gives to mental phenomena, while physiology is limited to their partial (physiological) characteristics. This proposition, in its theoretical content, expresses the concept of the old "physiological psychology," both mechanistic and idealistic. The rowing of physiological and psychological characteristics or the inclusion of the first in the second leads to the fact that the physiological characteristics of phenomena lose their effectiveness, since with such a rowing of physiological and psychological data, mental phenomena do not appear in their specificity as a new, peculiar form of manifestation of physiological patterns, which gets its expression in the laws of psychology. Therefore, the search for the specificity of psychological patterns with such an initial position is expressed in a fundamentally incorrect opposition of psychological and physiological patterns. This unlawful opposition and isolation from each other is only another expression of their initial external row-to-row combination.
A very common, but flawed, is the formula according to which the physiological laws of neurodynamics refer only to the material basis of mental phenomena, and the psychological laws - to mental phenomena that "build on" this material, physiological basis. This formula is especially harmful and dangerous, because, while characterizing the physiological laws of higher nervous activity as the "basis" of psychology, in outward expression it seems close to a true understanding of the relationship between physiological laws and psychology. In reality, in its inner meaning and true direction, it expresses a sharpened dualism. It is as if in the vertical direction (from the physiological “base” to the mental phenomena that “build on top of it”) establishes the same external row between them, which the previous formulas established in the “horizontal” direction. According to the meaning of this formula, the laws of higher nervous activity do not refer to mental phenomena at all, but only to their physiological "basis", to physiological phenomena. Psychic phenomena do not at all appear, according to this formula, as a form of manifestation of neurodynamic laws. The connection between them is broken. It is a restoration of an old scheme, at once mechanistic and idealistic. The entire content of Pavlov's teaching on higher nervous activity, the entire course of the development of science, refutes the concept hidden in this formula.
This distinction between the concepts of stimulus and object, associated with the difference, on the one hand, the physiological, on the other hand, the epistemological and psychological aspects of the scientific consideration of the relationship between the individual and the surrounding world, is of a fundamental nature. Therefore, a simple misunderstanding of the meaning of this distinction between concepts and aspects would be evidenced by an attempt, recognizing the impossibility of substituting a simple stimulus in place of an object, to substitute a complex stimulus in its place. The latter belongs to the same plane of physiological relations as does a simple stimulus; just like a simple irritant, it is not able to replace and abolish the epistemological aspect of the problem (with which its psychological aspect is also connected). Nor can this situation be changed by the fact that Pavlovian physiology deals not only with stimuli as such, but also with their signal value. This last circumstance is indeed very important. Thanks to it, the physiological mechanism of perception of those most important "functional" properties of an object, which characterize it in practical relation to the life and activity of the individual, is revealed. But even here we remain in the realm of physiological relations and the physiological perception of an object. But must the explanation of a fact be its liquidation? There are, of course, cases in which the explanation of something taken as fact reveals the illusory nature of the alleged fact. But the physiological explanation of the perception of an object cannot be turned into a denial of those epistemological relations that are analyzed physiologically. The true scientific meaning of Pavlovian concepts and laws, of course, does not lie in the replacement and, therefore, the abolition of epistemological (and related psychological) categories.
For more details about the main fundamental provisions that determine the Marxist understanding of human psychology, see the section on philosophical foundations below.
Professional activity, and especially the activity of all operators, takes place in closed, isolated rooms (cabin of a driver, pilot, power plant control post), which sharply reduces the usual flow of external stimuli (light, people's conversations, temperature fluctuations). The small volume of driver's cabins and a fixed posture for a long time lead to limited mobility, which is also a factor in monotony. In addition, the rooms and cabins of operators are usually filled with hum and uniform noise from operating devices. The unfavorable effect of a monotonous environment is intensified by the monotonous stimulation of the vestibular apparatus by swaying (pilots, drivers, machinists), which contributes to the development of a sleepy state.
Psychology and labor physiologists distinguish two types of monotony:
· Monotony that develops as a result of repeated repetition of the same movements. In this case, a large number of identical signals enter the same nerve centers (work on a conveyor belt).
