Task 16 USE 2015.
Option 1
- The headwind (1) that suddenly swooped down on us (2) doused everyone with waves (3) of herbs that had grown mad during the day (4).
2. Ostap (1), inspired by the beauties of the Caucasus (2), shouted something (3) trying (4) to overcome the roar and groans of the Terek.
3. The great strategist (1) with his hands in his pockets (2) walked along the side (3) without noticing Vorobyaninov, who remained on the shore (4).
4. The material (1) collected by the writer for work (2) is stored in notebooks (3) of particular artistic value.
5. Birds (1) occupying sheer cliffs (2) from top to bottom did not pay the slightest attention (3) to the boat passing below (4).
6. Ippolit Matveevich (1) mired in shame (2) stood under the acacia and (3) without looking at the walkers (4) repeated three memorized phrases.
7. Looking around the stage (1), Ippolit Matveyevich saw (2) rectangles hanging from the ceiling (3) (4) painted in the primary colors of the solar spectrum.
8. Having called (1) a short-haired (2) servant in a blue caftan (3), Vasily Ivanovich invited the guests to the house.
9. Tall grass (1) leaning towards the ground (2) gently twisted around (3) rain-soaked (4) tree trunks.
10.
Anechka (2), lowering (1) her head, sat motionless in a downy scarf (3) carefully covering (4) her shoulders.
11. We swept the snow off our boots with a broom (1) and (2) somewhat embarrassed (3) entered the house.
12. And the Christmas tree (1) flooded with lights (2) and illuminating everything around (Z) beckoned to pick (4) the flowers and fruits growing on it.
13. To sleep (1) despite the spring frosts (2) moved to the stable (3) closer (4) to the stallions.
14. Emphatically simple geometric shape of the "Black Square"
Malevich (1) not linked to any image or concept (2)
existing (3) in the world before it (4) testified to
absolute freedom of its creator
15. By evening, the fox lay down in a dense and high island of dry horse sorrel (1) and (2) curled up in a reddish-yellow lump near the dark red (3) densely seeded stems (4) patiently waited for the night.
16. But here (1) choosing the moment (2) the sergeant jumped to his feet with a jerk (3) and (4) shouting something (5) rushed head first over the rails (6) immediately disappearing on the other side of the single track.
17. The blizzard subsided (1) scattering with snow (2) through the forest (3) and (4) losing strength (5) whistling quieter (6) and quieter.
18. The clouds crawled slowly (1) then merging (2) then overtaking each other (3) their colors and shapes interfered (4) absorbing themselves (5) and reappearing in new outlines (6) majestic and gloomy.
19. The motley skin of a leopard (1) intercepted by a golden arrow (2) easily hung from a rounded shoulder to a curved hip (3) and (4) shimmering in the sun (5) showedbe a living being.
20. I (1) alarmed (2) and (3) upset to the core (4) sat silently (5) hoping for a favorable outcome.
Test on the topic "Punctuation marks in a simple sentence"
Task 16 USE 2015.
Option 2
16 . Place punctuation marks: enter all the numbers that should be replaced by commas in the sentence.
- Pleased with such favorable attention (1), the blacksmith already wanted to ask the queen a good question about everything (2) and moved closer (3) wanting to examine her little boots (4) and (5) to state his request.
- He angrily threw a cigarette butt (1) hissing in a puddle (2) put his hands in the pockets of his unbuttoned coat (3) and (4) bowing his head, which had not yet cleared up from pre-lunch lessons (5) and (6) feeling the weight of a bad dinner in his stomach (7 ) began to walk with concentration and energy.
- The contours of trees (1) splashed with rain (2) and (3) agitated by the wind (4) began to emerge from the darkness (5) blackening with splayed branches.
- Mother (1) who did not sleep at night for a minute (2) jumped out of bed (3) and (4) putting fire into the samovar (5) prepared in the evening (6) began to prepare breakfast.
- The foliage plucked from the trees (1) swirled in a whirlwind (2) and began to rise upwards (3) resembling a flock of multi-colored butterflies (4) flying to bright flowers.
- The moonlit (1) fog (2) spreading over the hollows and over the river (3) murmuring under the mountain (4) resembles some kind of fabulous creature.
- Mushroom pickers (1) frightened by the approaching thunderstorm (2) and the suddenly darkened sky (3) rushed to run (4) at breakneck speed.
- Dawn (1) lit by the rising sun (2) blazed (3) blazing with all shades of scarlet and yellow colors (4) and (5) illuminating everything around.
- Boys (2) were sitting by a river overgrown with thick bushes (1) talking quietly about something (3) and (4) watching the floats (5) weaving baskets of flexible wicker rods.
- The environmental movement (1) is gaining strength every year (2) and (3) steadily growing stronger (4) unites adults and children (5) helping Russia to preserve its protected natural areas.
- Books (1) collected by high school students (2) and donated to kindergarten (3) made the little ones (4) very happy, who immediately began to look at bright pictures.
- The archaeologists settled down on the banks of the river (1), which quickly ran to the sea (2) and teeming with fish (3) and (4) setting up tents (5) went to excavations.
