HUMANISTS OF THE LATE MIDDLE AGES about physical education. G. p. s. were the ideologists of the emerging bourgeoisie. Opposing theology and scholasticism, they proclaimed the cult of the human personality and put forward a new ideal of a person imbued with earthly feelings and interests. The creativity of the humanists was fed by two sources: the culture of the ancients and folk art. The latter was not used by everyone, and therefore humanism meant the restoration or revival of what was created by the peoples of the ancient world. In contrast to the medieval scholastic pedagogy, based on the formal study of subjects and ignoring the physical. education, humanists put forward a new pedagogy, aimed not only at educating the mind, but also at developing the human body. They wanted to educate in this way enterprising, physically developed bourgeois, capable of asserting their dominance, making long journeys, discovering new lands, and subjugating the peoples inhabiting them.

A prominent humanist of the Renaissance was the Italian educator Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446), who in 1424 organized a school ("House of Joy") in Mantua. In contrast to the prevailing opinion at that time that the allegedly ugly terrain promotes the assimilation of sciences, the "House of Joy" was located in a beautiful country park. Large bright rooms were constantly ventilated, and wide (for that time) corridors were lit with natural light. The school strongly encouraged curiosity, mental and physical. student activity. Scholastic cramming was replaced by visual teaching methods. Especially a lot of Vittorino cared about health and physical. student development. He drew them into outdoor games in the bosom of nature, organized bathing and taught them to swim. He developed physical skills in students. strength, dexterity, beauty and elegance of manners, watched the neatness of clothes and followed morality. Games, fencing, horseback riding, swimming, dancing and military exercises took pride of place in the general complex of subjects studied at his school. Vittorino wanted to raise people from the children of wealthy parents capable of strengthening the position of the bourgeoisie. About the children of the poor, especially artisans and peasants, he spoke dismissively and considered unnecessary any concern for their upbringing.

The French writer G. Francois Rabelais (1494 - 1553) was also an ardent champion of the combination of mental and physical. education. He proclaimed the human right to perfection, health and cheerful laughter. He suggested bringing upbringing in a form that is pleasant for children, alternating mental activities with physical ones. exercises, washing the body, doing massage, changing clothes after sweating, and when learning - to consistently move from simple to complex, from easy to difficult. From other G. p. s. he was distinguished by the fact that he proposed to use not only the exercises of the ancients, but also the exercises that existed at that time among the nobles, townspeople and peasants, namely: running, jumping and throwing; archery, crossbow, squeaks and cannons; swimming on the chest, on the back, on the side and jumping into the water; fencing with a spear, sword, sword, rapier, halberd and dagger. Rabelais advised to engage in equestrian sports, rope climbing, rowing and sailing, hunting, tourism, wrestling, chess, gymnastic exercises; playing ball, dice and dancing. Rabelais did not care about the people, but about the rich, but he drew his ideas from the people, kept pace with the advanced trends of his time and did a lot to move society forward.

The well-known humanist physician Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530 - 1606) made sure that an idle life, incessant nightly orgies, excessive worship of Bacchus and excesses in nutrition did not lead to the degeneration of the ruling nobility. He divided all medicine into curative and protective. He attributed the means of struggle against excesses to protective, and first of all physical. exercises. He divided the latter into three groups: true, or therapeutic; military, or necessary in life; false, or athletic. Mercurialis had a negative attitude towards those physical. exercises, to-rye required significant physical exertion. the forces of those involved, and praised the passive use of the factors of nature (moving around the garden in an armchair, on a stretcher, on hanging beds, in cradles and traveling in a carriage, on a ship).

In the last years of the Renaissance, humanists appeared, who referred not only to the authority of the ancients, but also to the natural rights of man. The representative of this direction was Michel Montaigne (1533 - 1595). Physical he proposed to combine upbringing, mental education and moral perfection in a single pedagogical process. “They educate,” he said, “not the soul, not the body, but a person; they should not make two of them; and, as Plato said, they should not educate one without the other, but they should be led in the same way, like a pair of horses harnessed to one drawbar ".

G. p. s. fought against church scholastic education and the ascetic ideals of the Middle Ages, put forward the ideas of the free development of the human personality, but thought not about the people, but about the elite elite of society, about people who oppressed the people. In the struggle with the authority of the church, they exhausted all their inspiration and turned into a narrow caste of philologists.

The real humanists of that time were the utopian socialists (cf. Utopian socialists on physical education) Thomas More and Tomaso Companella.

Literature: Lesgaft P. F. Collected pedagogical works, vol. I. M., 1951, pp. 143 - 157. Toropov N. I. Thoughts of bourgeois humanists on physical education (see Essays on the history of physical culture, issue V, 1950). Rabelais. Gargantua and Pantagruel. L., 1938. Montaigne. Experiences. S.-Pb., 1891. Thoughts on the upbringing and education of F. Rabelais and M. Montaigne (translated from French). M., 1896.

Sources:

1. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Physical Culture and Sports. Volume 1. Ch. ed. - G. I. Kukushkin. M., "Physical culture and sport", 1961. 368 p.

Middle Ages .

Aurelius Augustine.

Aurelius Augustine lived at the turn of two eras: paganism was replaced by Christianity. His father was a pagan, his mother a Christian. Aurelius received an excellent education, and when he was about 30, he became a Christian. The experience of his spiritual upheaval, as well as an excellent education, were reflected in his teachings. Aurelius Augustine is considered a pillar of patristics (the teachings of the Christian church fathers on the correct faith). We are interested in him as a philosopher. "City of God" and "City of the Earth" are two worlds in which man and mankind can dwell. The meaning of the development of society is in communion with the city of God, the meaning and happiness of the life of an individual is in communion with the "city of God". God pours out the light of love - God's grace, but in order to receive it, a person must be in a special state of readiness, openness of soul and heart, goodness. And when his soul accepts God's love, he is in a state of spiritual bliss. Augustine imposed his personal experience of gaining faith on the teachings of the Neoplatonists, who, in turn, used the images of the world of Plato's ideas.

Thomas Aquinas.

Another pillar of Christian philosophical thought, which does not limit itself to the interpretation of Holy Scripture and Christian ethics. Thomas Aquinas, like Aurelius Augustine, lived at the turn of the epochs: the Middle Ages are being replaced by the New Age, while only its individual, not yet very definite features still appear, but they begin to create a new world and society. In spiritual terms, this is connected with a new wave of rationalism. The main work of Thomas Aquinas is called "The Sum of Theology", and this is a very symbolic title. In this work, Thomas gives rational, based on reason and logical calculations, proofs of the existence of God. Scholasticism is a method of Christian-philosophical thought, which was applied using the achievements of its predecessors and developed by Thomas Aquinas. Thomas Aquinas himself also had numerous followers, modern representatives of neo-Thomism fit and substantiate the achievements of science in the Christian picture of the world.

New time.

On the verge of modern times and the Middle Ages, a very striking role in changing views on a person in the public mind was played by humanists. Humanism is a phenomenon in philosophical thought, culture, for which a person as such is the main object of study.

Dante Alighieri.