· Monotony, which is caused by a limited number and monotony of signals coming from outside, when a human operator has to act in the same little changing environment. In this case, a state of sensory hunger sets in (control of a locomotive, machine in a monotonous terrain).
For the first time, I.P. Pavlov. Pavlov interpreted monotony as a reaction of nerve centers to constant "chiselling", i.e. constant flow of weak and identical signals. This reaction is expressed in the development of inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex. The monotonous situation, according to Pavlov, does not require any activity and is the causative agent of the inhibitory process.
In the very structure of the operator's activity, there is a requirement to maintain the intensity of attention and readiness for action at a high level, and in specific working conditions there are factors that affect the decrease in this function. The monotony of the situation leads to a loss of management efficiency, and sometimes to accidents.
Monotony affects all spheres of human life:
In physiological terms, monotony causes a state of fatigue;
In psychological terms - monotony contributes to the dispersion of attention, the difficulty of the thinking process;
· In behavioral terms - monotony reduces the accuracy and speed of execution of control actions.
Monotony has a wave character: with a change in activity, the emergence of new conditions or tasks, the state of monotony quickly passes. Although monotony causes a state of fatigue, these are not equivalent concepts: the state of fatigue disappears after rest, and the state of monotony after a change in the nature of activity.
For operators of driving professions, the main problem is monotony of the second kind - the so-called "traffic hypnosis". It is known that a person in a state of wakefulness constantly needs an influx of external information, and its absence in itself causes some psychological discomfort in a person. Monotony contributes to the development of drowsiness. For example, a train driver on long trips experiences visual and auditory monotony, experiences constant vibration, which creates motion sickness, in addition, an even temperature in the driver's cab - all this leads to the development of braking processes in the cerebral cortex and to drowsiness.
Drowsiness leads to a loss of ATTENTION, ie. to the loss of readiness to act in extreme situations. Soviet psychologists, who at one time studied the problem of labor safety in railway transport a lot, came to the conclusion that approximately 60% of railway accidents are associated with a loss of vigilance. Scientists conducted experimental studies of the readiness of drivers for emergency action in conditions of monotony. During the 3-hour experiment, the subjects were given 30 stimuli to which they had to react. Studies have shown that readiness for action during the experiment does not reach 100%, but fluctuates in the range of 45-65%. In addition, moments of a sharp drop in vigilance relative to the average level were found. These were 60 and 160 minutes of the experiment (vigilance decreased to 5-10%). Such critical points were found in approximately 80% of the subjects, i.e. they are typical for the operation of all operators under monotonic conditions.
The state of drowsiness often leads to sleep while driving, and such a dream is in the nature of temporary failures, the person "nods". Sleep lasts a very short period of time and is not realized by the driver (30-50 seconds). But no matter how short the failures are, they are fraught with great danger - it is likely that it is during such a failure that an emergency situation may arise. In addition, with the development of sleep inhibition during work, dreams arise, which in some cases are perceived by a person as a reality. In accordance with the plot of dreams, he begins to take certain actions.
From the practice of driving vehicles, the so-called hypnotic sleep with open eyes is well known. In such a state, there is a splitting of connections between the sensory perception of external signals and their logical comprehension, between decision-making and action. A hypnotic state, when a person understands and sees everything, but cannot actively act, often causes serious traffic accidents.
In conditions of monotony, a human operator has to maintain the necessary level of wakefulness due to volitional efforts, internal mobilization, and this, in turn, leads to a large waste of energy and fatigue. According to statistics, 78% of road accidents occur in the last third of monotonous sections of the road.
The fight against monotony is especially relevant for train drivers, which is why new technical means are being developed for them that counteract drowsiness and drowsiness.
For example, at one time it was proposed to put drivers on a bicycle saddle: when falling asleep, he would fall from an uncomfortable seat (of course, this method was not widely used).