- Curving in a dark arc (1) and frightening with its gloomy appearance (2) stretched the forest (3) entangled with hops (4) littered with fallen trees (5) gloomy (6) and unsociable.
- Sparrows (1) scattered in flocks of roadside willows (2) shouted joyfully (3) and excitedly (4) telling everyone about the coming spring.
- It rang (1) swaying in the shade with columns (2) midges (3) burning the body with bites (4) and unbearably annoying.
- The mill wheel (1) turned lazily, blackened from time (2), collecting (3) sleepily murmuring water (5) into the slowly substituted boxes (4), being afraid to drop an extra drop of precious moisture.
- Workers (1) brought from the city (2) worked (3) tirelessly (4) remembering the future generous reward.
- Masha (1), holding both ends of the wet steering rope (2) in one hand, lowered her other hand into the water (3) trying to pick (4) a water lily (5) swaying on the water.
- Seeing me at the icon painter (1) and (2) wanting to know the details of his little-known art (3), this sad dreamer (4) secluded in himself (5) was very happy.
- A large convoy of Russian peasants (1) was walking towards them, bringing provisions to Sevastopol (2) and now walking from there (3) filled with sick (4) and wounded soldiers in gray overcoats.
Answers
1 option | Option 2 |
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1247 |
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12456 |
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ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT, a set of inorganic conditions for the existence of organisms. These conditions affect the distribution of all life on the planet. The abiotic environment is determined by various factors, including chemical ones (composition of atmospheric air ...
Apricot
APRICOT, a genus of trees and shrubs. rosaceous. Includes 10 species that grow wild mainly in Asia. In culture for more than 5 thousand years. Grow mainly apricot ordinary. Tree height up to 8 m, durable, photophilous, heat-resistant, for...
Avicenna
Avocado
AVOCADO (Persea americana), an evergreen tree. laurel, fruit crop. Homeland - Central and South America, where it has been grown for a long time. It is also cultivated in Australia, Cuba. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Barrel in...
Australian echidna
AUSTRALIAN ECHIDNA, a mammal of the fam. echidna neg. monotremes (oviparous). It lives in Eastern Australia and at its western tip. Length body ok. 40 cm, weight 2.5–6 kg. The body is covered with thick needles. 6–8 cm. The most powerful needles are located...
australopithecines
australopithecines, fossil representatives of the neg. primates that walked on two legs. They have common features both with monkeys (for example, the primitive structure of the skull) and with humans (for example, a brain more developed than that of a monkey, upright posture). IN...
Autotrophs
Autotrophs, organisms that synthesize the organic substances they need from inorganic compounds. Autotrophs include terrestrial green plants (they form organic substances from carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis), algae, ...
Agave
AGAVA, a genus of perennial plants of the family. agave. Includes St. 300 kinds. Homeland - Central America and the islands of the Caribbean. Succulents. Many species (American agave, drawn, etc.) are grown as houseplants. Stems are short or...
Adaptation
ADAPTATION, adaptation of an organism, population or biological species to environmental conditions. Includes morphological, physiological, behavioral and other changes (or their combination) that ensure survival in given conditions. Adaptations...
adenosine triphosphate
ADENOSINE TRIFOSPHATE (ATP), nucleotide, universal accumulator and carrier of chemical energy in living cells. The ATP molecule consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, the carbohydrate ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues (phosphates). The chemical energy of ATP...
Adenoids
ADENOIDS, an increase in the pharyngeal (nasopharyngeal) tonsil due to the growth of its lymphoid tissue. Causes - allergies, past childhood infections. Adenoids cause a violation of nasal breathing, hearing loss, nasal voice. Often join...
autolysis, autolysis, self-digestion of tissues, cells or their parts under the action of enzymes in animals, plants and microorganisms.
autotrophic organisms, autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as the sole or main source of carbon to build their body and have both an enzyme system for carbon dioxide assimilation and the ability to synthesize all cell components. Autotrophic organisms include terrestrial green plants, algae, phototrophic bacteria capable of photosynthesis, as well as some bacteria that use the oxidation of inorganic substances - chemoautotrophs.
adenosine diphosphate, ADP, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose, and two phosphoric acid residues. Being a phosphoryl group acceptor in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as phosphorylation at the substrate level and a biochemical precursor of ATP - a universal energy accumulator, adenosine diphosphate plays an important role in the energy of a living cell.
adenosine monophosphate, AMP, adenylic acid, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and one phosphoric acid residue. In the body, adenine monophosphate is found in the composition of RNA, coenzymes and in free form.
adenosine triphosphate, ATP, adenylpyrophosphoric acid, a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues; universal carrier and main accumulator of chemical energy in living cells, released during the transfer of electrons in the respiratory chain after oxidative breakdown of organic substances.
