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Introduction

The degree of depletion of discovered deposits, growing every year, leads to the need to involve new promising territories in the development. In Russia today, the depletion of oil and gas fields has exceeded 50%, while even the maximum development of already explored reserves will not be able to provide the planned level of oil and gas production. Achieving this level is impossible without the development of the Arctic shelf, which contains about 20% of the world's resources and which in the future will become one of the main sources of hydrocarbons for the country.

The tasks set for the oil and gas industry by the energy policies of the Arctic countries are feasible only with an increase in the rate of development of the region, which can be achieved by more intensive geological exploration (GE).

However, the development of the Arctic reserves requires huge investments due to severe hydro and weather conditions and great remoteness from inhabited areas. This fact is the reason for the unprofitability of many Arctic projects based on existing mining technologies. Each Arctic field is unique and requires the development of special technical solutions. In addition, mining companies need favorable conditions from the state, and one of the main factors determining the economic efficiency of Arctic projects is the tax regime.

For the Russian economy, which is so heavily dependent on energy production, the issue of developing the Arctic is very important. Practice shows that some countries are successfully extracting oil and gas in the northern seas. However, in Russia at the moment only one field has been put into commercial operation on the Arctic continental shelf. Therefore, the analysis of approaches to the development of the Arctic shelf of other countries and the study of foreign experience of state stimulation of investments in the development of Arctic resources are now extremely relevant. economic shelf oil field

At the same time, Norway is of the greatest interest, as it successfully develops its economy based on the production of hydrocarbons. In addition, Norway has access to the same Arctic sea as Russia, and is actively engaged in industrial production in it.

The purpose of the work is a comparative analysis of the approaches of countries to the development of oil and gas resources of the Arctic shelf and the identification of opportunities for applying foreign experience in Russia. The object of research is oil and gas fields on the Arctic shelf, and the subject is the process of their development.

Undoubtedly, to date, many works have been written on the activities of the countries of the Arctic Basin, revealing various aspects of the development of the Arctic shelf. In this work, within the framework of the chosen topic, the following tasks are set:

To study the natural and economic conditions for the development of the Arctic shelf in Russia, Norway, the USA and Canada and conduct their comparative analysis;

Assess the economic efficiency of the Arctic project in terms of the Russian and Norwegian tax systems;

Based on the calculations, analyze the approaches of Russia and Norway and assess the possibility of applying the Norwegian experience in Russia.

The economic efficiency of the project will be calculated using the author's model for the development of a conditional oil field in the southern part of the Barents Sea in Russia.

1. Comparative analysis of the natural and economic conditions for the development of the Arctic shelf in Russia, Canada, the USA and Norway

1.1 Resource potential and geological knowledge of the Arctic shelf

The increasing degree of development of continental reserves and the need for hydrocarbon raw materials have become the reason for active exploration work in the waters of the World Ocean. The hydrocarbon reserves of the Arctic shelf, in comparison with other regions, are by now practically untouched by mining companies.

The Arctic is considered the part of the shelf, which is located beyond the Arctic Circle, north of 63? 33 "N. The underwater part of the mainland includes internal sea waters, territorial seas and the continental shelf. According to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of ​​1982, that part of the seabed is recognized as the continental shelf which is outside the territorial sea (may extend for a distance not exceeding 350 miles) Within this territory, the coastal country has the exclusive right to exploit natural resources.

To date, the Arctic shelf has been studied rather poorly and unevenly. The resource potential of the subsoil of the Arctic is enormous. The US Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that there are about 22% of untapped technically recoverable oil and gas resources (412 billion boe), 84% of which are offshore. Among them, about 90 billion barrels of oil and 47.3 trillion. m 3 gas.

Reasons for the Poor Geological Knowledge of the Arctic Continental Shelf

Further development of the Arctic is associated with an increase in the volume of exploration for the study of hydrocarbon resources and preparation for the development of identified oil and gas fields. But exploration, like any business, requires a comparison of results with costs. The Arctic shelf is characterized by very severe natural and climatic conditions, the consequence of which is the high cost of work at all stages and stages of the exploration process. Promising territories are very remote from inhabited areas, which further complicates the development of Arctic deposits. Not every field can justify the increasing costs of investors, which indicates the high risks of this activity. Cost-effective development requires a high degree of exploration of the shelf and huge investments. Therefore, to date, the Arctic shelf is only a potential source of hydrocarbons.

Heavy ice conditions have a great influence on the conduct of geological exploration (many basins are characterized by continuous ice cover). The Arctic is characterized by large icebergs, which are most common in the Barents Sea, strong winds, snowfalls and freezing rain. In most cases, it is ice loads that determine the choice of development concept, the amount of capital investments (type of structure), as well as the amount of operating and transportation costs (the need to control ice conditions, the complexity of the transport and technological system).

Recently, due to global warming, the ice cover of the Arctic has been shrinking. This trend, according to the forecasts of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia, will continue until the end of this century. According to Russian politicians, the melting of the Arctic ice opens up more opportunities for the development of oil and gas resources of the Arctic shelf, making it easier to extract hydrocarbons. However, Western experts believe that climate change can cause serious environmental damage and create certain difficulties for mining in the region.

The real prospects for the oil resources of the Arctic shelf can only be assessed after large-scale prospecting has been carried out. Exploratory drilling on the Arctic shelf is characterized by high costs compared to other water areas due to the fact that it requires auxiliary vessels (for ice management, supply, etc.) and the fact that the work itself is only possible during the open water period.

Only 6 countries with direct access to the Arctic Ocean can claim the hydrocarbon reserves of the Arctic shelf: Norway, Canada, the USA, Russia, Iceland and Denmark with its own island of Greenland. The oil and gas reserves of the first four countries that are the most advanced in the development of the region are distributed as follows (Fig. 1): Russia and the United States account for most of the oil reserves (43.1% and 32.6%, respectively), and gas reserves - for Russia (93.1%).

The Beaufort, Barents, Pechora, Kara, Chukchi, Norwegian, Greenland, East Siberian and Laptev Seas have a continental shelf beyond the Arctic Circle. The first five of them are the most studied by exploratory drilling.