Today, on some sections of the railway, the “signal of vigilance” has become widespread. This device drops a high-pitched sound every 1.5 minutes. When such a signal is given, the driver must press the lever located on the cab ceiling. If after a few seconds the lever is not released, the train will stop automatically. Such a device is not very effective, because. the driver, even in a drowsy state, is able to press the necessary buttons (motor automatism), in addition, the need to get up and squeeze the lever every 1.5 minutes is a serious hindrance to work.
Another way to combat drowsiness during work was to install a skin-galvonic sensor on the driver’s hand, which recorded reflexes. When falling asleep, this sensor gave a signal and the driver woke up. The device was also not recognized as effective, because it was large and interfered with the work of machinists.
To combat the development of fatigue in conditions of monotony, music is used in a number of industries. When a person listens to music, he adjusts to its rhythm with the rhythm of his muscles at the ideomotor level (unconscious, involuntary). This, in turn, can affect the rhythm of the heart and breathing. However, it is impossible to introduce music on a large scale. So, in many industries, noise interferes, and in driving professions, music itself is a distraction.
The problem of combating monotony remains open today, but one thing is clear: the wake signal should be turned on only at the moment when changes in the physiological state of the human operator begin, i.e. only when you really need it. An example of such a device is a helmet designed for military pilots. This helmet has a built-in encephalograph that continuously records brain impulses. As soon as it captures the slow waves that are characteristic of falling asleep, the autopilot turns on.
One of the contradictions of scientific and technological progress is that, along with huge positive results, modern production, widely equipped with complex technical systems, makes increased demands on a person. They force a person to work at the limit of his psychological capabilities, often in extremely difficult working conditions. At the same time, a person is responsible for the effective functioning of large control systems, and a mistake made can lead to very serious consequences. I Basic physiological characteristics of labor activity
An important pattern of social development was the division of labor into two forms: mental labor and physical labor. From this point of view, work takes into account either the specific weight of the muscle load, or the specific weight of one of the components of the nervous load - the mental load. Labor is classified as physical with the predominance of the muscular component, as mental - with the predominance of the mental component.
To characterize and evaluate the physiological cost of work, the terms "severity" and "labor intensity" are used. Both terms are covered by a single concept of "functional stress of the body at work." Functional stress is determined both by the nature of the workload and by the working environment. When working, the body is presented with two types of load: muscular and nervous. Therefore, the functional stress of the body during work should, depending on the type of load, be characterized either as the severity or as the intensity of labor. The intensity of labor is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of muscle load. The severity of labor is the involvement of the musculoskeletal system and energy supply functions in the labor process.
The assessment of the severity of labor is given on the basis of energy consumption during work. This is explained by the fact that energy costs reflect well the dynamic load on the musculoskeletal system and ensure the performance of vegetative functions under this load - respiration, blood circulation. However, static work has relatively little effect on the level of energy consumption. Therefore, indicators such as the weight of the load being held (the force of holding the load), the nature of the working posture, the stationarity or non-stationarity of the workplace are also used. The intensity of labor is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of nervous load. In physiological terms, human labor activity can be characterized in two ways: first, by the type of labor and the functional stress it causes (the qualitative side); secondly, according to the degree of this functional tension (quantitative side).
Classification and types of labor activity I.
Forms of labor that require significant muscle activity.
This group includes professions of heavy and medium physical labor. Examples are the professions of a digger, a loader, a blacksmith, a bricklayer, and agricultural professions. All these works are characterized by increased energy costs of the order of 4000-7000 kcal/day. or in units of work - 200-300 thousand kgm per shift. An essential negative feature of physical labor is its social inefficiency. To achieve any justified productivity, a high, non-optimal strain of a person's physical forces is required. Another drawback in the physiological plan is that physical labor always develops the muscular system one-sidedly, and often causes muscle hypertrophy.
P. Forms of mechanized labor.
The group includes numerous professions in all industries. Energy costs in these groups are 3000-4000 kcal/day, and mechanical work can be up to 100 thousand kgm per shift. A distinctive feature of mechanized labor, in addition to reducing the muscle component in work, is the development of speed and accuracy of movements. The program of actions becomes more complicated, which is associated with two circumstances: the maintenance of mechanisms requires knowledge of their design; before the execution of the work, it is planned, calculated according to the drawings. Therefore, professions of mechanized labor require the accumulation of special knowledge and motor skills. III.