Aleurone grains(from the Greek aleuron - flour), grains of storage protein in the cells of the storage tissues of seeds of legumes, buckwheat, cereals and other plants. They occur as amorphous or crystalline deposits (from 0.2 to 20 microns) of various shapes and structures. They are formed during seed maturation from drying vacuoles and are surrounded by an elementary tonoplast membrane. Large complex aleurone grains consist of a protein crystalloid and a non-protein part (phytin), some of them contain calcium oxalate crystals. During seed germination, aleurone grains swell and undergo enzymatic cleavage, the products of which are used by the growing parts of the embryo.
allele(from the Greek allelon - each other, mutually), allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene. Any change in the structure of a gene as a result of mutations or due to intragenic recombinations in heterozygotes for two mutant alleles leads to the appearance of new alleles of this gene (the number of alleles of each gene is practically incalculable). The term "allele" was proposed by W. Johansen (1909). Different alleles of the same gene can lead to the same or different phenotypic effects, which was the basis for the concept of multiple allelism.
Amyloplasts(from the Greek amylon - starch and plastos - molded), plastids (from the group of leukoplasts) of a plant cell that synthesize and accumulate starch.
amino acids, organic (carboxylic) acids containing, as a rule, one or two amino groups (-NH 2). About twenty amino acids are usually involved in the construction of protein molecules. The specific sequence of alternation of amino acids in peptide chains, determined by the genetic code, determines the primary structure of the protein.
Amitosis, direct division of the interphase nucleus by constriction without the formation of chromosomes, outside the mitotic cycle. Amitosis can be accompanied by cell division, as well as be limited to nuclear division without division of the cytoplasm, which leads to the formation of bi- and multinuclear cells. Amitosis occurs in various tissues, in specialized cells doomed to death.
Anabolism(from the Greek anabole - rise), assimilation, a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues. Opposite to catabolism (dissimilation), it consists in the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy. The energy required for biosynthesis (mainly in the form of ATP) is supplied by catabolic reactions of biological oxidation. Very intense anabolism occurs during the growth period: in animals - at a young age, in plants - during the growing season. The most important process of anabolism, which has planetary significance, is photosynthesis.
Anticodon, a section of a transfer RNA molecule, consisting of three nucleotides and recognizing the corresponding section of three nucleotides (codon) in the messenger RNA molecule, with which it complementarily interacts. The specific codon-anticodon interaction that occurs on ribosomes during translation ensures the correct arrangement of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain.
outbreeding(from English out - outside and breeding - breeding), crossing or a system of crossing unrelated forms of the same species. On the basis of outbreeding, heterotic forms are obtained by carrying out interline and interbreed (intervarietal) crosses. Outbreeding is the opposite of inbreeding.
autosomes, all chromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants and fungi, with the exception of sex chromosomes.
acidophilia, the ability of cellular structures to stain with acidic dyes (eosomine, acid fuchsin, picric acid, etc.) due to the basic (alkaline) properties of staining structures.
aerobic organisms, aerobes (from the Greek aer - air and bios - life), organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent. Aerobic organisms include all plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi, i.e. the vast majority of known species of living beings.
basal body, kinetosome (corpusculum basale), an intracellular eukaryotic structure that lies at the base of cilia and flagella and serves as a support for them. The ultrastructure of the basal bodies is similar to that of the centrioles.
Basophilia, the ability of cellular structures to stain with basic (alkaline) dyes (azure, pyronin, etc.), due to the acidic properties of the staining cell components, mainly RNA. An increase in cell basophilia usually indicates an intensive protein synthesis taking place in it. Basophilia is characteristic of growing, regenerating, tumor tissues.
basophils, cells containing granular structures in protoplasm stained with basic dyes. The term "basophils" refers to one of the types of granular leukocytes (granulocytes) of the blood (normally, basophils in humans make up 0.5-1% of all leukocytes), as well as one of the types of cells of the anterior pituitary gland.
Backcross(from English back - back, back and cross - crossing), backcrossing, crossing a first-generation hybrid with one of the parental forms or a form similar to it in genotype.
Squirrels, proteins, high molecular weight organic compounds built from amino acid residues. They play a primary role in life, performing numerous functions in their structure, development and metabolism. The molecular weight of proteins is from about 5000 to many millions. The infinite variety of protein molecules (as a rule, 20 a-L-amino acids are included in proteins) due to the different sequence of amino acid residues and the length of the polypeptide chain determines the differences in their spatial structure, chemical and physical properties. Depending on the shape of the protein molecule, fibrillar and globular proteins are distinguished, from the function they perform - structural, catalytic (enzymes), transport (hemoglobin, ceruloplasmin), regulatory (some hormones), protective (antibodies, toxins), etc .; from the composition - simple proteins (proteins, consist only of amino acids) and complex (proteins, which, along with amino acids, include carbohydrates - glycoproteins, lipids - lipoproteins, nucleic acids - nucleoproteins, metals - metalloproteins, etc.); depending on the solubility in water, solutions of neutral salts, alkalis, acids and organic solvents - albumins, globulins, glutelins, histones, protamines, prolamins. The biological activity of proteins is due to their unusually flexible, plastic and at the same time strictly ordered structure, which makes it possible to solve the problems of recognition at the molecular level, as well as to exercise subtle regulatory influences. There are the following levels of structural organization of proteins: primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain); secondary (folding of the polypeptide chain into a-helical sections and structural formations); tertiary (three-dimensional spatial packing of the polypeptide chain) and quaternary (association of several separate polypeptide chains into a single structure). The primary structure of the protein is the most stable; Such a violation is called denaturation and, as a rule, is accompanied by a loss of biological properties. The primary structure of the protein determines the secondary and tertiary, i.e. self-assembly of a protein molecule. Proteins in the cells of organisms are constantly updated. The need for their constant renewal underlies the metabolism. The decisive role in protein biosynthesis belongs to nucleic acids. Proteins are the primary products of genes. The amino acid sequence in proteins reflects the nucleotide sequence in nucleic acids.