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) as of October 2009, 61 Arctic fields were discovered: 43 in Russia (35 of them in the West Siberian Basin), 6 in the USA (Alaska), 11 in Canada (Northwest Territories ) and 1 in Norway.

Russia was the first country to find hydrocarbon reserves in the subsoil of the Arctic. It was the Tazovskoye gas field, discovered in 1962. The Russian offshore fields account for more than 60% of the oil and gas resources of the Arctic and more than 90% of its proven reserves (of which more than 90% is gas).

The main sea basins of the Russian part of the Arctic shelf include the Barents, Kara, East Siberian, Chukchi, Pechora and Laptev Seas.

According to the country's energy strategy, the development of oil and gas fields on the shelf of the Russian seas is one of the most promising areas for the development of the raw material base of the oil and gas industry in Russia. About 70% of the area of ​​the entire continental shelf of the Russian Federation falls on the continental shelf of the Arctic zone. The main prospects for oil and gas production are associated precisely with the Arctic seas, which contain the vast majority (about 80%) of the initial total hydrocarbon resources of the entire Russian shelf, while, according to the estimates of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation, 84% is gas and less than 13% % - for oil. According to the director of the All-Russian Research Institute of Oceanology, V. D. Kaminsky, the tasks of the energy strategy of Russia cannot be solved without the development of the Arctic shelf. It is worth noting that the current strategy (until 2030) assumes that almost all Arctic offshore gas production in Russia will be provided by the Shtokman field. However, the start of its operation is constantly delayed.

Estimates of the potential of the hydrocarbon resources of the Arctic shelf of the Russian Federation vary quite a lot depending on the source of information. Russian estimates are significantly higher than USGS estimates for all water areas. According to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation (01.01.2011), the prospective resources of the Arctic shelf amount to 66.6 billion tce. tons, of which oil resources amount to 9 billion tons.

When assessing the oil and gas potential of the Russian Arctic shelf, two components are usually considered: the resources of the Western Arctic sector (Barents, Pechora and Kara Seas) and the resources of the Eastern Arctic sector (Laptev Sea, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas). The seas of the Western Arctic account for the largest part of the resources (62%), while these territories are predominantly gas-bearing (except for the shelf of the Pechora Sea). As for the East Arctic seas, on the contrary, the largest weight in the initial total resources is occupied by oil. The most explored is the Western Arctic (the southern zone of the Barents Sea, the Pechora and Kara Seas).

The Pechora shelf is a continuation of the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province. The most famous field in this region is the Prirazlomnoye field with oil reserves at a depth of 20 m, about 70 million tons. This is the only field on the Arctic continental shelf of the Russian Federation where commercial production has been carried out (since the end of 2013). The license holder is OOO Gazprom Neft Shelf, 100% owned by OAO Gazprom. An offshore ice-resistant platform has been installed at the Prirazlomnoye field for oil production, storage and offloading. It can be used all year round and work autonomously for a long time. The company plans to involve in the development also neighboring fields (for example, Dolginskoye), whose oil will be supplied to the same platform. This approach to the development of fields, which implies their joint development, allows you to optimize costs and, accordingly, increase the economic efficiency of development.

The East Barents oil and gas province is the most explored region of the Russian Arctic. Almost all proven reserves here are represented by gas and gas condensate fields. In the central zone of the Russian part of the Barents Sea there is one of the world's largest gas condensate fields - Shtokmanovskoye, the area of ​​which is 1400 km2. Gas reserves (in category C1) are estimated at 3.9 trillion. m 3 (despite the fact that the gas reserves of the entire West Barents province are estimated at about 5 trillion m 3), condensate reserves (in category C1) - 56 million tons. The depth of productive formations is about 1500-2500 m, which creates significant difficulties in the development of the field (it has not yet been put into operation).

According to the results of geological exploration, two more deposits of the same basin, Ludlovskoye and Ledovoye, can be attributed to the most promising areas. In terms of reserves, the Shtokman and Ice deposits are unique, while the Ludlovskoye is large.

The South Kara oil and gas region is a marine extension of the West Siberian oil and gas province. The gas content of this region is proved by two largest gas fields - Leningradsky and Rusanovsky (depth of occurrence - 2200 and 1000-1600 m, respectively). The giant fields of the Yamal Peninsula - Kharasaveyskoye and Bovanenkovskoye and others - are also located here.

At the moment, the significant hydrocarbon potential of the Kara and Barents Seas is more represented by the discovery of gas and gas condensate fields in their southern parts. Nevertheless, the materials of marine geological and geophysical works testify to a wide variety of structural conditions favorable for the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the entire southern rim of the South Barents Basin. Therefore, the study of this territory is one of the most promising areas for discovering oil fields.

Real geological prerequisites for the forecast of a large oil accumulation zone in the north of the Barents-Kara shelf have also been established. But the prospects for the development of deposits that can be discovered here are very complicated by the ice conditions of this region.

Rosneft Oil Company notes the prospects for discovering quite significant reserves of liquid hydrocarbons in the northern part of the South Kara oil and gas region. As a result of the geological study of this basin, Universitetskaya, Tatarinovskaya, Vikulovskaya, Kropotkinsky, Rozhdestvensky, Rozevskaya, Rogozinskaya, Vilkitsky, Matusevich, Vostochno-Anabarskaya and others were identified as promising structures.

The eastern sector of the Russian Arctic shelf also has a high hydrocarbon potential. It is less studied than the western one for several reasons: heavy ice conditions, the impassable Vilkitsky Strait, poor geological and geophysical knowledge of the adjacent land, the remoteness of the main centers of marine exploration, and the underdeveloped infrastructure of the coast of the East Arctic seas. The seismic knowledge of these water areas is extremely low and ranges from only 0.02 km/km 2 in the East Siberian Sea to 0.05 km/km 2 in the Chukchi and Laptev Seas. Natural conditions call into question the technical feasibility of extracting resources. Therefore, the exploration and development of the potential of these areas requires the development of special polar technologies. According to geologists, large areas of the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea are considered the most promising among the East Arctic waters. The official estimate of recoverable hydrocarbon resources in the eastern part of the Russian Arctic shelf is about 12 billion tons of fuel equivalent. T.