Forms of labor associated with semi-automatic and automatic production.
These are forms of labor associated with the further mechanization of the production process. In semi-automatic production, a person is completely switched off from the processing process. Its task is to feed the material for processing into the machine, start the mechanism, and remove the finished product. The main feature of these works is monotony. No high qualification required. Almost all the work is addressed to the motor apparatus, which requires, first of all, the speed and accuracy of movements. Automation dramatically changes the role of a person in the labor process. It ceases to complement the mechanism, which now performs not only the main, but also auxiliary functions. The worker controls the machinery. Its task is to ensure uninterrupted operation. The main feature of the action in all cases is the readiness for action and the urgency of reactions associated with it. IV.
Forms of group work*
A typical type of group work is conveyors. The basis of labor productivity on the assembly line is the automation of motor skills, leading to a minimum of time for their implementation. The group form of labor is unthinkable without synchronization of the work of its participants, which determine the cycle of the conveyor, i.e., the time interval provided to the worker to perform the next operation. The smaller the interval, the more monotonous the work. The most significant feature that characterizes the operation of the conveyor is monotony. v.
Forms of work associated with remote control.
Remote control of production arises on the basis of mechanization and automation. From a physiological point of view, there are two main forms of remote control of the production process. In some cases, control panels require frequent human actions, and in others - rare ones. At the same time, workers have different functional states. In the first case, the uninterrupted attention of the worker receives a discharge in numerous movements or speech-motor acts. In the second case, the worker is mainly in a state of readiness for action, but his reactions are few. VI.
Forms of intellectual labor.
There are two forms of intellectual (mental) labor: 1) Professions employed in the sphere of material production, but not directly related to the objects of labor * These are the professions of an engineer, designer, programmer. 2) Professions related to scientific work, professions of applied knowledge (teachers, doctors), professions in the field of literature, art (actors, painters, writers). The sphere of material production to a greater extent rows the application of forces in terms of technization and organization. Among the professions of an engineering profile, two types can be distinguished: one is associated with the design and forecasting of the production process (designers); the task of the second is the implementation of operational functions (operators, technicians, dispatchers, accountants, statisticians). Intellectual labor with little muscle activity is the most energy efficient. Daily costs are 2400-2800 kcal/day. (i.e., they exceed the main metabolism by only 600-1000 kcal.). These savings are due to reduced physical activity and are not positive. Brain activity is deprived of support from the muscles, which can lead to negative consequences (various cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the musculoskeletal system). The main features of intellectual labor are the complexity and variability of the action program. The more signals of different content and meaning are received by the employee, the more difficult it is to choose the right action, the more stressful the work.
Methods for assessing the severity and intensity of labor
To assess the severity and intensity of labor, various indicators and criteria are used. Usually there are four degrees of severity and intensity of labor. As criteria for assessing the severity of labor, both external indicators - the characteristics of work, and internal costs for the body are used. To assess tension, such a gradation is not always acceptable.
Evaluation of the severity of labor. The severity of physical labor is determined by the following indicators of dynamic and static work: the weight of the load being moved and the power of work; the magnitude of the static load; the nature of the working posture.
The power of external work is determined by the amount of physical energy expended by a person. To calculate the power of external work, the amount of work performed per unit of time is calculated. Since physical work is associated with the movement of any goods or materials over a distance, the calculation takes into account: lifting the load; move it horizontally lowering the load.
The calculation of the work performed is carried out according to the formula:
A \u003d [P x H + (P x 1/9) + (P x b) / 2] x k,
where A is the amount of work in kgm; P is the weight of the cargo in kg; H is the height of the load from the initial state; 1 - distance of movement of cargo horizontally; b - distance of lowering the load; k - coefficient equal to b.