Bivalent(from the Latin bi-, in compound words - double, double and valent - strong), a pair of homologous chromosomes connected (conjugating) to each other in meiosis. It is formed at the zygotene stage and persists until the anaphase of the first division. In the bivalent, X-shaped figures are formed between the chromosomes - chiasmata, which hold the chromosomes in the complex. The number of bivalents is usually equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.
Bio…(from the Greek bios - life), part of compound words, corresponding in meaning to the words "life", "living organism" (biography, hydrobios) or the word "biological" (biocatalysis, biophysics).
biogenetic law, a generalization in the field of the relationship between ontogenesis and phylogenesis of organisms, established by F. Müller (1864) and formulated by E. Haeckel (1866): the ontogeny of any organism is a brief and concise repetition (recapitulation) of the phylogenesis of a given species.
Biogenic elements, chemical elements that are constantly included in the composition of organisms and necessary for them to live. In living cells, traces of almost all chemical elements present in the environment are usually found, but about 20 are necessary for life. The most important biogenic elements are oxygen (about 70% of the mass of organisms), carbon (18%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen , potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium. These so-called universal biogenic elements are present in the cells of all organisms. Some biogenic elements are important only for certain groups of living beings (for example, boron and other biogenic elements are necessary for plants, vanadium for ascidians, etc.).
biological membranes(Latin membrana - skin, shell, membrane), structures that limit cells (cellular or plasma membranes) and intracellular organelles (membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.). They contain lipids, proteins, heterogeneous macromolecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) and, depending on the function performed, numerous minor components (coenzymes, nucleic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, inorganic ions, etc.). The main functions of biological membranes are barrier, transport, regulatory and catalytic.
Fermentation, anaerobic enzymatic redox process of transformation of organic substances, through which organisms obtain the energy necessary for life. Compared to processes taking place in the presence of oxygen, fermentation is an evolutionarily earlier and energetically less favorable form of extracting energy from nutrients. Animals, plants and many microorganisms are capable of fermentation (some bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa grow only due to the energy received during fermentation).
Vacuoles(French vacuole from Latin vacuus - empty), cavities in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, bounded by a membrane and filled with liquid. In the cytoplasm of protozoa, there are digestive vacuoles containing enzymes and contractile vacuoles that perform the functions of osmoregulation and excretion. Multicellular animals are characterized by digestive and autophagic vacuoles, which are part of the group of secondary lysosomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes.
In plants, vacuoles are derivatives of the endoplasmic reticulum and are surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane - the tonoplast. The entire system of vacuoles of a plant cell is called a vacuum, which in a young cell is represented by a system of tubules and vesicles; as the cell grows and differentiates, they increase and merge into one large central vacuole, which occupies 70-95% of the volume of a mature cell. Vacuole cell sap is an aqueous liquid with a pH of 2-5, contains organic and inorganic salts (phosphates, oxalates, etc.) dissolved in water, sugars, amino acids, proteins, end or toxic metabolic products (tannins, glycosides, alkaloids) some pigments (for example, anthocyanins). Functions of vacuoles: regulation of water-salt metabolism, maintenance of turgor pressure in the cell, accumulation of low-molecular water-soluble metabolites, reserve substances and elimination of toxic substances from metabolism.
Spindle of division, achromatin spindle, a system of microtubules in a dividing cell, which ensures the divergence of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis. The spindle is formed in prometaphase and disintegrates in telophase.
Cell inclusions, components of the cytoplasm, which are deposits of substances temporarily removed from metabolism or its final products. The specificity of cell inclusions is associated with the specialization of the corresponding cells, tissues and organs. The most common trophic inclusions of cells are drops of fat, clumps of glycogen, yolk in eggs. In plant inclusion cells, the cells are mainly represented by starch and aleurone grains and lipid droplets. Cell inclusions also include secretory granules in the glandular cells of animals, crystals of some salts (mainly calcium oxalates) in plant cells. A special type of cell inclusions - residual bodies - products of the activity of lysosomes.
gas exchange, a set of processes of gas exchange between the body and the environment; consists in the consumption of oxygen by the body, the release of carbon dioxide, a small amount of other gaseous substances and water vapor. The biological significance of gas exchange is determined by its direct participation in metabolism, the conversion of the chemical energy of digested nutrient products into the energy necessary for the life of the organism.