The largest part of discovered oil and gas fields is located in the waters of three seas: Barents, Kara, Pechora. In the Barents Sea, two fields have been studied by exploratory drilling and prepared for development: Shtokmanovskoye GCF and Murmanskoye GM; in the Pechora Sea - three fields: Prirazlomnoye NM, Medynskoye-Sea NM and Dolginskoye NM; in the Kara Sea in the Ob-Taz Bay - two deposits: Kamennomysskoe GM and Severo-Kamennomysskoe GM.

According to the data of the draft State program for the exploration of the continental shelf and the development of its mineral resources, developed by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia, about 678.7 thousand linear meters have been mined. km of the Arctic seas, of which more than 90% fall on the Western Arctic waters, the density of the seismic grid varies from 0.05 to 5 km / km 2. In the sea areas of the East Arctic seas, only about 65.4 thousand linear meters have been worked out. km of profiles with an average density of less than 0.035 linear meters. km / km 2.

The result of the geological and geophysical study of the oil and gas potential of the water areas is about 1300 identified potential hydrocarbon traps, about 190 prepared for drilling and more than 110 drilled areas, 58 discovered offshore and transit hydrocarbon fields.

The average offshore drilling success rate was 0.48. The maximum value of this indicator was achieved in the Kara and Barents Seas (including the Pechora) and amounted to 1 and 0.52, respectively.

261 offshore parametric, prospecting and exploration wells have been drilled on the Russian shelf, of which 86 wells have been drilled on the shelf of the Western Arctic seas.

LLC NOVATEK-Yurkharovneftegaz, being a subsidiary of OJSC NOVATEK, is currently engaged in offshore production in arctic conditions in the basin of the Taz Bay (the central and eastern part of the Yurkharovskoye field), but the area under development is not the Russian continental shelf. For all the time, about 150 billion m 3 of gas have already been produced here. This field accounts for more than half of Russia's offshore gas production.

Another example of the development of the Arctic region is the Yamal LNG project for the development of the Yuzhno-Tambeyskoye gas condensate field with reserves of 1.26 trillion cubic meters. m 3 gas. The controlling stake in the share capital of Yamal LNG belongs to the owner of the license, NOVATEK. But the attraction of foreign partners continues, as of February 1, 2014 they are - the French company "Total" (20%) and the Chinese company "CNPC" (20%). A plant for the production of liquefied natural gas is being built here, and the launch of the first stage is planned for 2016.

Since 2008, the development of the northern fields of the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province has been carried out using the Varandey oil loading terminal, which makes it possible to ship oil for export without interacting with the Transneft system. The operator of the Varandey production and sea transportation project is a joint venture between LUKOIL and ConocoPhillips, LLC Naryanmarneftegaz. The natural conditions of the Yamal Peninsula are harsh and cause difficulties similar to those that may arise in offshore fields in the Arctic shelf.

Possibly, the experience of development of the Arctic fields "land-sea" will speed up the process of industrial exploitation of the Arctic continental shelf in Russia.

If Russia was the first to discover a field in the Arctic, then Canada was the first country to start exploratory drilling there.

The first offshore field beyond the Arctic Circle was discovered in 1974 (Adgo). The oil and gas fields of the Arctic shelf of Canada lie in the waters of the Beaufort Sea (there were 32 of them in 2011, most of which are oil and gas fields). The recoverable hydrocarbon reserves of the Beaufort Sea are located at shallow depths of the sea (up to 100 m), and in some fields reach up to 68.5 million tons of oil and 56 billion m 3 of gas (Amauligak).

Exploration of the Arctic region of Canada was actively carried out in 1970-1980 thanks to good government support. Another incentive for investment in exploration was the high oil prices during that period.

Much of the exploration work was carried out by Panarctic Oils, which is 45% owned by the federal government. It was from this moment that the direct participation of the state in the oil and gas industry began.

Almost all exploratory wells on the Canadian Arctic shelf were drilled before the 1990s. After the government practically stopped investing in exploration, the National Energy Service of Canada became responsible for it, and exploration work ceased. There were quite a lot of promising hydrocarbon reserves on land, the extraction of which required much less cost compared to the Arctic shelf, and could cause less damage to the environment.

Since then, only one well has been drilled on the Arctic shelf (in 2006). To date, the number of exploration licenses has increased, but drilling has not yet resumed. Canada continues seismic exploration of the Arctic shelf. In 2012, an agreement was signed between Statoil and Chevron to conduct 3D seismic surveys in the Beaufort Sea at depths of 800 to 1800 m, 120 km offshore. Shell and BP are planning to develop in the same sea.

For all time, only trial production (at Amauligak) has been carried out at offshore fields in the Arctic region of Canada. The deposits of the islands of the Arctic Archipelago of Canada are also not being developed now (commercial production was carried out only at the Bent-Horn field on Cameron Island, but was discontinued due to adverse environmental conditions).

At the end of 2013, Canada filed an application to expand the boundaries of its shelf to the UN Commission, while it will be supplemented with new materials confirming the ownership of some territories of the Arctic Ocean outside the exclusive economic zone of Canada. The Arctic, according to the Prime Minister of Canada, is now of great importance for the country, and it will not yield to others. According to political statements, Canada still intends to resume its exploration activity in the Arctic and develop the oil and gas resources of the continental shelf.

For more than a quarter of a century, the United States of America has been developing deposits in the Arctic. The first oil here was produced in 1977 at the Prudhoe Bay field, located on the coast of the Arctic Ocean with recoverable reserves of about 25 billion barrels. oil and 700 billion m 3 of gas (it now accounts for about 20% of US oil production). Commercial exploitation of the shelf began in 1987 with the development of the Endicot field and continues to this day. Both projects are operated by the British company BP. By 2011, 9 fields were producing on the American shelf of the Beaufort Sea.