To calculate the power of work, the formula is used:
N \u003d (AD) x k,
where N is the power of work in watts / s; A is the amount of work in kgm; 4 - the time for which the child's work was completed in sec; k - conversion factor kgm to watts, equal to 10.
The maximum value of the transported load is the main indicator for determining the severity of labor.
In everyday life, static work manifests itself in two forms: maintaining a posture and holding a load. In most cases, when holding a load or maintaining a working posture, the opposing force is gravity. In some cases, static contraction may be directed to overcome another external force, such as pressing a pedal. The static load associated with the maintenance of effort by a person without moving the body or its individual links is characterized by the magnitude of the retained load or effort. The static load is determined by the product of the force and the holding time. The value of the static load is expressed in kg/s. An indicator of the static load is also the magnitude of the angles of inclination and the duration of stay in a particular position in full relation to the duration of the work shift. Posture is the maintenance of the human body in a certain position. Posture determines the psychological effect, which is expressed in the concept of comfort.
For a practical assessment of the severity of labor, we can recommend the indicators given in Table. 1. ^file 1
Criteria for the severity of physical labor Signs Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor (indicators of external work) Physical work I - light П - medium Ш - heavier IV - very heavy , w* with the participation of the shoulder girdle, with the participation of the lower extremities and torso UP to 10 up to 22 up to 45 over 45
up to 43 200 up to 61 200 up to 46
up to 97 200 up to 129 600 up to 90
up to 208 800 up to 266 400 over 90
over 208,800 over 266,400 Working posture and movements in space Stationary workplace. Free posture. Stationary workplace. Tilts up to 30° Stationary workstation. Slopes up to 30a 100-300 times per shift or stay in a stationary place. Slopes up to 30 * and more more than 300 times per shift or stay
50-100 times per shift or stay in an inclined position up to 30 * 10-25% of the working time. Walking up to 4 km per shift. inclined position up to 30* 25-50% of the working time. Walking up to 7 km per shift. in an inclined position for more than 50% of the working time. Walking up to 15 km per shift. Physiological cost: Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor (internal indicators - cost for the body) in terms of energy costs (basic metabolism - 1D kcal / min.); 150 kcal/^mu* 172 dic/sec. " 150-200 172-g% g 200-300, 232-293 over 300 over 293 in pulse rate (rest - 60-70 bpm; safety limit - 140-150 bpm) 75-100 100-125 125-150 150-175 oxygen consumption (rest - 0.2 l/min.) up to 0.5 l/min. up to 0.8 d/min.
L up to 1.5 l/min. over 1.5 l/min.
The intensity of labor characterizes that side of labor [activity, which requires the mobilization of higher mental functions of a person, such as perception, attention, sherative memory, analytical and synthetic activity of the DNS. Different degrees of tension of these functions are little or almost not reflected in such indicators as gas exchange, energy consumption, blood circulation If we limit mental work to those types of activities that are widely used in production, and leave aside the highest forms of creative and performing work (scientists, artists, public figures), we can distinguish the following indicators used to assess the intensity of labor: 1) the degree of tension of attention; 2) density of perceived signals; 3) pace of work; 4) the density of the work shift; 5) intensity of analyzer functions; 6) the degree of emotional stress; 7) intellectual tension; 8) monotony of work; 9) load on memory; 10) shift work. Let's consider these indicators in more detail.
Attention. There is no single reasonable criterion for assessing the intensity of attention in a production environment (depending on the activity). It is recommended that the assessment of labor intensity in terms of the attention parameter be carried out according to production criteria. With regard to operator activities, we can talk about the number of objects of simultaneous observation or control, i.e. how many of the total number of objects of observation are the most important and require simultaneous observation. (For example, out of 100 objects, 5 or 10 are the most important and require constant monitoring: machine tools, console signals, in essence, we are talking about the volume of the information field.) Another indicator that characterizes attention is the duration of concentrated observation. This indicator is calculated as a relative value as a percentage of the total shift time. Since the operator is required to be able to quickly switch attention, the frequency (average, maximum) of these switches can serve as an indicator of labor intensity.