Gamete(from the Greek gamete - wife, gametes - husband), sex cell, reproductive cell of animals and plants. The gamete ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring. The gamete has a haploid set of chromosomes, which is provided by a complex process of gametogenesis. Two gametes, merging during fertilization, form a zygote with a diploid set of chromosomes, which gives rise to a new organism.
Gametogenesis development of sex cells (gametes).
gametophyte, sexual generation in the life cycle of plants developing with alternation of generations. It is formed from a spore, has a haploid set of chromosomes; produces gametes either in ordinary vegetative cells of the thallus (some algae) or in specialized organs of sexual reproduction - gametangia, oogonia and antheridia (lower plants), archegonia and antheridia (higher plants with the exception of flowering plants).
Haploid(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and eidos - view), an organism (cell, nucleus) with a single (haploid) set of chromosomes, which is denoted by the Latin letter n. In many eukaryotic microorganisms and lower plants, the haploid normally represents one of the stages of the life cycle (haplophase, gametophyte), and in some species of arthropods, males are haploid, developing from unfertilized or fertilized eggs, but in which one of the haploid sets of chromosomes is eliminated. In most animals (and humans) only germ cells are haploid.
Haplont(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and on - being), an organism in which all cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes, and only the zygote is diploid. Some protozoa (eg coccidia), fungi (oomycetes), many green algae.
hemicelluloses, a group of polysaccharides of higher plants that, together with cellulose, make up the cell wall.
Gene(from the Greek genos - genus, origin), hereditary factor, functionally indivisible unit of genetic material; a section of a DNA molecule (in some viruses, RNA) that encodes the primary structure of a polypeptide, transport and ribosomal RNA molecules, or interacts with a regulatory protein. The totality of the genes of a given cell or organism makes up its genotype. The existence of hereditary discrete factors in germ cells was hypothetically postulated by G. Mendel in 1865 and in 1909. V. Johansen called them genes. Further ideas about genes are associated with the development of the chromosome theory of heredity.
…genesis(from the Greek genesis - origin, occurrence), part of compound words meaning origin, the process of formation, for example, ontogenesis, oogenesis.
genetic information, information about the properties of the organism, which is inherited. Genetic information is recorded by the sequence of nucleotides of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, in some viruses also RNA). Contains information about the structure of all (about 10,000) enzymes, structural proteins and RNA of the cell, as well as the regulation of their synthesis. Various enzymatic complexes of the cell read the genetic information.
Genetic map of the chromosome, scheme of mutual arrangement of genes in the same linkage group. To compile a genetic map of chromosomes, it is necessary to identify many mutant genes and carry out numerous crosses. The distance between genes on the genetic map of chromosomes is determined by the frequency of crossing over between them. The distance unit on the genetic map of the chromosomes of meiotically dividing cells is the morganide, which corresponds to 1% crossing over.
Genetic code, a unified system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms; determines the sequence of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain in accordance with the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Implementation of the genetic code in living cells, i.e. the synthesis of the protein encoded by the gene is carried out using two matrix processes - transcription and translation. General properties of the genetic code: triplet (each amino acid is encoded by a triple of nucleotides); non-overlapping (codons of one gene do not overlap); degeneracy (many amino acid residues are encoded by several codons); uniqueness (each individual codon encodes only one amino acid residue); compactness (there are no “commas” between codons and mRNA - nucleotides that are not included in the codon sequence of a given gene); universality (the genetic code is the same for all living organisms).
genetic material, cell components, the structural and functional unity of which ensures the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary information during vegetative and sexual reproduction.
Genome(German Genom), a set of genes characteristic of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism; main haploid set of chromosomes.
Genotype, the genetic (hereditary) constitution of an organism, the totality of all hereditary inclinations of a given cell or organism, including alleles of genes, the nature of their physical linkage in chromosomes and the presence of chromosome structures.
gene pool, the totality of genes that individuals of a given population, group of populations or species have.
Heterogamy, 1) the type of sexual process, male and female gametes that merge during fertilization are different in shape and size. For higher plants and multicellular animals, as well as for some fungi, oogamy is characteristic; according to the ratio of individuals of a number of protozoa that copulate and conjugate during the sexual process, the term "anisogamy" is used. 2) Change in the function of male and female flowers or their location on the plant (as an anomaly).
heterozygote, an organism (cell) in which homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms) of a particular gene. Heterozygosity, as a rule, determines the high viability of organisms, their good adaptability to changing environmental conditions, and therefore is widespread in natural populations.
heterotrophic organisms, heterotrophs, organisms that use exogenous organic matter as a source of carbon. As a rule, these same substances serve for them at the same time as a source of energy (organotrophy). Heterotrophic organisms, as opposed to autotrophic organisms, include all animals, fungi, most bacteria, as well as chlorophyll-free land plants and algae.
Heterochromatin, areas of chromatin that are in a condensed (densely packed) state throughout the entire cell cycle. They are intensely stained with nuclear dyes and are clearly visible under a light microscope even during interphase. Heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, as a rule, replicate later than euchromatic regions and are not transcribed; genetically very inert.