The hydrocarbon shelf reserves of the Arctic in the United States are located in the bowels of two seas: the Beaufort Sea and the Chukchi Sea. The Beaufort Sea is more beneficial for development: it is less deep and is located closer to the existing infrastructure (the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline, built to pump oil produced at Prudhoe Bay). On the shelf of the Chukchi Sea in 1990, the Burger gas field was discovered, one of the largest on the shelf of Alaska. However, commercial production in this sea is expected no earlier than 2022.

In the late 1980s, exploration drilling on the seabed of these seas was carried out by Shell, but then its activities in the exploration of the Arctic shelf were suspended due to high costs in the conditions of low oil prices and great prospects for production in the Gulf of Mexico. But Shell later returned to the Arctic, having received a license in 2005 to explore in the Beaufort Sea and in 2008 in the Chukchi Sea. The Company conducted seismic surveys of its license areas. But drilling of exploratory wells, scheduled for 2012, was postponed. Difficulties in the development of Arctic deposits arose due to the technical unavailability of Shell in the presence of ice and the possible excess of air pollution standards. The company's exploration work on the shelf of the Chukchi Sea has been suspended for the time being.

Exploration of the US Arctic deposits is complicated by strict control by government agencies. Exploration activities can cause serious damage to the environment. Therefore, many areas are now not available for development. To start drilling, companies must obtain permission from the Environmental Protection Agency. They must prove the safety of the equipment used, develop measures to reduce oil leakage and an emergency spill response plan.

According to the drilling plan announced by the US President for 2012-2017, the Alaska continental shelf remains open for development: an auction for the sale of blocks in the Chukchi Sea and the Beaufort Sea will be held in 2016 and 2017.

To date, only the coastal waters of the northern seas have been studied by geological exploration, and exploratory drilling has already been carried out in these areas. The US Arctic mining region remains the shallow part of Alaska's North Slope, where mining is carried out either from the shore or from artificial islands (9 deposits). However, Arctic Alaska has a great resource potential. The expected increase in reserves in 2050 compared to 2005 will be 678 million tons of oil and 588 billion m 3 of gas in the Beaufort Sea, 1301 million tons of oil and 1400 billion m 3 of gas in the Chukchi Sea.

A large number of promising oil and gas reserves of these seas are concentrated on the outer continental shelf (outside the 3-mile zone), production on which has been allowed by the US authorities since 2008 and is carried out only at one field - Northstar, located in the Beaufort Sea 6 miles from the coast of Alaska. Northstar's operator, BP, plans to start production soon at another offshore field in this sea that is the same offshore as Northstar, Liberty (development and production plan to be provided to BOEM by the end of 2014) .

Norway

The shelf of the Barents Sea has recently been actively explored by Norway. More than 80 thousand km2 have been studied by 3D seismic. The hydrocarbon reserves of its Arctic zone, according to the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), are estimated at 1.9 billion barrels. n. e., while only 15% is oil.

At the moment, the only Norwegian field on the continental shelf of the Arctic, where industrial production is carried out, is the gas-bearing Snohvit, discovered in 1981-1984. According to the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (as of April 2013), recoverable gas reserves at Snohvit are estimated at 176.7 billion m 3 and condensate at 22.6 million m 3 . The operator is the national company Statoil with a 33.5% stake in the license. The Direct State Participation (SDFI) share in Snohvit, expressed by the share of "Petoro", is 30%, the rest is accounted for by private Norwegian partners.

The Snohvit mining system is completely submerged and operated from shore. The gas is supplied to a natural gas liquefaction plant built in the city of Hammerfest. Part of the carbon dioxide released during the development of Snohvit is sent to injection wells for further gas production, and part is pumped into underground storage. Despite the existing CO 2 capture and storage system, accidents still occur.

In 2014, Norway plans to start production at another field on the Arctic continental shelf, the Goliat oil field, which was discovered in 2000 and has 192 million barrels of recoverable reserves. n. e. In 2013, the start of the project was already delayed due to problems with the construction of the platform. The produced oil will be stored and shipped directly to the sea. Goliat is operated by the private company Eni Norge with a 65% share, the rest is owned by the state-owned Statoil.

By 2012, a consortium of Statoil, Eni and Petoro had discovered the Skrugard and Havis fields north of Snohvit. Their reserves, according to Statoil, amount to 70 million tons of oil equivalent. e. Drilling of Statoil exploration wells in the Hoop area in the Norwegian part of the Barents Sea, so far the northernmost area where such work is underway, was scheduled for 2013, but was delayed until 2014. The Hoop areas have already been studied by 3D seismic surveys conducted by the by TGS-NOPEC.

Norway intends to continue exploring the Arctic shelf, including areas with more severe environmental conditions. The recent decline in production rates observed in the country makes it necessary to continue exploring the Arctic in search of profitable hydrocarbon reserves.

To date, Norway has carried out exploration of the recently annexed territories in the Barents Sea: hydrocarbon resources, according to the NPD report, are estimated at 1.9 billion barrels. (about 15% is oil). It is possible that further exploration of the shelf will increase the size of their undiscovered reserves. A 3D seismic survey is planned for 2014 in promising areas, following which the result of the 23rd licensing round in Norway will be announced.

To date, the Arctic remains the least explored region with offshore hydrocarbon reserves. The Arctic shelf, with a huge amount of undiscovered oil and gas reserves, attracts a lot of attention in conditions of limited resources and depletion of fields located on land or offshore in more favorable conditions. However, the interest of mining companies may not be so great in the presence of profitable reserves in traditional areas.

Seismic surveys have well studied the Beaufort (USA and Canadian shelf), Chukchi (USA shelf), Barents, Pechora, Kara seas (profile density - 1 linear km/km 2 and more). The Arctic water areas of Russia remain little explored: the Russian part of the Chukchi Sea, the East Siberian Sea and the Laptev Sea (the density of profiles is 0.05 linear km/km 2 or less).

At the moment, commercial production at offshore Arctic fields is carried out only in the United States, Norway and Russia. In the United States, deposits are being developed in the coastal zone of Alaska. On the Arctic continental shelf (outside 12 miles from the coast), Norway (Snohvit project) and Russia (Prirazlomnoye) produce oil and gas.