Density of perceived signals. This indicator characterizes the degree of labor intensity depending on the amount of incoming information per unit of time. An assessment of the degree of labor intensity according to this indicator should take into account the nature of the activity, the quantity and nature of information transformation. The signal density calculation is calculated as the product of the number of information features per unit of time. For example, the number of messages is 60, each message has 4 features. A total of 4 x 60 = 240 per unit of time (usually an hour). Thus, this indicator characterizes the amount of information per unit of time.
The pace and density of the work shift. These indicators characterize the degree and uniformity of the workload per shift. Depending on the nature of the activity, two types of activity can be distinguished: 1) motor, 2) control and observation. The “activity coefficient” can serve as an integral indicator of the work shift density. This is an indicator of the ratio of the total duration of active (adjusting, performing) actions to the total time of observation, control, but not the duration of the shift. The low weight of active actions, when it is necessary to maintain constant vigilance, creates the conditions for a motivational conflict, which requires significant nervous tension (less than 0.2). At the same time, too high "activity coefficient" (more than 0.8) reflects the intensity of work associated with increased physical activity.
The intensity of analyzer functions is associated with the detection and isolation of signals of various modalities (vision, hearing, smell, tactile sensitivity). By physical strength, the signals are divided into: 1) weak below the operational threshold; 2) optimal in the intervals of the boundaries of the operational threshold; 3) annoying above the operational threshold. Another approach to assessing the degree of load on the analyzers is that the degree of load is compared with the category of normative indicators. The degree of visual strain is determined according to SN 245-75 of the category of visual work, where 6 categories of visual work are distinguished depending on the size of the object in the field of view. The degree of tension of the organ of hearing can be determined in two ways. First, by the audibility of speech from a distance or by the intelligibility of speech as a percentage of the ratio with the noise level. Secondly, according to the norms of permissible levels of sound pressure and sound level at workplaces. Criteria Signs I - relaxed 1. Attention, the number of simultaneously observed objects; duration of concentrated observation (as a percentage of the duration of the work shift) up to 5 up to 25 2. Analyzer voltage! features:
Vision. Dimensions of the object, mm, at a distance of the object to the eyes of the worker up to 1 m more than 5 mm Hearing No interference 3. Density of signals (messages)
complex up to 60 to 15 4. The amount of RAM. Need to keep up to 2 elements in memory less than 2 hours Memory load (in terms of the number of production process parameters) up to 50 5. Intelligent tension No need to make independent decisions 6. Monotony: repeatability (per hour) number of elements in operation | duration in sec.
I Time of active actions as a percentage of the duration of the shift (activity coefficient)
1 180 over 10 over 100
10-20% 0.5-0.3 7. Emotional stress Work on an individual basis "("ab.chits" * "/!
labor intensity II - little intense IV tiger;! / - "\u003e * 6-10 Syu. and "IL 26-50 Syulgya 75 1-6 mm less than 0.3 mm There are interferences against which speech is heard: up to 2.5 m up to 1.5 m 61-150 more than 400 16-40 more than 60 up to 2 elements more than 5 elements more than 2 hours more than 5 hours up to 100 more than 200 Work according to a simple Heuristic instruction (creative) activity 181-300 more than 600 10-6 3 1 100 -45 19 1 20-50% more than 80* 0.2-0.3 less than 0.1! more "more than 0.8 Work according to individual Ogi^tpennop. schedule security H|>U" LF chip. personal rsh k
Emotional stress. In real working conditions, the degree of emotional stress is a significant factor determining the success and reliability of the activity. Gradations of emotional tension are evaluated according to production criteria that create the prerequisites for the emergence of unfavorable emotional states. These factors will be: 1.
Temporary factors (work according to an individual plan, work according to an exact schedule, work in conditions of time pressure). 2. Motivational significance of violations in the process of activity (emergency situations, work associated with personal risk, with responsibility for the safety of others).