"After halfway through my earthly life, I found myself in a gloomy forest, having lost the right path in the darkness of the valley." What is not a statement of the mid-life crisis? A person dissatisfied with himself (or the world around him) goes on a journey through the circles of hell, taking the pagan poet Virgil as a guide. The interpretation of the great "Divine Comedy" is a hopeless business. It, like any other great cultural phenomenon, can be revealed in different ways to people of different ages, cultures, and nationalities. It is important for us to know that Dante recognizes a person's right to reflection, the autonomy of spiritual and mental life. The world of Dante's creativity is filled with different images, he knew medieval and ancient literature well, and was consecrated by love for a beautiful woman. What is not in this world is self-restraint, prescriptions, instructions from spiritual or secular mentors.

Erasmus of Rotterdam.

A biography fact that speaks volumes: being an orphan, Erasmus entered a monastery and was ordained, but obtained permission to leave the monastery and become an independent scientist. The science in which he was engaged is theology. But what was the time for theology? Furious disputes about the reform of the Catholic Church, the activities of Martin Luther, Thomas Müntzer, John Calvin. Supporters and opponents of the reformation (the reform of the Catholic Church) fought not only on paper. "Praise of stupidity" - this is how Erasmus of Rotterdam "greets" all violence in matters of faith. He was against the secular power of the church, but he believed that the reform of the church should be carried out without unnecessary upheavals. "Pure prayer leads the feeling to heaven, as if to a fortress, ... knowledge strengthens the mind with saving thoughts." I just want to continue: faith and worldview are a personal matter for each person. Respect for the individual spiritual and mental work of a person makes Erasmus of Rotterdam a great humanist.

Pico della Mirandola.

A polyglot (he knew many languages), which gave him the opportunity to read the Old Testament and the Koran in the original, was interested in many esoteric (secret) spiritual texts, for which he was accused of heresy (a doctrine that contradicts the official church teaching). He came to the conclusion that all religious and philosophical teachings are a reflection of one truth (how did he anticipate the ideas of theosophy?). A person "can become what he wants." What is not an apology (protection) of free will. Now I understand why he is considered a humanist!

Leonardo da Vinci.

As an artist of the Renaissance, he put man at the center of artistic creativity. He is unique even among them, the great artists of all times and peoples, because he not only created like a humanist, but also lived like a man of the New Age. It is amazing how much independence there is in the life of a person who depended on the orders of rich and noble patrons. Leonardo was forced to hide his scientific interests, personal life, so as not to be condemned and formally punished. At the same time, he did not abandon any topic of his research (human anatomy and physiology, water and air flows, aeronautics, new energy sources, etc., etc. - a long list). He painted pictures as much and as much as only the inner censor suggested to him. He posed deep philosophical problems in his work. Until now, scientists, writers and just lovers are trying to understand the meaning of "The Last Supper", the mystery of his Mona Lisa and the riddle of his John the Baptist. Real titanium Renaissance And reference humanism.

Thomas More.

He was not an aristocrat, but he made a brilliant career, from MP to Lord Chancellor (head of government). He allowed himself to publicly disagree with the church reform of Henry YIII (what strength of will and character one had to have!), For which he was executed. He wrote the book "Utopia", where he showed an ideal society with complete political and social equality of citizens.

Francois Rabel.

A priest and physician, he had a wide range of intellectual interests: from law to ancient treatises on medicinal herbs. For twenty years he wrote his famous novel Gargantua and Pantagruel. The satirical depiction of everything that limits the freedom of a person - from the system of education to the court - the glorification of education and sciences, the hymn to the "natural nature" of man, his natural beginning, interest, love and sympathy for the working people - all this makes Francois Rabelais a bright representative of humanism and a fighter for the liberation of man from the yoke of feudal conventions.

William Shakespeare.

Well, what can I say? The great playwright created a great image of a man: in love, hatred, rivalry, friendship, fidelity, deceit, strength, weakness, greatness, baseness. Shakespeare said everything about man. Therefore, disputes about who was behind the real person who came from Strattford-upon-Avon to conquer the theatrical audience of the capital still do not subside. A brilliant playwright who made himself is a classic example of a man of the New Age.

The theme of humanism is inexhaustible. The term became over time "already its original meaning, but from this it is no less, but more significant. Humanism is a synonym for humanity, philanthropy. In the 20th century, L . N. Tolstoy , Mahatma Gandhi , Martin Luther King . The list is not closed.

Social theories of early modern thinkers.

social contract theory

natural rights theory

rule of law theory

separation of powers theory

civil society theory

about the dangers of private property

about the dangers of a religious organization

Thinkers of the past about man and society. Middle Ages and Modern Times

Theory public agreements

The creators of the theory of the social contract believed that the pre-state state of society is "a war of all against all." This happens because people are inherently evil (Hobbes) or corrupted by the conditions of life (Locke). One way or another, in order to ensure public order, they agree to transfer part of their rights and freedoms to the state apparatus. "Leviathan" (monster) - this is how Hobbes calls this powerful tool for managing people, necessary for their own benefit. The creators of the theory are the English thinkers of the 17th century Hobbes and Locke, as well as representatives of the French Enlightenment, Jean Jacques Rousseau, for example.

Renaissance humanism

DANTE Alighieri (1265-1321) - Italian poet of a pan-European and world scale, thinker and politician of the late Middle Ages, humanist, founder of the Italian literary language.

Dante reflected in his worldview (primarily in the immortal “Comedy”, as well as in the philosophical treatises “Feast” and “Monarchy”) the era of communal revolutions, during which the prerequisites for the humanistic culture of the Italian Renaissance were created. It is highly significant that the impetus for the creation of a new worldview comes not from a “professional” philosopher, but from a poet.

He adopted the various currents of the then philosophical culture: from the legacy of antiquity preserved in the Latin West to the best achievements of Arabic thought, from orthodox Catholic theology to Averroist freethinking persecuted by the church. Recognizing the indisputable authority of Aristotle for his contemporary philosophy, Dante not only took into account, along with the Thomist, his Averroist interpretation, but also turned out to be no stranger to the Neoplatonic tendencies of medieval philosophical thought, coming both from the works of pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, and from the Book of Causes. ”, attributed to Aristotle, but in reality was a processing of the teachings of the Neoplatonist Proclus.

Accepting the dogmas of Christianity as an incomprehensible and immutable truth, Dante goes his own way in interpreting the correlation of the natural and divine principles - both in the world and in man. Without rejecting the act of creation, he uses the neo-Platonic idea of ​​the gradual descent of divine light. Dante calls nature "the art of God", "the act of the divine mind."

Dante saw the combination of natural and divine principles in the very process of the emergence of the human soul, considered as the completion of natural development by an act of creation. The twofold - mortal and immortal - nature of man also determines his twofold predestination to two ultimate goals. These two goals of human existence are two types of bliss, one of which is achievable in this, earthly life and consists “in the manifestation of one’s own virtue”, the other, “the bliss of eternal life, which consists in contemplating the divine face”, is achievable only posthumously and “with assistance of the divine will. Not ascetic asceticism in the name of renunciation of the world and avoiding worldly concerns, but the achievement of the highest limit of earthly perfection - this is how Dante understands the destiny of man. Faith in the earthly destiny of man, in his ability to accomplish his earthly feat on his own, allowed Dante to create in the Divine Comedy the first hymn to the dignity of man. Dante opens the way to a new humanistic anthropology.