The Russian continental shelf has the greatest resource potential in the Arctic. However, it has been less studied than in the northern waters of other countries. The Barents Sea in Russia has been studied 20 times less than in Norway, and the Chukchi Sea - 10 times less than in the USA.

Further in this chapter, we will consider the technological aspect of the development of deposits on the Arctic shelf and the system of state regulation of this activity, which are the main reasons for the slow development of the Arctic.

1.2 Technological aspect of the development of the Arctic shelf

To date, the industrial development of the Arctic continental shelf is just beginning. However, there is a good world experience in geological study.

Exploration drilling in the Arctic often uses the same rigs as in other regions (for example, only one in four rigs operating offshore Alaska is unique and designed to operate in ice conditions). Exploratory drilling with jack-up drilling rigs is the least expensive, but their use is limited to sea depths of up to 100 m. At greater depths, semi-submersible drilling rigs, which are highly stable on the water, can be used. For deeper areas (up to 3500 m), drilling vessels are used that can move independently. However, the daily rent of the latter type is the highest. In addition to the rent of drilling rigs, a significant cost item for exploration drilling in the Arctic waters is the maintenance of auxiliary vessels (for ice management, supply, spill response during accidents, etc.).

Technological solutions for the implementation of Arctic offshore projects should take into account all the features of work in harsh natural conditions. These features include sub-zero temperatures, strong underwater currents, the presence of permafrost under water, the risks of damage to equipment by pack ice and icebergs, remoteness from infrastructure and sales markets, risks of environmental damage and industrial safety problems. Severe arctic conditions bring to the fore the problem of technical feasibility of the project. The profitability of the project itself largely depends on its technical sophistication.

Canada has extensive experience in exploratory drilling on the Arctic shelf. The first was the technology of artificial islands, which were located in shallow water. However, their construction turned out to be quite expensive. Drilling ships were used during the open water period. Later, a higher ice class rig was built - a floating drilling rig (Kulluk), which can operate even in autumn, at depths of up to 100 m. Then, the technology of coffered drilling platforms began to be used, which allows drilling all year round. The drilling platforms Glomar and Molikpaq have been reconstructed and are now used for production at the fields as part of the Sakhalin-1 and Sakhalin-2 projects. In 1997, the only gravity-based platform in the world (Hibernia) was built in Canada. It can withstand a collision with an iceberg weighing up to 6 million tons.

Technological aspect of the development of the Arctic continental shelf in Norway

Norway has experience in implementing an Arctic project based entirely on a subsea production system that is controlled from shore. The Snohvit project has the world's longest system-to-shore connection (the central field is approximately 140 km offshore). The technology to control multiphase flow at such a distance is a technical advance that opens up new opportunities for subsea production. Another new technology is the re-injection of associated carbon dioxide, which is separated from the produced gas, into the reservoir under water. Remote control is carried out using a single umbilical - a critical element of the entire system. In addition to redundant communication systems, there is the possibility of satellite control from a special vessel. Subsea Christmas trees, which are equipped with wells, have large diameter valves, which reduces pressure loss. The pressure required for gas production is created directly in the subsea fittings.

As part of the first phase of the project development (Snohvit and Albatross fields), 10 wells (9 production and 1 injection) are being used. Later, 9 more wells will be put into operation. The supporting bases of the fields are connected to the central base, from where gas is supplied to the shore through a single pipeline. After CO 2 separation, the gas is liquefied at the LNG plant, the northernmost in the world (71°N).

Snohvit technology is applicable to other projects as well. However, the extreme remoteness of the fields from the coast (mainly, these are gas production projects) can become a serious limitation. According to experts, there is already a technical solution to reduce the response time of underwater equipment when managing projects over long distances (for example, the use of special accumulators under water in wells), so there should not be any difficulties with the hydraulic system. The communication system is developing every year at an ever faster pace and should not become an obstacle to the use of technology. Transatlantic distances have already proven the ability of Snohvit's fiber optic technology to deliver high data rates. The umbilical system can cause problems: the economic feasibility of using such a system and its technical feasibility are questionable. Snohvit's main umbilical length (144.3 m) is a world record. For even longer distances, it is possible to manufacture the umbilical in parts and assemble it into one only at the time of installation. Serious difficulties can arise with the transmission of electricity: providing alternating current with a standard voltage frequency (50 Hz) is highly dependent on distance. One solution to this issue is to use low AC frequencies over long distances, but this method also has its limitations. It is applicable to the operation of traditional underwater systems. However, there are equipments that require a megawatt level of power supply that cannot be supplied by the low frequency method. For example, these are underwater compressors that are effective at large distances from the coast. They compensate for pressure loss when extracting gas from the reservoir. The solution to the problem may be the technology of using direct current of high voltage, which is currently used only on land. The Snohvit project opened up great prospects for the further development of the subsea oil and gas industry. This requires a lot of research developments that will open up the possibility of offshore production in extremely difficult Arctic conditions.

The Goliat project will also be implemented using a mining system located completely under water. The produced oil will be shipped offshore from a floating platform without additional onshore facilities.

The technology of subsea production is still little tested and the capital costs for its application are quite high. But it has a number of advantages: the possibility of gradually putting fields into development, which allows hydrocarbon production to start earlier, the ability to service a large number of wells (this is important when several structures are being developed simultaneously), and the ability to reduce the impact of harsh natural conditions. The subsea production system can be used in arctic seas that are protected from the formation of pack ice. In the Russian part of the Barents Sea, conditions are much harsher. The Norwegian experience can be applied in Russia, most likely for deposits in the Taz and Ob bays.

The experience of developing the bowels of the Arctic by other countries overturns the idea of ​​the oil industry as an "oil needle" that hinders the innovative development of the country. In fact, we are talking about the development of the most advanced, "space" technologies. And for Russia, as the Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation D.O. Rogozin, the development of the Arctic can and should become a catalyst for the modernization of the oil and gas industry, which is now in so much need of technical re-equipment.