Intellectual stress. The magnitude of the intellectual voltage cannot be accurately categorized. The factors that determine it can be: work related to the need to develop algorithms for activities of varying complexity; work related to decision-making at various levels; work related to the need for the participation of a non-standard, creative component of the activity.
The monotony of work. Monotonous types of labor include those that are characterized by the following features: 1) a high frequency of repetition of labor actions; 2)
short time cycle of operations; 3) low-element quantitative composition of the operation;
4) structural uniformity of labor activities; 5) simplicity (of labor actions. These criteria relate mainly to jobs where the energy | factor plays a leading role, i.e. work with a pronounced physical component. The same jobs where the information factor predominates, i.e. .the tension of sensory mechanisms and certain mental functions is required, they are considered monotonous if they: 1) are associated with long-term passive observation; 2) have a lack of influx of sensory information; 3)
have limited exposure to production signals
nalas and irritants.
Memory. The load on memory is due, firstly, to the necessary amount of information to be remembered; secondly, with the duration of storage of the necessary information in the
esse activities.
Labor shift. According to the degree of intensity of the labor regime, four categories are distinguished: 1) Work in the morning
shift is the most optimal, 2) Evening shift. Everyday work is superimposed on work, activity is worse in the evening. 3) Alternation of shift work: morning, evening, night. 4)
Round the clock work. Three-shift and round-the-clock work is the most tiring and not physiological.
Labor intensity criteria are given in Table. 2.
Literature
Grimak LL. Communication with yourself. - M., 1991.
Karpov AZ, Psychology of management. - M., 1999.
Kitaev-Smyk L A. Psychology of stress. - M., 1983.
Leonova AZ., Medvedeva VL. Functional states of a person in labor activity. - M., 1981.
mental states. Series “Reader in Psychology * / Ed. V. Usmanov. - SPb., 2000.
Rosenblat VZ. Fatigue problem. - M., 1975.
Guide to the physiology of labor / Ed. Z.M. Zolina, N.F. Iz-merov. - M., 1983.
The human factor / Ed. G. Salvendi. In 6 vols. T. 2. - M., 1992.
Questions for self-examination 1.
What is the classification of types of labor activity? 2.
What is the physiological cost of work? 3.
What is the functional stress of the body in the process of labor? 4.
What is hard work? five.
What is labor intensity?
Essay topics 1.
Characteristics of the types of non-mechanized physical labor. 2.
Characteristics of the forms of conveyor labor. 3.
Characteristics of types of labor with a predominance of sensory load. 4.
Methods for assessing the severity of labor. 6.
Methods for assessing labor intensity.
In physiological terms, the boundaries of adolescence approximately coincide with the education of children in grades 5-8 of secondary school and covers the age from 11-12 to 14-16 years. The special position of adolescence in the development cycle is reflected in its other names: “transitional”, “difficult”, “critical”, they fix the complexity and importance of the developmental processes occurring at this age associated with the transition from one era of life to another.
The transition from childhood to adulthood is the main content and specific difference of all aspects of development in this period of physical, mental, moral, social development.
The importance of adolescence is also determined by the fact that it lays the foundations and outlines the general directions for the formation of the moral and social attitudes of the individual. .
The psychological characteristics of adolescence are called "adolescent complex". The teenage complex includes: sensitivity to outsiders' assessment of their appearance, ability, ability to combine with extreme arrogance and categorical judgments in relation to others; attentiveness sometimes coexists with amazing callousness, painful shyness with swagger, a desire to be recognized and appreciated by others - with ostentatious independence, a struggle with authorities, generally accepted rules and widespread ideals - with the deification of random idols, and sensual fantasizing with dry sophistication. . One of the main reasons for the psychological difficulties of this age is puberty, which predetermines the uneven development in various directions. A characteristic feature of this age is the inquisitiveness of the mind, the desire for knowledge, a teenager eagerly strives to master as much knowledge as possible, while not paying due attention to their systematic nature.