An essential difference between the culture of the Renaissance is humanism in its new European understanding. In ancient times, humanism was assessed as the quality of a well-mannered and educated person, elevating him above the uneducated. In the medieval era, humanism was understood as the qualities of the sinful, vicious nature of man, placing him much lower than the angels and God. During the Renaissance, human nature began to be evaluated optimistically; a person is endowed with a divine mind, is able to act autonomously, without the guardianship of the church; sins and vices began to be perceived positively, as an inevitable consequence of life experimentation.

The beginning of humanism is associated with the diverse work of the Italian poet, "the first humanist" Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). In his works in Latin - the epic poem "Africa", the dialogue "My Secret" (1342-43), the treatises "On a solitary life" (1346), "On monastic leisure" (1347), "Invective against a doctor" and many others - he turned to the origins of the culture of the Middle Ages, to the spiritual heritage of classical antiquity, and, relying on it, outside the traditional system of scholasticism, laid the foundations of a new worldview. Humanism emerges as a system of cultural values ​​that is extra-feudal and anti-feudal in its essence, meeting the aspirations and interests of new social strata, primarily associated with the rise of Italian cities that have discarded obsolete forms of feudal social relations. Dante accepted scholastic wisdom, although he made his way through its intricacies in his own special way. Petrarch rejected it immediately: the wisdom of university science for him is the embodiment of stupidity and nonsense, and therefore the rite that formalizes it appears as an empty form devoid of any content. The defiant declaration of his own “ignorance” becomes the banner of the new thought: in response to the accusation heard from his interlocutors, Petrarch admits that he is “ignorant” in “their” science. From the point of view of official learning, he was exactly that: a dropout who had not even received a master's degree, unable to understand the intricacies of any of the disciplines of the then university education. A new humanistic culture, in the mastery of which Petrarch surpassed all his contemporaries, being the best connoisseur of ancient literature, poetry, history, mythology, philosophy, the owner of one of the richest libraries for that time - collections of classical authors, the creator of works that delighted contemporaries and descendants - this culture turned out to be incompatible with the traditions of the Middle Ages. Defiantly proclaiming his "ignorance", Petrarch rejected the scholarship of his opponents, opposing it with his new knowledge. Petrarch's invective "On his own and others' ignorance" is directed not only against Averroist freethinking, but also against the entire system of medieval philosophical knowledge.

The inner world of a person, and moreover, a “new” person, who breaks ties with medieval traditions and is aware of this break, is the subject of intense interest of Petrarch. A kind of anthropocentrism was also characteristic of medieval consciousness. But if in medieval Christianity man is the subject of the drama of the fall and redemption, then humanism paves the way for a new anthropology. drawing attention to the inner world of the human personality and to a new interpretation of human dignity, the place of man in the Universe. Turning to oneself, to one's inner aspirations is the main content of all the diverse works of Francesco Petrarch, his poems, philosophical treatises, and letters. In this in-depth self-analysis, the question inevitably arose about the relationship between the main components of his inner world - earthly passions, literary pursuits, striving for fame - with the traditional values ​​of the ascetic medieval moral ideal.

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) is one of the prominent representatives of this time, who cannot be ranked among the civil humanists. However, it is necessary to pay attention to his works, as they reflected new trends within the humanistic movement. Pleasure was considered by humanists on the basis of what can be an incentive in achieving a heavenly life. These ideas were actively embraced by Valla. In my opinion, of all the humanists considered in this work, it was Walla who moved away from the ideas of the Middle Ages more than others. Using everything new that the humanists came to, he goes much further in his reasoning.

In the views of Valla, a person has the opportunity to enjoy both on earth and in paradise. Moreover, pleasure was considered by him not as a stimulus, but as a goal. Proving the naturalness of pleasure, he radically revised all other issues related to earthly existence. It is not the very fact of combining ideas of heavenly and earthly pleasure that distinguishes his philosophy from the philosophy of other humanists, these ideas were expressed before him, but a different vision of the virtues. He rejected virtuous deeds in cases where they interfered with the receipt of pleasure, and encouraged if they led to it. He revised the civil calls of humanists to act for the benefit of the whole society, on the basis of the legitimacy of the desire of each person for personal enjoyment. Man acted not as a continuer of God's deeds, but as a selfish being whose goal was to get maximum pleasure. God was considered as a source of pleasure, one gets the impression that it is God who serves man, and not vice versa.

Michel Montaigne was born in 1533 into a noble family, his father was a very noble man and sat in the Bordeaux parliament. Mother was a baptized Jew. Michel received a good education, knew ancient languages ​​(Greek and Latin) very well. He went to college in Bordeaux, then followed in his father's footsteps and entered politics, but in the 70s of the 16th century. retired to his family castle and until the end of his days was engaged only in literary activities, wrote his famous "Experiments". Here he died in 1592.

Montaigne is a man of the age of humanism, his knowledge is a problem for him, and his attitude towards the ancients is such that he never tried to present a holistic concept of Plutarch or Seneca so beloved by him, not to mention other philosophers less close to him. “Communication” with the ancients boils down for him to taking out of context one or another composition of individual quotes or sayings with which he enters into a serious game - he checks them, judges, approves or rejects, and the judgment of Montaigne himself is never final.

He takes this or that problem, points out the difficulties of solving it, speaks about his point of view and the ancients, tries to find his own approaches to the issue that concerns him, shrugging his hands in impotence - and all this in order to return to the same topic again on the next page, in the next chapter, or in the next book of his Essays. Montaigne's "Experiments" - a work that in form is a free combination of reflections, united in chapters - is one of the remarkable monuments of the culture of the French Renaissance.

Montaigne's position differs significantly from the attitudes of philosophical rationalism that developed in the 17th century, since the mind of a Montaigne person is directed only to the search for truth, and not to finding it. Having criticized his own mind, having questioned the traditional picture of the world, Montaigne did not take a positive step towards a new formulation of the question of truth, this will be the task of the next century, the next generation of philosophers.

Absolute being (God), according to Montaigne, so surpasses all the possibilities of the human mind, all the “natural” abilities of human knowledge, that it appears as an incomprehensible beginning of the world, separated from man by an impenetrable veil of mystery. Montaigne's position, defended in the Apologia, is usually called skeptical fideism. As such, fideism, which affirms the priority of faith over knowledge and, accordingly, the priority of "superrational" truths over "reasonable" truths, has no less a long history than "natural theology.

However, skepticism is not at all the "ideal" that Montaigne aspires to. On the contrary, for him it is rather a point of repulsion or a frontier that must be overcome. (It is no coincidence that after 1580 Montaigne no longer refers to Sextus Empiricus). Already in the "Apology" the author notices that skeptics are characterized by "excessive doubt", which "refutes itself", and recognizing the relativity of morality, which varies from country to country, he does this as if reluctantly: "Such a variability of judgments is not for me . What is this good that yesterday I saw in honor, but which tomorrow will no longer enjoy it and which crossing some river turns into a crime?

Having voluntarily plunged into a world without truth, Montaigne immediately discovers all its "uncomfort", and the "uncomfort" is not only philosophical, but also the most practical - the inability to find firm criteria for everyday behavior among people. Montaigne is concerned not only with what one should think about life, but also - first of all - how to live it.