Hyaloplasm, the main plasma, the matrix of the cytoplasm, a complex colorless colloidal system in the cell, capable of reversible transitions from sol to gel.
Glycogen, a branched polysaccharide whose molecules are built from a-D-glucose residues. Molecular weight 10 5 -10 7 . The rapidly mobilized energy reserve of many living organisms accumulates in vertebrates mainly in the liver and muscles.
Glycocalyx(from Greek glykys, sweet and Latin callum, thick skin), a glycoprotein complex associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane in animal cells. Thickness - several tens of nanometers. In the glycocalyx, extracellular digestion occurs, many cell receptors are located in it, and with its help, apparently, cell adhesion occurs.
glycolysis, the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnassus pathway, an enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic breakdown of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid. It provides the cell with energy in conditions of insufficient oxygen supply (in obligate anaerobes, glycolysis is the only process that supplies energy), and under aerobic conditions, glycolysis is the stage preceding respiration - the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.
glycolipids, lipids containing a carbohydrate moiety. They are present in the tissues of plants and animals, as well as in some microorganisms. Glycosphingolipids and glycophospholipids are part of biological membranes, play an important role in the phenomena of intercellular adhesion, and have immune properties.
Glycoproteins, glycoproteins, complex proteins containing carbohydrates (from fractions of a percent to 80%). Molecular weight from 15,000 to 1,000,000. Present in all tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms. Glycoproteins, which are part of the cell membrane, are involved in cell ion exchange, immunological reactions, tissue differentiation, intercellular adhesion phenomena, etc.
globular proteins, proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into compact spherical or elliptical structures (globules). The most important representatives of globular proteins are albumins, globulins, protamines, histones, prolamins, glutelins. Unlike fibrillar proteins, which mainly play a supporting or protective role in the body, many globular proteins perform dynamic functions. Globular proteins include almost all known enzymes, antibodies, some hormones, and many transport proteins.
Glucose, grape sugar, one of the most common monosaccharides of the hexose group, the most important source of energy in living cells.
Homogamety, a characteristic of an organism (or group of organisms) that has a pair or several pairs of homologous sex chromosomes in the chromosome set and, as a result, form gametes that are identical in the set of chromosomes. The sex represented by such individuals is called homogametic. In mammals, fish and some plant species (hemp, hops, sorrel), homogamety is characteristic of the female, and in birds, butterflies and some types of strawberries - for the male.
Homozygote, a diploid or polyploid cell (individual), whose homologous chromosomes carry identical alleles of a particular gene.
homologous chromosomes, contain the same set of genes, are similar in morphological features, conjugate in the prophase of meiosis. In a diploid set of chromosomes, each pair of chromosomes is represented by two homologous chromosomes, which can differ in the alleles of the genes they contain and exchange sites in the process of crossing over.
Gram-positive bacteria prokaryotes whose cells stain positively according to the Gram method (they are able to bind the main dyes - methylene blue, gentian violet, etc., and after treatment with iodine, then alcohol or acetone, retain the iodine-dye complex). In modern literature, gram-positive bacteria include bacteria of the Firmicutes department with the so-called gram-positive type of cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by: sensitivity to certain antibiotics (not acting on gram-negative bacteria), some features of the composition and structure of the membrane apparatus, the composition of ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerase, the ability to form endospores, true mycelium, and other properties.
deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA, nucleic acids containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) as nitrogen bases. They are present in the cells of any organism, and are also part of the DNA molecule. The sequence of nucleotides in an unbranched polynucleotide chain is strictly individual and specific for each natural DNA and represents a code form for recording biological information (genetic code).
Division, a form of reproduction of some organisms and many cells that make up the body of multicellular organisms.
Denaturation(from the Latin de- prefix, meaning removal, loss, and natura - natural properties), the loss of the natural (native) configuration of molecules of proteins, nucleic acids and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemical treatment, etc. due to the rupture of non-covalent (weak) bonds in biopolymer molecules (weak bonds maintain the spatial structure of biopolymers). Usually accompanied by a loss of biological activity - enzymatic, hormonal, etc. It can be complete and partial, reversible and irreversible. Denaturation does not violate strong covalent chemical bonds, but due to the unfolding of the globular structure, it makes the radicals inside the molecule accessible to solvents and chemical reagents. In particular, denaturation facilitates the action of proteolytic enzymes, giving them access to all parts of the protein molecule. The reverse process is called renaturation.
differentiation, the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, their changes in the course of the development of an individual, leading to the formation of specialized cells, organs and tissues.
Idioblasts(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar), single cells included in a tissue and differing from the cells of this tissue in size, function, shape or internal contents, for example, cells with calcium oxalate crystals or thick-walled supporting cells in the leaf parenchyma (sclereids ).