Adolescents direct their mental activity to the area that fascinates them the most. This age is characterized by emotional instability and sharp mood swings (from exaltation to depression). The most affective violent reactions occur when trying to infringe on self-esteem. The peak of emotional instability in boys is at the age
11-13 years old, for girls - 13-15 years old. Characteristic for adolescents is the polarity of the psyche: - Purposefulness, perseverance and impulsiveness, instability); - Increased self-confidence, peremptory judgments are quickly replaced by vulnerability and self-doubt; - The need for communication + the desire to retire; - swagger in behavior + shyness; - Romanticism + cynicism, prudence
Tenderness, tenderness + cruelty.
An important stage of maturation is the process of formation of self-consciousness. It is based on the ability of a person to distinguish himself from his life activity, a conscious attitude to his needs and abilities, drives, feelings and thoughts.
In adolescents, the subjective image of "I" is formed to a greater extent from the opinions of others. A mandatory component of self-awareness is self-esteem. Often, adolescents have inadequate self-esteem: it either tends to increase, or self-esteem is significantly reduced. Personality formation in boys and girls is different intellectually and emotionally. Boys have a more pronounced ability to abstract, a much wider range of interests, but along with this, they are more helpless in real life situations. Girls have a more highly developed verbal and speech activity, the ability to compassion and experience. They are more sensitive to criticism of their appearance than to critical assessments of their intellectual abilities. A teenager strives for independence, but in problematic life situations, he tries not to take responsibility for his decisions, and waits for help from adults.
The leading activity at this age is communicative, communicating primarily with their peers, a teenager receives the necessary knowledge about life.
Very important for a teenager is the opinion of the group to which he belongs. The very fact of belonging to a certain group gives him additional self-confidence.
The position of a teenager in a group, the qualities that he acquires in a team significantly affect his behavioral motives. The isolation of a teenager from the group can cause frustration and be a factor in increased anxiety.
In modern Western literature, Erik Erickson's concept of an identity crisis as the main feature of adolescence has become widespread (identity is understood as the definition of oneself as a person, as an individuality). Erickson calls this crisis "Identification or Role Confusion." A teenager actively "trying on" various social roles, determines the requirements, opportunities and rights inherent in each new image. Undoubtedly, negative objects will also be present in the role-playing fan, the very existence of which can provoke conflict situations.
The essence of the "teenage complex" is their own, characteristic of this age and certain psychological characteristics - behavioral models, specific adolescent behavioral reactions to environmental influences.
The adolescent phase of primary socialization - all adolescents of this age are schoolchildren who are dependent on their parents or the state. The social status of a teenager is not much different from that of a child. Psychologically, this age is very contradictory, it is characterized by disproportions in the levels and rates of development. Adolescence's "sense of adulthood" is mainly a new level of ambition, anticipating a position that the adolescent has not actually attained. For a teenager, it is very important that his adulthood be noticed by others, so that the form of his behavior is not childish. The value of work for a teenager is determined by its adulthood, and the emerging ideas about the norms of behavior provoke a discussion of the behavior of adults, usually not very partial, hence the typical age conflicts. the moment of self-determination has come; the problem of further choice has not yet arisen sharply - either to receive a secondary education at school and focus in the distant future on a higher educational institution, or to combine education with obtaining a profession in secondary specialized institutions, such as colleges, technical schools, etc. Thus, a large group of children is would be in a state of "social peace": adults in relation to a teenager behave like with a child, the requirements of responsibility for the actions and decisions made are still weakly presented. With an already sufficiently formed character, social stratifications are still weakly expressed. The projection of family relationships and attitudes serve as a guide for the teenager in everyday life and interpersonal contacts. It can be assumed that in families where a teenager is deprived of the attention of adults, where there is no trusting relationship, a feeling of hostility to the whole world around is formed. Given the difficult socio-economic situation in society, its instability and uncertainty about the future of the vast majority of the adult population, an increased background of anxiety, unfortunately, is becoming the norm. Children, who feel the atmosphere of the environment more subtly, cannot but accept this as a natural state.
Currently, the aggressive behavior of adolescents is a problem that worries both parents and teachers.
The psychological atmosphere in the children's team often depends on children who are more aggressive towards others.