Historical prerequisites for the emergence of the culture of the Renaissance. Renaissance culture in Europe covers the period from the 40s of the XIV century. until the first decades of the 17th century. In different countries, it was born and flourished at different times. It first developed in Italy. The emergence of the Renaissance culture was prepared by a number of pan-European and local historical conditions. In the XIV-XV centuries. the possibilities of feudalism were most fully revealed, which was associated primarily with the wide spread of commodity-money relations. Early capitalist elements were emerging. Italy was one of the first to embark on this path, which was greatly facilitated by: the high level of urbanization of Northern and Central Italy, the subordination of the countryside to the city, the wide scope of handicraft production, trade, and financial affairs, oriented not only to domestic, but also to external market (see Ch. 13).

Although the leading positions in the political life of most Italian states belonged to the nobility and the top of the gentry, high social activity was shown by the middle strata of the polity and the urban lower classes. A rich, prosperous Italian city became the basis for the formation of the Renaissance culture, secular in its general orientation, meeting the needs of social development. Large merchants, the top of the gentiles and the urban nobility concentrated enormous wealth in their hands. Part of these funds were generously spent on the construction of palaces with magnificent interior decoration, on the construction of a family chapel in an old church, on the organization of festivities on the occasion of family celebrations and, of course, on the education of children, the creation of home libraries, etc. There was a need for architects, artists, musicians, qualified teachers.

Success in the civil service was then largely determined by a perfect knowledge of the Latin language (in the XIV-XV centuries it remained the official language of science, domestic and foreign policy), the brilliance of oratory. Not only for the urban elite, but also for the Popolan environment as a whole, a relatively high level of literacy was characteristic, which is explained by the spread of primary education in schools maintained at the expense of the city commune, as well as vocational training in the shops of artisans and merchants.

The intense life of the Italian city gave powerful impulses to the development of the secular culture of the Renaissance, which decisively departed from the church-scholastic tradition of the Middle Ages, the stronghold of which remained monastic schools and universities. The formation of a new culture was also prepared by public consciousness, changes in the moods of various social strata, especially the gentiles and the early bourgeoisie that was born in its depths. The asceticism of church morality in the era of active commercial, industrial and financial entrepreneurship was seriously at odds with the real life practice of these social strata with their desire for worldly goods, hoarding, craving for wealth, promiscuity in means. In the psychology of the merchants, the craft elite, the features of rationalism, prudence, courage in business endeavors, awareness of personal abilities and wide opportunities were clearly visible. There was a morality that justified "honest enrichment", the joys of worldly life, the crown of success of which was considered the prestige of the family, respect for fellow citizens, glory in the memory of descendants. The growth of secular sentiments, interest in the earthly deeds of man is an important ideological factor that influenced the emergence and further formation of the culture of the Renaissance.

This process had, along with its own historical and historical and cultural background. The historical task of the figures of the new culture was to restore the continuity with the highly developed culture of antiquity, which was largely lost in the 6th-11th centuries. and only partially revived in the XII-XIII centuries. The achievements of ancient scientists, philosophers, poets, architects, sculptors served as a model, a starting point for the creators of the Renaissance culture, who sought not only to imitate their predecessors, but also to surpass them. The culture of the Renaissance also had medieval roots - the secular traditions of urban, folk, knightly culture (see Ch. 21).

The concept of "Renaissance". The term "Renaissance" (ital. Rinascimento, in French form - "Renaissance") in the XV-XVI centuries. meant the beginning of a spiritual renewal, the rise of culture after its "thousand-year decline." The attitude of the figures of the new culture to the "medieval barbarism" was emphasized negatively.

In its essence, the culture of the Renaissance was the culture of the transitional era from the feudal system to the capitalist one, complex in its social basis, but in many respects reflecting the aspirations of the most advanced strata of feudal society. The creators of the Renaissance culture were people from various social strata, and its achievements in the humanities, literature, art, architecture became the property of the entire society, although to a greater extent - the educated and wealthy part of it. Representatives of large merchants, the feudal nobility, the urban patriciate, the rulers of the Italian, and from the end of the 15th century, showed interest in the new culture and materially stimulated its development. and other European states, finally, the papal court and part of the clergy. However, not in all cases, the upper strata were attracted by the ideological side of the Renaissance; a high level of education, the artistic merits of literature and art, new forms of architecture, and even fashion were incomparably more important for them.

The ideological basis of the Renaissance culture was humanism, a worldview that was secularly rationalistic in its main orientation. It only partially reflected the interests and moods of the social elite, being a democratic, anti-feudal worldview in content, for it freed the consciousness of a person from class, corporate, church-scholastic fetters, contributed to the disclosure of his creative potentials, active, active life.

early humanism. New Culture Program. Separate elements of humanistic thought were already in the work of Dante (see Ch. 21), although in general his worldview remained within the framework of medieval traditions. Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) became the true founder of humanism and Renaissance literature. Coming from a popolan family in Florence, he spent many years in Avignon under the papal curia, and the rest of his life in Italy. The author of lyrical poems in Volgar (the developing national language), the heroic Latin poem "Africa", "Bucolic Song", "Poetic Messages", Petrarch in 1341 was crowned in Rome with a laurel wreath as the greatest poet of Italy. His "Book of Songs" ("Canzoniere") reflected the subtlest shades of individual feelings, the poet's love for Laura, all the richness of his soul. The high artistic merit, the innovation of Petrarch's poetry gave it a classical character already during his lifetime; the influence of his work on the further development of Renaissance literature was enormous.

Petrarch developed humanistic ideas in Latin prose writings - the dialogue "My Secret", treatises, and numerous letters. He became the herald of a new culture, addressed to the problems of man and based primarily on the heritage of the ancients. He is credited with collecting the manuscripts of ancient authors and their textological processing. He associated the rise of culture after the “thousand-year barbarity” with an in-depth study of ancient poetry and philosophy, with the reorientation of knowledge towards the predominant development of the humanities, especially ethics, with spiritual freedom and moral self-improvement of the individual through familiarization with the historical experience of mankind. One of the central concepts in his ethics was the concept of humanitas (lit. - human nature, spiritual culture). It became the basis for building a new culture that gave a powerful impetus to the development of humanitarian knowledge - studia humanitatis, hence the studia humanitatis, which was established in the 19th century. the term "humanism". Petrarch was also characterized by some duality, inconsistency: the power of Christian dogma, medieval stereotypes of thinking, was still strong. The affirmation of secular principles in his worldview, understanding the human right to the joy of earthly life, enjoying the beauty of the world around him, love for a woman, striving for fame - became the result of a long internal struggle, which was especially clearly reflected in the dialogue “My Secret”, where two positions collided: Christian-ascetic and secular, two cultures - medieval and Renaissance.

Petrarch challenged scholasticism: he criticized its structure, insufficient attention to human problems, subordination to theology, condemned its method based on formal logic. He exalted philology, the science of the word, which reflects the essence of things, highly valued rhetoric and poetry as a mentor in the moral improvement of man. The program for the formation of a new culture was outlined in general terms by Petrar. Its development was completed by his friends and followers - Boccaccio and Salutati, whose work completes the stage of early humanism in Italy.