Technological Aspect of the Development of the Arctic Continental Shelf in Russia

The development of the Prirazlomnoye field is carried out using an offshore ice-resistant platform that provides drilling of wells, production, preparation, shipment and storage of oil. The stationary platform is able to work autonomously, is resistant to ice loads, so it can be used all year round. In addition, it can receive oil from neighboring fields, which will significantly reduce the cost of their industrial development.

The development of the Shtokman field is planned with the help of an underwater production system and ship-type platforms, which can be withdrawn in case of approaching icebergs. Produced gas and gas condensate will be delivered via subsea main pipelines as a two-phase flow with subsequent onshore separation. The Shtokman project also includes the construction of an LNG plant.

For offshore fields that cannot be developed from the shore, there are several methods of development that are fundamentally different from each other:

· artificial islands (at sea depth up to 15 m);

· underwater production complexes from the shore (with a relatively close location of the field to the shore);

· underwater mining complexes from floating platforms (in the absence of pack ice);

fixed platforms.

There is a successful experience of working from stationary gravity platforms at shallow depths in the presence of massive pack ice. This technology is applicable at shallow depths up to 100 m, since with increasing depth, the capital costs of such a structure and the risk of collision with an iceberg increase very much. At greater depths in clear water conditions, it is more expedient to use floating platforms. Stationary platforms are mainly used for oil fields in the Arctic. An example is the Prirazlomnoye field, and there is also a high probability of using this type for the University structure.

Drilling from a platform does not always cover the entire field, some of its parts may be located at great depths with pack ice. In this case, the connection of underwater wells is required, with an increase in the number of which the cost of drilling and the timing of their implementation increase. But this method is much more economical than installing an additional platform. The economic efficiency of such a technological solution is still lower compared to drilling from a fixed platform due to increased costs and drilling time. This method of development can be applied to some structures of the Vostochno-Prinovozemelsky blocks (Kara Sea) and to the Dolginskoye field (Pechora Sea) during the clean water period.

At depths of more than 100 m and at small distances from the coast or the place of possible installation of a fixed platform, it is possible to use a technical approach when all wells are underwater and connected to the platform by a pipeline. This approach can be applied to the deposits of the Kara Sea at depths of more than 100 m, for example, for the Vikulovskaya structure of the Vostochno-Prinovozemelsky-1 area.

At great depths and distances in clear water conditions, it is possible to use a floating platform with underwater wells. This development concept is characterized by high operating costs. It requires rather large expenses for the year-round maintenance of ships to regulate and monitor the ice situation.

Norwegian experience shows that the use of a floating platform in iceberg water conditions is quite competitive from an economic point of view compared to the installation of a gravity-type platform.

Transportation of hydrocarbons from offshore oil and gas fields can be carried out both through the system of oil and gas pipelines, designed to meet the internal needs of Russia and for export to other countries, and along the Northern Sea Route, which opens access to the markets of the west (USA and Western Europe) and the east - (USA and Asia-Pacific). Produced natural gas can be shipped as a liquefied natural gas (LNG) on tankers, making it easier to transport when exporting to remote regions.

In the development of the Arctic shelf, the existing infrastructure of coastal territories is of great importance, and in the first place, the pipeline system.

The concept of developing Arctic fields, and hence the profitability of the projects themselves, is largely determined by the geographical location, ice load and sea depth. Russia is characterized by extremely severe natural and climatic conditions (presence of pack ice). Norway, for example, is characterized by more favorable conditions for the development of the Barents Sea, protected by the warm Gulf Stream.

So, on the basis of world experience, we can conclude that the technologies for developing the shelf already exist, but there is still no universal technical solution. Each Arctic project is individual and requires a special technological approach. Actually, this remark is also true for projects on land. Professor V.D. Lysenko notes: “All deposits are different; especially different, one might say unexpectedly different, gigantic fields... The troubles of individual giant fields began with the fact that when designing the development, standard solutions were applied and their essential features were not taken into account.

The main problem of the development of the Arctic is the very high cost of applying the technical solutions available at the moment. High costs determine the economic inefficiency of the development of many Arctic fields.

A significant part of Russia's oil and gas reserves is located in the extremely harsh natural and climatic conditions of the Arctic, which require new technologies to operate. Therefore, the development of offshore fields in the Arctic requires further development of technologies that will make complex Arctic projects profitable.

The development of the Arctic shelf is a powerful driver of the technological development of the oil and gas sector in any of the countries under consideration.

1.3 State regulation of the development of the Arctic shelf

State regulation of the development of the Arctic shelf consists in the formation of a system for providing hydrocarbon resources for use by oil and gas companies and a system for taxing activities for their production.

Comparative analysis of systems for providing resources for use by companies in Russia, Norway, Canada and the USA

In states with a federal structure, issues related to determining the rights to the shelf of different levels of government began to be resolved only when a reliable technology for offshore production appeared (in the middle of the 20th century). To date, the degree of their solution varies by country. Thus, the tribes living in the Niger Delta still do not agree to share the wealth of the shelf with the central government of Nigeria. And in Russia in the 1990s. the possibility of dividing powers in relation to the shelf between the regions and Moscow was seriously discussed. And the successful experience of developing the US Gulf of Mexico shelf suggests that "regionalization" can be useful.

The continental shelf of Russia is under federal jurisdiction, its subsoil is owned by the state and provided for use by the Federal Agency for Subsoil Use.

According to Decree of the Russian Federation No. 4 dated January 8, 2009, licenses for the use of subsoil located on the Russian continental shelf, including in the Arctic region, are issued without a tender or auction based on a decision of the Government of the Russian Federation.

In accordance with the adopted amendments to the Law of the Russian Federation "On Subsoil", only companies with a state participation of more than 50% (a share in the authorized capital of more than 50% and (or) an order of more than 50% of the votes attributable to voting shares).

Another important condition for companies to enter is the requirement for five years of experience on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation. At the same time, it is not clear from the law whether the experience of the parent company extends to the subsidiary and vice versa.