Idiogram(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar and gramma - drawing, line) a kind of generalized image of the karyotype in compliance with the average quantitative relationships between individual chromosomes and their parts. The idiogram depicts not only the morphological features of chromosomes, but also the features of their primary structure, spiralization, heterochromatin regions, etc. Comparative analysis of the idiogram is used in karyosystematics to identify and assess the degree of relatedness of various groups of organisms based on the similarity and difference of their chromosome sets.
isogamy, a type of sexual process in which confluent (copulating) gametes do not differ morphologically, but have different biochemical and physiological properties. Isogamy is widespread in unicellular algae, lower fungi, and many protozoa (radiolarian rhizomes, lower gregarines), but is absent in multicellular organisms.
Interphase(from Latin inter - between and Greek phasis - appearance), in dividing cells part of the cell cycle between two successive mitoses; in cells that have lost the ability to divide (for example, neurons), the period from the last mitosis to cell death. Interphase also includes the temporary exit of the cell from the cycle (resting state). Synthetic processes take place in the interphase, which are associated both with the preparation of cells for division and ensure cell differentiation and the performance of specific tissue functions. The duration of interphase, as a rule, is up to 90% of the time of the entire cell cycle. A distinctive feature of interphase cells is the despiralized state of chromatin (an exception is the polytene chromosomes of Diptera and some plants, which persist throughout the entire interphase).
Intron(English intron, from intervening sequence - literally an intermediate sequence), a section of a gene (DNA) of eukaryotes, which, as a rule, does not carry genetic information related to the synthesis of the protein encoded by this gene; located between other fragments of the structural gene - exons. The regions corresponding to the intron are present, along with exons, only in the primary transcript, the mRNA precursor (pro-mRNA). They are removed from it by special enzymes during mRNA maturation (exons remain). A structural gene can contain up to several tens of introns (for example, there are 50 of them in the chicken collagen gene) or not contain them at all.
ion channels, supramolecular systems of membranes of a living cell and its organelles, which are of a lipoprotein nature and ensure the selective passage of various ions through the membrane. The most common channels for Na + , K + , Ca 2+ ions; Often, proton-conducting systems of bioenergetic complexes are also referred to as ion channels.
ion pumps, molecular structures built into biological membranes and carrying out the transfer of ions towards a higher electrochemical potential (active transport); function due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis or the energy released during the transfer of electrons through the respiratory chain. Active transport of ions underlies the bioenergetics of the cell, the processes of cellular excitation, absorption, as well as the removal of substances from the cell and the body as a whole.
Karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei of male and female germ cells in the nucleus of the zygote during fertilization. In the course of karyogamy, the pairing of homologous chromosomes is restored, carrying genetic information from the maternal and paternal gametes.
Mitosis(from karyo-kernel and Greek kinesis - movement), division of the cell nucleus.
Kariology, a section of cytology that studies the cell nucleus, its evolution and individual structures, including sets of chromosomes in different cells - karyotypes (nucleus cytology). Kariology arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. after establishing the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity. The possibility of establishing the degree of relationship between organisms by comparing their karyotypes determined the development of karyosystematics.
Karyoplasm, karyolymph, nuclear juice, the contents of the cell nucleus, in which chromate is immersed, as well as various intranuclear granules. After extraction of chromatin with chemical agents, the so-called intranuclear matrix is preserved in the karyoplasm, consisting of protein fibrils 2-3 nm thick, which form a framework in the nucleus that connects the nucleoli, chromatin, pore complexes of the nuclear membrane and other structures.
Karyosystematics, a branch of systematics that studies the structure of the cell nucleus in different groups of organisms. Karyosystematics developed at the intersection of systematics with cytology and genetics and usually studies the structure and evolution of the chromosome set - the karyotype.
Karyotype, a set of features of a chromosome set (number, size, shape of chromosomes) characteristic of a particular species. The constancy of the karyotype of each species is maintained by the laws of mitosis and meiosis. Changes in the karyotype can occur due to chromosomal and genomic mutations. Usually, the description of the chromosome set is made at the stage of metaphase or late prophase and is accompanied by counting the number of chromosomes, morphs.
Dictionary of biological terms
(7cl)
Terms
Etymology
Definition
Autotrophs
From Greek. autos - himself, trophy - food
Organisms capable of independently synthesizing organic substances from inorganic substances using solar energy, the energy of chemical transformations. These are green plants and some bacteria.
anaerobic bacteria
From Greek. an - negative particle, aer - air, bios - life; bacterion bacterium
Organisms that can live and develop in the absence of free oxygen in the environment.
antennas
Short antennae in crustaceans
Antennas
Long antennae in crustaceans.
arterial blood
Blood saturated with oxygen.
archaebacteria
From Greek. archios - ancient, bacterion - coli
The oldest living prokaryotes appeared 3 billion years ago.
Aerobic organisms
From Greek. air - air, bios - life
Organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment (all plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi).
bacteriophage
From Greek. bacterion-coli, phagos-eater
A virus that infects bacteria.
bacilli
From lat. bacillus bacilli
elongated bacteria.
Biosphere
From Greek. bios - life, sphere - ball
The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms.
Biocenosis
From Greek. bios - life, koinos - common
The totality of animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms that co-occupy an area of land or water.
Binary nomenclature
From lat. binarius - double, consisting of two parts; nomenclature-painting names
Designation of species in two words: the first is the name of the genus, the second is the specific epithet.