The life of Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), who came from a merchant family, was associated with Florence and Naples. The author of poetic and prose works written in the Volgar language - The Fiesolan Nymphs, The Decameron and others, he became a true innovator in the creation of the Renaissance novel. The book of short stories "The Decameron" was a huge success among contemporaries and was translated into many languages. In the short stories, where the influence of folk urban literature can be traced, humanistic ideas have found artistic expression: ideas about a person whose dignity and nobility are rooted not in the nobility of the family, but in moral perfection and valiant deeds, whose sensual nature should not be suppressed by asceticism church morality, whose mind, sharpness, courage - it is these qualities that give value to a person - help to endure in life's adversities. A bold secular conception of man, a realistic depiction of social mores, ridiculing the hypocrisy and hypocrisy of monasticism brought the wrath of the church on him. Boccaccio was offered to burn the book, to renounce it, but he remained true to his principles.

Boccaccio was also known to his contemporaries as a philologist. His "Genealogy of the Pagan Gods" - a collection of ancient myths - reveals the ideological richness of the artistic thought of the ancients, affirms the high dignity of poetry: Boccaccio raises its significance to the level of theology, seeing in both a single truth, only expressed in different forms. This rehabilitation of pagan wisdom as opposed to the official position of the church was an important step in the development of the secular culture of the Renaissance. The exaltation of ancient poetry, understood broadly, like any artistic creation, is a characteristic feature of early humanism from Petrarch to Salutati.

Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) belonged to a knightly family, received a legal education in Bologna, from 1375 until the end of his days he served as chancellor of the Florentine Republic. He became a well-known humanist, continuing the undertakings of Petrarch and Boccaccio, with whom he had friendly relations. In treatises, numerous letters, speeches, Salutati developed the program of Renaissance culture, understanding it as the embodiment of universal human experience and wisdom. He brought to the fore a new set of humanitarian disciplines (studia humanitatis), which included philology, rhetoric, poetics, history, pedagogy, ethics, and emphasized their important role in the formation of a highly moral and educated person. He theoretically substantiated the significance of each of these disciplines, especially emphasizing the educational functions of history and ethics, defended a humanistic position in assessing ancient philosophy and literature, entered into a sharp debate on these fundamental issues with scholastics and theologians who accused him in heresy. Salutati paid special attention to the issues of ethics - the inner core of humanitarian knowledge, in his concept the main thing was the thesis that earthly life is given to people and their own task is to build it according to the natural laws of goodness and justice. Hence the moral norm - not the "exploits" of asceticism, but creative activity in the name of the good of all people.

civic humanism. In the first half of the XV century. humanism turns into a broad cultural movement. Its centers are Florence (it retains its leadership until the end of the century), Milan, Venice, Naples, later Ferrara, Mantua, Bologna. There are circles of humanists and private schools, which aim to educate a comprehensively developed free personality. Humanists are invited to universities to give courses in rhetoric, poetics, and philosophy. They are willingly given the positions of chancellors, secretaries, diplomats. A special social stratum is emerging - the humanistic intelligentsia, around which a scientific and cultural environment is being formed, attached to the new education. The humanitarian disciplines are rapidly gaining strength and authority. The texts of ancient authors with comments by humanists and their own writings are widely circulated.

There is also an ideological differentiation of humanism; various directions are outlined in it. One of the leading trends in the first half of the XV century. there was civil humanism, the ideas of which were developed mainly by Florentine humanists - Leonardo Bruni, Matteo Palmieri, and then their younger contemporary Alamanno Rinuccini. This direction was characterized by an interest in socio-political issues, which were considered in close connection with ethics, history, and pedagogy. The principles of republicanism, freedom, equality and justice, service to society and patriotism, characteristic of civic humanism, grew on the soil of Florentine reality - in the conditions of popolan democracy, which in the second half of the 15th century. replaced by the tyranny of the Medici.

The founder of civil humanism was Leonardo Bruni (1370 or 1374-1444), a student of Salutati, just like him, for many years the chancellor of the Florentine Republic. An excellent connoisseur of ancient languages, he translated the works of Aristotle from Greek into Latin, wrote a number of works on moral and pedagogical topics, as well as an extensive History of the Florentine people built on documents, which laid the foundations of Renaissance historiography. Expressing the sentiments of the genocide, Bruni defended the ideals of republicanism - civil liberties, including the right to elect and be elected to the magistracy, the equality of all before the law (he strongly condemned the oligarchic aspirations of the magnates), justice as a moral norm, which in the first place should be guided by magistrates. These principles are fixed in the constitution of the Florentine Republic, but the humanist is clearly aware of the gap between them and reality. He sees the way to their implementation in the education of citizens in the spirit of patriotism, high social activity, subordination of personal benefit to common interests. This secular ethical-political concept is developed in the work of Bruni's younger contemporary, Palmieri.

Matteo Palmieri (1406-1475) was born into a family of pharmacists, was educated at the University of Florence and a humanist circle, and was engaged in political activities for many years. As a humanist, he became famous for his extensive work “On Civil Life”, the poem “The City of Life” (both works were written in Volgar), historical works (“History of Florence”, etc.), public speeches. In the spirit of the ideas of civil humanism, he put forward an interpretation of the concept of "justice". Considering the people (full citizens) to be its true bearer, he insisted that the laws correspond to the interests of the majority. The political ideal of Palmieri is a popolan republic, where power belongs not only to the top, but also to the middle strata of society. He believed that the main thing in the education of virtue was labor, obligatory for all, justified the desire for wealth, but allowed only honest methods of accumulation. He saw the goal of pedagogy in the education of an ideal citizen - an educated, active in economic and political life, a patriot, faithful to his duty to the fatherland. In the poem "City of Life" (it was condemned by the church as heretical), he expressed the idea of ​​the injustice of private property, which gives rise to social inequality and vices.

Alamanno Rinuccini (1426-1499), a native of a noble merchant family of Florence, gave many years to public service, but was removed from it in 1475 after a conflict with Lorenzo Medici, the de facto ruler of the republic. In his writings (“Dialogue on Freedom”, “Speech at the Funeral of Matteo Palmieri”, “Historical Notes”) he defended the principles of civil humanism under the tyranny of the Medici, which nullified the republican freedoms of Florence. Rinuccini elevated political freedom to the rank of the highest moral category - without it, the true happiness of people, their moral perfection, and civic activity are impossible. As a protest against tyranny, he allowed withdrawal from politics and even an armed conspiracy, justifying the failed Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici in 1478.

The socio-political and ethical ideas of civil humanism were focused on solving the urgent problems of the time and had a wide echo among contemporaries. The understanding of freedom, equality, justice put forward by the humanists was sometimes directly expressed in the speeches of the highest magistrates and had an impact on the political atmosphere of Florence.