According to the law, only two companies can be admitted to the Russian continental shelf - OAO Gazprom and OAO NK Rosneft. In the summer of 2013, as an exception, the right to access to the development of the Russian Arctic was received by another company - OAO Zarubezhneft, which had not had it before, despite 100% state ownership and more than 25 years of experience in the Vietnamese shelf (joint venture "Vietsovpetro"). The reason for the permission to work on the shelf was Zarubezhneft's ownership of a subsidiary (100% of shares minus one) - Arktikmorneftegazrazvedka, which is state-owned and has been operating on the shelf for more than 5 years and, thus, meets all legal requirements. Arktikmorneftegazrazvedka was certified by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation for the development of the Arctic shelf. The areas claimed by Zarubezhneft in the Arctic are Pechora and Kolokolmorsky in the Pechora Sea.

Recently, the issue of liberalizing access to Arctic resources for private companies has been very actively discussed.

So far, the only way to participate in production on the Arctic continental shelf is to create a joint venture with state-owned companies, which remain the owners of licenses. However, this option of total state control is not attractive to private companies.

Back in 2010, the heads of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Ministry of Energy raised the issue of the need to “demonopolize” the development and development of the Russian shelf. In 2012, the Ministry of Natural Resources came up with a proposal to make exploration a separate type of use of the subsoil of the continental shelf, to issue licenses to private companies to conduct exploration work without a tender, provided that in the event of a large field discovery, Gazprom and Rosneft would have an option to enter project with 50% plus one share. It was also proposed to guarantee private companies participation in the development of offshore fields, which they would discover themselves.

The main argument of supporters of the admission of private capital to the continental shelf of the Arctic is the advancement in the development of oil and gas resources in this region, the acceleration of the protracted process. The participation of more companies will contribute to the diversification of the risks that Gazprom and Rosneft are now taking on. In addition, the liberalization of access to the subsoil of the Arctic shelf will have not only an economic, but also a social effect (jobs, an increase in the general standard of living of residents of the northern regions, and the development of local infrastructure).

At the moment, this issue remains only a subject of discussion, no legislative acts allowing private companies to acquire licenses for the development of the Arctic shelf have yet been adopted.

To date, most of the explored oil and gas reserves of the Arctic shelf of Russia have already been distributed between the two companies. As practice shows, Gazprom and Rosneft are developing inactively. In addition, due to the lack of their capabilities, they attract foreign partners.

Industrial operation has recently been started only by Gazprom at the Prirazlomnoye field. Initially, its development was supposed to be joint efforts of Rosneft and Gazprom, but in 2005 the block of shares of the former was sold.

Back in 2010, Rosneft received licenses to study such areas of the Arctic shelf as Vostochno-Prinovozemelsky - 1, 2, 3 in the Kara Sea and Yuzhno-Russky in the Pechora Sea.

Rosneft carried out geological and geophysical work at the Yuzhno-Russkoye block, as a result of which geological risks and hydrocarbon resources were assessed. The company has identified priority prospecting areas within which the study of promising objects will continue in the coming years.

Rosneft's strategic partner in the development of three Vostochno-Prinovozemelsky blocks has become the American company ExxonMobil, whose share in the project is 33.3% in accordance with an agreement signed in autumn 2011. Large promising structures have already been identified in these areas, however, the study of the geological structure will continue until 2016, and the first exploratory well will be drilled only in 2015.

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On March 29, Canada will host the second ministerial meeting of the five Arctic coastal states (Russia, Norway, Denmark, the USA and Canada). The agenda includes issues on the problems of the continental shelf, climate change, the preservation of fragile Arctic ecosystems, the development of the resources of the Arctic Ocean, and the development of scientific cooperation. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov will take part in the meeting.

The Arctic (from the Greek arktikos - northern), the northern polar region of the Earth, including the outskirts of the continents of Eurasia and North America, almost the entire Arctic Ocean with islands (except for the coastal islands of Norway), as well as the adjacent parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The southern border of the Arctic coincides with the southern border of the tundra zone. The area is about 27 million square meters. km, sometimes the Arctic is limited from the south by the Arctic Circle (66º33 \ "N); in this case, the area is 21 million square kilometers. According to the features of the relief in the Arctic, they distinguish: a shelf with islands of continental origin and adjacent margins of the continents and the Arctic basin.

Shelf (English shelf) - a continental shelf, a continental shelf, a leveled part of the underwater margin of the mainland, adjacent to land and characterized by a common geological structure with it. Shelf boundaries - sea or ocean coast, etc. edge (a sharp bend in the surface of the seabed - the transition to the continental slope).

According to the names of the marginal Arctic seas, the Arctic shelf is quite clearly divided into the Barents Sea, Kara, Laptev and East Siberian-Chukotka Seas. A significant part of the latter also adjoins the shores of North America.

The Barents Sea shelf over the past decades has become one of the most studied in terms of geological and geomorphological terms. In structural and geological terms, this is a Precambrian platform with a thick cover of sedimentary rocks of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. On the outskirts of the Barents Sea, the bottom is composed of ancient folded complexes of various ages (near the Kola Peninsula and northeast of Svalbard - Archean-Proterozoic, off the coast of Novaya Zemlya - Hercynian and Caledonian).

The shelf of the Kara Sea is structurally and geologically heterogeneous, its southern part is mainly a continuation of the West Siberian Hercynian plate. In the northern part, the shelf crosses the submerged link of the Ural-Novaya Zemlya meganticlinorium (a complex mountain-folded structure), the structures of which continue in northern Taimyr and in the Severozemelsky archipelago.
The predominant type of relief on the Laptev shelf is a marine accumulative plain, along the coasts, as well as on individual banks, abrasion-accumulative plains.

The accumulative leveled relief continues on the bottom of the East Siberian Sea, in some places on the bottom of the sea (near the New Siberian Islands, northwest of the Bear Islands) a ridge relief is clearly expressed. The bottom of the Chukchi Sea is dominated by flooded denudation plains (flattened surfaces formed as a result of the destruction of ancient hills or mountains). The southern part of the sea floor is a deep structural depression filled with loose sediments and, probably, Meso-Cenozoic effusive rocks. The shelf along the northern coast of Alaska is not wide and is a denudation, largely thermal-abrasive plain. Near the northern margins of the Canadian archipelago and Greenland, the shelf is "overdeep" and, in contrast to the Chukotka shelf, is replete with relict glacial landforms.