Lorenzo Valla and his ethical concept. The activities of one of the outstanding Italian humanists of the XV century. Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) was closely associated with the University of Pavia, where he taught rhetoric, with Naples - for many years he served as secretary to King Alphonse of Aragon, and with Rome, where he spent the last period of his life as secretary of the papal ku-rii. His creative heritage is extensive and diverse: works on philology, history, philosophy, ethics (“On the true and false good”), anti-church writings (“Discourse on the forgery of the so-called deed of gift of Constantine” and “On the monastic vow”) . Continuing the humanistic criticism of scholasticism for its formal logical method of cognition, Balla opposed it with philology, which helps to comprehend the truth, for the word is the bearer of the historical and cultural experience of mankind. Comprehensive humanitarian education helped Valle to prove the falsity of the so-called "Konstantin's gift", which substantiated the papacy's claims to secular power. The humanist came out with a denunciation of the Roman throne in the numerous crimes committed during the long centuries of his domination in the Christian world. He also sharply criticized the institute of monasticism, considering Christian asceticism contrary to human nature. All this aroused the wrath of the Roman clergy: in 1444, Valla was brought to trial by the Inquisition, but he was saved by the intercession of the Neapolitan king.

Walla clearly raised the question of the relationship between secular culture and the Christian faith. Considering them independent spheres of spiritual life, he limited the prerogatives of the church to only faith. Secular culture, reflecting and guiding worldly life, according to the humanist, rehabilitates the sensual side of human nature, encourages a person to live in harmony with himself and the world around him. Such a position does not contradict, in his opinion, the foundations of the Christian faith: after all, God is present in the world he created, and therefore love for everything natural means love for the creator. Based on the pantheistic premise, Valla builds an ethical concept of pleasure as the highest good. Based on the teachings of Epicurus, he condemns ascetic morality, especially its extreme manifestations (monastic hermitage, mortification of the flesh), justifies the human right to all the joys of earthly existence: it is for this that he was given sensual abilities - hearing, sight, smell, etc. .d.

The humanist equates "spirit" and "flesh", sensual pleasures and pleasures of the mind. Moreover, he claims that everything is useful to a person - both natural and created by himself, which gives him joy and bliss - and sees this as a sign of divine favor. Trying not to deviate from the foundations of Christianity, Val-la created an ethical concept, in many respects diverging from him. The Epicurean trend in humanism, to which the teachings of Balla gave special strength, found followers in the second half of the 15th century. in a circle of Roman humanists (Pomponio Leto, Callimachus, etc.), who created a cult of pleasure.

The doctrine of man by Leon Battista Alberti. Another direction in Italian humanism of the XV century. was the work of Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), an outstanding thinker and writer, art theorist and architect. A native of a noble Florentine family in exile, Leon Battista graduated from the University of Bologna, was hired as a secretary to Cardinal Albergati, and then to the Roman Curia, where he spent more than 30 years. He owned works on ethics (“On the Family”, “Domo-stroy”), architecture (“On Architecture”), cartography and mathematics. His literary talent manifested itself with particular force in a cycle of fables and allegories (“Table Talks”, “Mom , or About the sovereign). As a practicing architect, Alberti created several projects that laid the foundations of the Renaissance style in the architecture of the 15th century.

In the new complex of humanities, Alberti was most attracted to ethics, aesthetics and pedagogy. Ethics for him is the "science of life", necessary for educational purposes, since it is able to answer the questions put forward by life - about the attitude to wealth, about the role of virtues in achieving happiness, about opposing Fortune. It is no coincidence that the humanist writes his essays on moral and didactic topics in Volgar - he intends them for numerous readers.

Alberti's humanistic concept of man is based on the philosophy of the ancients - Plato and Aristotle, Cicero and Seneca, and other thinkers. Its main thesis is harmony as an immutable law of being. A harmoniously arranged cosmos gives rise to a harmonious connection between man and nature, the individual and society, the inner harmony of the individual. Inclusion in the natural world subordinates a person to the law of necessity, which creates a counterbalance to the whims of Fortune - a blind chance that can destroy his happiness, deprive him of his well-being and even life. For confrontation with Fortune, a person must find strength in himself - they are given to him from birth. Alberti combines all the potential abilities of a person with the capacious concept of virtu (Italian, literally - valor, ability). Upbringing and education are called upon to develop in a person the natural properties of nature - the ability to know the world and use pre-existing knowledge for one's benefit, the will to an active, active life, the desire for good. Man is a creator by nature, his highest calling is to be the organizer of his earthly existence. Reason and knowledge, virtue and creative work - these are the forces that help fight the vicissitudes of fate and lead to happiness. And it is in the harmony of personal and public interests, in peace of mind, in earthly glory, crowning true creativity and good deeds. Alberti's ethics were consistently secular in nature, it was completely separated from theological issues. The humanist affirmed the ideal of an active civil life - it is in it that a person can reveal the natural properties of his nature.

Alberti considered economic activity to be one of the important forms of civic activity, and it is inevitably associated with accumulation. He justified the desire for enrichment, if it does not give rise to an excessive passion for money-grubbing, because it can deprive a person of peace of mind. In relation to wealth, he calls to be guided by a reasonable measure, to see in it not an end in itself, but a means of serving society. Wealth should not deprive a person of moral perfection, on the contrary, it can become a means for cultivating virtue - generosity, generosity, etc. In Alberti's pedagogical ideas, the acquisition of knowledge and compulsory labor play a leading role. He imposes on the family, in which he sees the main social unit, the duty to educate the younger generation in the spirit of new principles. He considers the interests of the family to be self-sufficient: one can abandon state activity and focus on economic affairs if this will benefit the family, and this will not violate its harmony with society, since the well-being of the whole depends on the well-being of its parts. The emphasis on the family, concerns about its prosperity distinguishes Alberti's ethical position from the ideas of civil humanism, with which he is related to the moral ideal of an active life in society.

Florentine Neoplatonism. In the second half of the XV century. in Italian humanism, another direction is emerging - Florentine Neoplatonism, which developed within the framework of the Platonic Academy, a kind of literary and philosophical center of Florence. From the time of its foundation in 1462 until the end of the century, the head of the academy was the outstanding humanist philosopher Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499). He translated from Greek into Latin many works of Plato and the ancient Neoplatonists, which served as the basis for the formation of the philosophy of Renaissance Neoplatonism. Along with prominent humanists - Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Cristoforo Landino - representatives of a wider range of scientific and artistic intelligentsia took part in the activities of the Platonov Academy; Cosimo and Lorenzo Medici, who patronized the academy, were present at its meetings.

The characteristic features of this trend in humanism are the cult of reason and knowledge, understanding the social role of science, interest in philosophical and theological issues, determining the place of man in the world. Here the horizons of human knowledge were widely expanded; in the power of an inquisitive mind, a person whose thoughts the world is subject to, drew closer to God.

Marsilio Ficino, who studied medicine and philosophy at the University of Florence, for many years was engaged in translations, development of problems of ontology, cosmology, epistemology, anthropology (traditionally, they were the prerogative of theologians), approaching their solution from unorthodox, humanistic positions. Idealistic at its core, Ficino's philosophy bears the features of pantheism. He affirmed the unity of the beautiful, ordered cosmos, imbued with divine light, thus removing the inherent opposition of the creator to creation in Christian doctrine. The vital, moving principle of the cosmos is the soul of the world, which the soul of man is also involved in, which allows him to embrace in knowledge all the levels of the world hierarchy - from the lower, matter, to the higher, pure mind. Man, according to Ficino, is the connecting link of the world. Ideas (logos) of all things are originally imprinted in his soul, so he turns to self-knowledge, not needing knowledge of real things. However, the impetus to knowledge is given by the enjoyment of the sensual beauty of the world: arousing love for it in a person, it leads his mind, illuminated by divine light, to comprehend the essence of things, imprinted in the logoi. Recognizing the limitless possibilities of human knowledge (the immortal soul takes it beyond the limits of earthly existence), Ficino attaches particular importance to intellectual activity and the moral ideal of contemplation. But his ideal of a sage focused on knowledge is far from embodying the medieval ideal of contemplation of a hermit monk. As a humanist, Ficino recognizes the sensual and spiritual sides of human nature as equal in rights. The ideal of the sage presupposes a life of creative effort leading to moral perfection. Possessing free will, a person can follow this path, fully revealing the perfection of his nature, but he can also wallow in excessive carnal pleasures that lead to vice. Not on divine providence, but on the person himself is responsible for the right choice.

Close to the positions of Ficino is the doctrine of the dignity of a person by the outstanding philosopher of the Renaissance, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494). Pico belonged to the family of the counts of Mirandola, was educated at the universities of Bologna, Ferrara, Padua, completing it at the Paris Sorbonne. He spoke many languages ​​(classical, Arabic, Chaldean, new European), was deeply erudite in ancient and medieval philosophy. While still a young man, he proposed for a public debate "900 theses on philosophy, cabalistics, theology", which were condemned by the church as heretical, and the debate was prohibited. Pico was summoned to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition, but tried to flee to Paris and was arrested on the way. He was saved by the intercession of Lorenzo Medici, who appreciated the talent of the young philosopher. The last years of his short life, Pico spent in Florence in a circle of friends from the Platonic Academy, with whom he was associated even before his arrest. He owns a number of significant philosophical works ("Speech on the dignity of man", "On the Existing and the One", "Reasoning against divine astrology"), as well as numerous letters. Pico discovers a bold approach to solving the problems of epistemology, cosmology, anthropology, tries to synthesize various philosophical traditions, dreams of the unity of thinkers from all countries and directions.

The main thing in Pico's anthropology is the doctrine of the dignity of man, of his unique position in the cosmic hierarchy: endowed with free will, he himself forms his essence and determines his place in the world. In this ability, man rises above all other creatures, he is godlike. In cognition, a person is able to cover the entire cosmos, this is his purpose - to be a link in the world. From majestic royalty to likening the most insignificant of creatures - such is the range of possibilities in which a person decides his fate. The responsibility is enormous, and only the mind enriched with knowledge can serve as a support. Pico talks about the stages of knowledge: mastery of ethics in order to cleanse the soul of vices and passions that confuse the mind, free, not fettered by dogmas, comprehension of the laws of the world through philosophy. Finally, the human mind, prepared by the knowledge of earthly existence, can understand the One, Truth and Good (Pico interprets these categories in the spirit of the idealistic concepts of Neoplatonism). According to the humanist, philosophy should become the lot of everyone, and not a narrow group of the chosen ones. At the same time, Pico opposed the profanation of science, its replacement with empty rhetoric. In Pico's doctrine of the dignity of man, the mastery of science is a necessary condition for the moral perfection of the individual. The humanistic tendency towards glorification, deification of man reaches its highest point in Pico's philosophy. This concept influenced the fine arts of the High Renaissance, the work of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael.

Florentine Neoplatonism also made an important contribution to the establishment of philosophical freethinking. Ficino and Pico believed that truth is one, no matter in what philosophical or religious guises it manifests itself. They looked for the key to its comprehension in the Pythagorean number theory, Kabbalistics, but not in experience - their system of knowledge remained speculative. A new method of science was proposed on the verge of the 15th and 16th centuries by Leonardo da Vinci (see vol. II).

Anti-feudal character of humanistic ideology. 15th century humanism is not limited to the areas covered. Many humanists only partially shared the ideas of civic humanism or the Florentine Neoplatonists, the Epicurean ethics of Balla, or Albert's doctrine of man. Humanistic ideology had a broad platform, but it was based on principles shared by most humanists. This is the understanding of human nature as a harmonious unity of the spiritual and bodily principles, the assertion of the right of the individual to the free development of his abilities, to acquire knowledge that enriches the mind, to fight for happiness in earthly life. All humanists agreed in recognizing the high moral role of labor, appreciated the creative, creative power of man. It was in the work, the deeds of the personality itself, and not in the nobility of origin, that they saw the basis of its nobility and dignity. In this new view of man and his possibilities, the anti-feudal character of the humanistic ideology was clearly revealed. In humanism, there was no place for the humiliation of a person, disbelief in the power of his mind, in his creative abilities, understanding work as punishment, and worldly life as a vale of sin and sadness, in a word, everything that was characteristic of the official church-feudal ideology . Humanists were consistent in their criticism of estate ideas, they rejected the feudal understanding of nobility as an attribute of noble birth, linking this ethical category with moral perfection and valorous deeds of the individual himself. “Glory and nobility are measured not by others, but by our own merits and such deeds that are the result of our own will,” wrote the humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the dialogue “On Nobility”.

The humanistic worldview, without openly breaking with the Christian religion, in fact, denied many traditions of the medieval church-feudal culture. Pantheistically colored philosophy ran counter to the official teaching of the church, which opposed the creator to the world he created. Anthropocentrism, the desire to put a person at the center of the universe, rationalism (emphasis on knowledge, and not on faith in the knowledge of himself and the world around him), secular ethics, devoid of features of asceticism, affirming the joy of earthly existence and calling for creation and, finally, the anti-dogmatism of thinking, the call for free-thinking - all this gave humanism its originality, marked a departure from medieval traditions. Having developed as a holistic worldview - despite the presence of different ideological directions - humanism in the second half of the 15th century. became a powerful factor in the development of the entire Renaissance culture.

Art of the Early Renaissance. The humanistic ideal of man found a vivid embodiment in the Renaissance art of the 15th century, which in turn enriched this ideal with artistic means. Unlike humanism, which began to take shape already in the second half of the 14th century, painting, sculpture, and architecture entered the path of innovation only in the first decades of the 15th century. The basis of the Renaissance style in architecture was laid by outstanding architects - Brunelleschi, Michelozzo, Alberti, Filarete.

A new type of building is being formed - the palazzo and villa (urban and suburban dwellings), the types of public buildings are being improved. The order architecture, ascending to the anti-chalnoy basis, is widely used. Perfection of proportions, simplicity of facades, spacious interiors are the characteristic features of the new architectural style, which did not suppress, but exalted a person. Renaissance architecture required deeper theoretical, mathematical, and civil engineering knowledge, in the development of which there was a significant shift towards the end of the 15th century. But already Philippe Brunelleschi (1377-1446) solved an extremely difficult technical problem - the construction of a dome on the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. The Church of San Lorenzo, the Pazzi Chapel and other buildings in Florence built according to his project are distinguished by the strict harmony of the parts, the proportionality of the building to a person. The first major theorist of Renaissance architecture, Alberti, expanded its range of problems, including urban planning, a number of technical issues (decor, building materials, etc.), and developed the doctrine of proportions in detail on a mathematical basis. He applied his theoretical principles in the projects of the Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, the Church of San Sebastiano in Mantua, and in other buildings.