The central part is the Arctic Basin, an area of ​​deep-water basins (up to 5527 m) and underwater ridges. Large orographic structures of the Arctic basin are the Mendeleev, Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges. Around these ridges are deep-water basins, the most significant of them are the Canadian, Makarov, Amundsen and Nansen.

The discovery by Soviet scientists of the Lomonosov Ridge is an outstanding geographical discovery of our century. This large uplift of the bottom, from 60 to 200 km wide, stretching for almost 1800 km from the New Siberian Islands, across the North Pole to Ellesmere Island, divides the Arctic Ocean into two parts, sharply different in the structure of the earth's crust and the regime of water masses.

This giant "underwater bridge" connects the continental platforms of Asia and America. Its height reaches 3300 m from the Pacific Ocean and 3700 m in the opposite direction. The smallest depth so far discovered above the ridge is 954 m.

The Mendeleev Ridge, the second major uplift of the ocean floor, is located east of the Lomonosov Ridge. Initially, this name meant a vast uplift with a minimum depth of 1234 m, extending for 1500 km from the area of ​​Wrangel Island towards the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is less dissected and has gentler slopes than the Lomonosov Ridge.

In the central part of the ridge, a gap was discovered in the form of an underwater valley with depths up to 2700 m. Subsequently, parts of the ridge lying on both sides of the underwater valley were given different names. The name of the Mendeleev Ridge was preserved only for the part that gravitates towards our country, and the rest of the ridge began to be called the Alpha Rise (after the name of the American drifting station that worked in this area of ​​the Arctic Ocean).

The Gakkel Ridge is located on the other side of the Lomonosov Ridge and has a length of more than 1000 km. It consists of several chains of cone-shaped mountains. An underwater rise 400 m high is called the mountain of Lenin Komsomol.

The most remarkable thing is that these numerous underwater uplifts are of volcanic origin, so unusual for the Arctic Basin.

Between the Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges there is the Amundsen Basin with a depth of more than 4000 m and a fairly even bottom topography. On the other side of the Gakkel Ridge is the Nansen Basin with an average depth of about 3500 m. The deepest point of the ocean was found here - 5449 m.

To the east of the Alpha Rise and the Mendeleev Ridge is the Canadian Basin, the largest in the Arctic Basin, with a maximum depth of 3838 m. Recently, several more uplifts and depressions have been discovered in the Arctic Basin.

In modern international law, the division of the Arctic into 5 sectors is fixed. In the 1920s, a number of coastal states (USSR, Norway, Denmark, which owns Greenland, the USA and Canada) put forward the concept of "polar sectors", according to which all lands and islands located within the polar sector of the corresponding state, as well as permanent ice fields , soldered to the shore, are part of the state territory. The polar sector is understood as the space, the base of which is the northern border of the state, the top is the North Pole, and the side borders are the meridians connecting the North Pole with the extreme points of the northern border of the territory of this state. The largest country, the USSR, also got the largest sector - about a third of the entire area of ​​the Arctic shelf. These areas are not under the sovereignty of states and are not part of state territories, but each coastal state has sovereign rights to explore and develop the natural resources of the adjacent continental shelf and economic maritime zone, as well as to protect the natural environment of these areas.

The scope of these rights is determined by international law, in particular, the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf and the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, ratified by Russia in 1997. The convention gives maritime states the right to establish an exclusive economic zone 200 miles wide from the coastline. If the shelf continues beyond these borders, the country can extend its border to 350 miles. Within these limits, the state gains control over resources, including oil and gas.
Today, the leading world powers have prepared for the redistribution of the Arctic spaces. Russia became the first Arctic state to submit an application to the UN in 2001 to establish the outer limit of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean. Russia's application involves clarifying the territory of the Arctic shelf with an area of ​​more than a million square kilometers.

In the summer of 2007, the Russian polar expedition Arktika-2007 started, the purpose of which was to study the shelf of the Arctic Ocean.

The researchers set out to prove that the underwater ridges of Lomonosov and Mendeleev, which stretch to Greenland, can be geologically a continuation of the Siberian continental platform, this will allow Russia to claim a vast territory of the Arctic Ocean of 1.2 million square meters. kilometers.

The expedition reached the North Pole on August 1. On August 2, the Mir-1 and Mir-2 deep-sea manned submersibles descended to the ocean floor near the North Pole and carried out a complex of oceanographic, hydrometeorological and ice studies. For the first time in history, a unique experiment was carried out to take samples of soil and flora from a depth of 4261 meters. In addition, the flag of the Russian Federation was hoisted at the North Pole at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean.

As Russian President Vladimir Putin said at the time, the results of the expedition to the Arctic should form the basis of Russia's position when deciding whether this part of the Arctic shelf belongs to it.

Russia's revised application for the Arctic shelf will be ready by 2013.

After the Russian expedition, the topic of belonging to the continental shelf began to be actively discussed by the leading Arctic powers.

On September 13, 2008, the US-Canadian expedition launched, which included the US Coast Guard Arctic icebreaker Healy and Canada's heaviest Coast Guard icebreaker Louis S. St. Laurent.

The purpose of the mission was to collect information that will help determine the extent of the US continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean.

On August 7, 2009, the second US-Canadian Arctic expedition started. On the US Coast Guard icebreaker Healy and the Canadian Coast Guard ship Louis S. St-Laurent, scientists from the two countries collected data on the seafloor and continental shelf, which are believed to be rich in oil and gas fields. The expedition worked in areas from northern Alaska to the Mendeleev Ridge, as well as east of the Canadian archipelago. The scientists took photos and videos, and also collected materials on the state of the sea and the shelf.

An increasing number of states are showing interest in participating in the active development of the Arctic zone. This is due to global climate change, which opens up new opportunities for establishing regular shipping in the Arctic Ocean, as well as greater access to the minerals of this vast region.