In sculpture, the art of relief reaches a high level, marked by the plasticity of figures, the secular interpretation of religious subjects. The largest sculptors in whose work the Renaissance style was formed were Ghiberti, Donatello, Verrochio. In sculpture, the art of portraiture is rapidly developing. It is separated from the architecture, statues appear, freely standing in the square (monuments to the condottieri in Padua and Venice). Masaccio (1401-1428) was the founder of Italian Renaissance painting. His frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel in Florence are full of life reality and plastic expressiveness, heroic loftiness of images and compositional simplicity. Florence becomes the main center of Renaissance painting in Italy in the 15th century. In the first half of the century, it is characterized by a variety of transitional forms. In the second half of the XV century. artists are actively looking for the principles of constructing perspective to reflect three-dimensional space, striving for plastic expressiveness of images and coloristic richness.

During this period, various schools and directions are formed. Thus, the Florentine master Philippe Lippi is passionate about genre narration, this direction is developed by Domenico Ghirlandaio in his own way: his compositions, religious in theme, but imbued with a secular spirit (frescoes in the church of Santa Maria Novella, etc.), reflect the details of urban life. Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) creates spiritual images based on ancient mythology (paintings "Spring", "The Birth of Venus", etc.). The most important artist of the Umbrian school was Piero della Francesca (between 1416 and 1420-1492). His easel paintings and frescoes are distinguished by strict architectonics and monumentalization of images. He perfects the perspective construction of his works. Perugino and Pinturicchio, masters of spatial compositions with poetic landscape forms, belonged to the Umbrian school. In northern Italian painting, the work of Andrea Mantegna stands out: clear forms, glorification of the images of his frescoes are inspired by Roman antiquity. Venetian school of painting of the 15th century. gave the names of outstanding artists - Antonello da Messina, Vittore Carpaccio, Giovanni Bellini, who created expressive portraits, multi-figured compositions, solemn and at the same time replete with details of Venetian life.

In painting, graphics, sculpture, medal art, the genre of portrait, closely associated with humanistic ideas, has spread widely. If in the collective portrait of the first half of the XV century. the influence of the ideas of civil humanism is noticeable, then for subsequent decades an individual portrait is more characteristic, reflecting the humanistic ideal of a person, interest in the individual. The process of mutual enrichment of Renaissance art and humanism was also manifested in the development of aesthetic ideas - they were put forward not only by humanists, but also by many artists.

Development of sciences. The early Renaissance in Italy was marked by a rapid rise not only in the arts, but also in the sciences, especially the humanities. In the leading - ethics - a holistic humanistic concept of man, a free creator of his own destiny, a wise organizer of his earthly existence, has developed. This common position for all directions was not contradicted by the different ethical categories interpreted by Bruni or Valla, Alberti or Pico (the highest good, moral ideal, virtue, etc.). In ethics, the gap between humanism and the medieval tradition was most clearly marked.

In organic unity with ethics, the socio-political concepts of humanism also took shape. They were united by the fundamental principle: the improvement of man and society are interdependent, the main role in this process is played by education. Hand in hand with ethics went the development of pedagogy and historical thought. In pedagogy, a new theory of upbringing and education and a new teaching methodology have developed. Pedagogy set the goal of educating a free, highly moral person, fully developed, capable of revealing all his natural inclinations in creative work for the benefit of himself and society. Education was built on the basis of respect for the personality of the student, the rejection of Chetism, and the inculcation of the skills of independent thinking. Bruni, Alberti, Palmieri, and outstanding practitioners Gvarino da Verona and Vittorino da Feltre contributed to the development of the pedagogical ideas of humanism.

In the historiography of the Renaissance, there was also a decisive departure from the medieval understanding of the historical process as providentially given. Humanists viewed history as a process of spontaneous development in which man himself is the active force. Humanistic historiography is also characterized by a critical attitude to the historical source. In history, following the ancient tradition, the humanists saw the "teacher of life", drew arguments from it to substantiate the political practice of their time and for their social and ethical concepts. The writings on the history of Florence by Bruni, Poggio and other humanists had a clear propaganda focus: the political ideal from which they assessed the events of the Florentine Middle Ages was the Popolan Republic. Venetian humanists M.A. Sabellico and B. Giustiniani connected the social ideal with early medieval Venice, proved the continuity of the patrician republic of the 15th century. with her distant past. Milanese humanistic historiography was also apologetic: its representatives substantiated the idea of ​​the greatness of ancient Milan, inherited by the family of its rulers, the Visconti. All humanists looked in ancient history for examples of a “well-ordered” society and state, projecting it into modernity. At the same time, there was a clear tendency in Renaissance historiography to refute the myths created by medieval chroniclers. So, Salutati and Bruni are looking for "reliable" data on the time of the emergence of Florence, relying on linguistics, archeology, evidence of Roman historians, and attribute the foundation of the city not to the era of Caesar, but to the earlier centuries of republican Rome. This was the basis of their idea of ​​Florence as the immediate successor of republican freedoms. Hence the practical political conclusion - it is Florence that should become the bearer of freedom, the leader of all the city-republics in their struggle against the aggression of Milan. History becomes an important instrument of political struggle based on rational evidence.

A qualitative shift occurred towards the end of the 15th century. and in the development of philology. Through the efforts of humanists who searched for, translated and commented on the manuscripts of ancient authors, their circle, available to contemporaries, was significantly expanded compared to the Middle Ages. An important achievement of humanistic philology was the critical method of studying the history of literature, developed by Valla and especially by Angelo Poliziano, the greatest poet and philologist of the last decades of the 15th century. Humanists attached great importance to rhetoric, in which they saw a reliable means of expressing philosophical and socio-political ideas that educate society in the spirit of high morality.

15th century humanists came close to the problem of a new scientific method, different from scholastic dialectics. This had a positive effect on the development of natural science. Translations of the writings of ancient authors on medicine, mathematics, and astronomy expanded the basis on which natural science relied in the 15th century. Technical inventions (see Ch. 19) stimulated progress in the field of natural sciences, which by the end of the 15th century. confidently gaining strength. The successes of mathematics were especially noticeable - they found application not only in the field of natural science itself, but also in the practice of commercial office work (a more advanced accounting system, "double bookkeeping", new forms of credit, a bill of exchange, etc.), in the construction business , in fine arts. The famous mathematician Luca Pacioli (1445-1514) made a great contribution to the development of algebra, geometry, accounting theory, and his famous work "On the Divine Proportion" served as a practical guide for artists and architects. The tables of the planets compiled by the German astronomer and mathematician I. Regiomontan were also an important achievement of science. Advances in cartography and geography, astronomy and shipbuilding made possible long-term sea expeditions, which led already at the end of the 15th century. to the first geographical discoveries. Qualitative shifts also took place in the field of medicine, based on experiment, which began to practice the dissection of corpses, which the church prevented for many centuries. Finally, the discovery of great historical significance was the invention in the middle of the 15th century. book printing by Johannes Gutenberg. It became one of the important technical foundations for the rapid rise of Renaissance culture in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

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