Lateral line
The organ characteristic of fish that perceives the movement of water is formed by sensitive cells grouped on the lateral surfaces of the body.
Botany
From Greek. botane - grass
Plant science.
Frond
From the Greek bayon - palm branch
fern leaf
Deoxygenated blood
Blood that has given oxygen to the cells of the body.
Vibrios
From the French vibrio - hesitate, tremble
curved bacteria
(the causative agent of cholera).
View
From lat. spices - standard, unit of measurement
Basic unit of classification. A set of individuals with a similar structure, lifestyle, capable of interbreeding with the appearance of fertile offspring and inhabiting a certain territory.
Virus
From lat. virus poison
non-cellular life form.
Virology
From Lat virus - poison; Greek logo teaching
The scientific discipline that studies viruses.
Water vascular system
characteristic of echinoderms. It is represented by an annular canal surrounding the esophagus, and five radial canals extending from it into the rays. Participates in locomotion, respiration and excretion.
Brood
Birds whose chicks soon after hatching are able to follow the mother and peck food on their own.
gametophyte
From Greek. gamete - wife, gametes - husband; phyto-plant
A plant that produces gametes.
Hemolymph
From Greek gem - blood, lat. lymph - pure water
A colorless or greenish liquid circulating in the vessels or intercellular cavities of many invertebrates (in arthropods, molluscs, etc.) that have an open circulatory system.
Genome
From Greek. genos- origin
The totality of genes in the haploid set of chromosomes of a given organism (the human gamete genome is represented by 23 chromosomes).
Hermaphroditism
From the names of the Greek the gods Hermes and Aphrodite; in translation means - a mythical bisexual creature.
The presence of male and female organs in the same individual.
Heterotrophs
From Greek. heteros - other, trophy - food
Organisms that use only ready-made organic substances for nutrition.
hydromedusa
From Greek. hidor - water, moisture;
Free-swimming sexual individuals of the hydroid class.
gifs
From Greek. hife - fabric, web
Microscopic branching threads that form the vegetative body of the fungus - thallus.
Mycelium
The vegetative body of the fungus (thallus), consisting of thin branching threads - hyphae. Serves for the absorption of nutrients from the substrate.
Caterpillar
A worm-like butterfly larva with a jointed body and no more than five pairs of legs.
double fertilization
A type of sexual process peculiar only to flowering plants. It lies in the fact that during the formation of the seed, not only the egg is fertilized, but also the central nucleus of the embryo sac.
Bilateral symmetry
Symmetry, in which the organs are located on both sides of the proposed plane, dividing the body lengthwise into two halves.
Diaphragm
From Greek. diaphragm - baffle
A muscular septum that separates the body cavity into the thoracic and abdominal sections.
diplococci
From Greek. di-two, cocco-grain
Bacteria consisting of pairwise contiguous cocci (two cells in one capsule).
Natural selection
The main driving factor in the evolution of organisms. The result of the struggle for existence is expressed in the predominant survival and leaving offspring of the most adapted individuals of each species of organisms and the death of the less adapted.
Zarostok
Sexual generation (gametophyte) in higher spore plants (mosses, horsetails, ferns). It develops from spores and forms male and female reproductive organs.
Zoology
From Greek. zoon-animal, logo-teaching
The science of animals that studies the diversity of the animal world, the structure and activity of animals, distribution, connection with the environment, patterns of individual and historical development.
Immunodeficiency
From lat. immunitas - release, deficiency - lacks
The inability of the body to resist any infections.
Instinct
From lat. instinctus - impulse
Complex, hereditarily determined behavior characteristic of individuals of a given species under certain conditions.
artificial selection
The choice by a person of the most economically valuable individuals of animals, plants, microorganisms of a given species, breed, variety, strain in order to obtain offspring from them with desirable properties.
Carotenoids
From lat. carota - carrots; Greek eidos - form, view
Red, yellow, and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.
Cambium
From Greek. cambium - exchange
An educational tissue located between wood and bast and producing their growth in thickness.
Keel
A high crest on the sternum in most birds.
Classification
From lat. klass - category, class, fauer - do
The distribution of the entire set of living organisms according to a certain system of subordinate taxon groups (classes, families, genera, species, etc.)
Cloaca
Lat. cloaca
Expanded part of the hindgut into which the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems open.
cocci
From Greek. coconut grain
Bacteria having a spherical shape.
Cocoon
Fran. cocoon
Protective formation that protects eggs, embryos or pupae.
The colony
From lat. colony settlement
A group of individuals of one or more species living together that are able to live independently.
Competition
From lat. competitor - collide, run together
The relationship between organisms of the same species or different species competing for the same environmental resources with a lack of them.
cuticle in plants
From lat. cuticle - skin
A layer of fatty substance that covers the surface of the aerial organs of many plants with a continuous film. Plays a protective role.
cuticle in animals
From lat. cuticle-peel
Dense non-cellular formation on the surface of epithelial tissue cells.
Moult
Periodic change of outer covers and their various formations (scales, wool, feathers, etc.).
pseudopods
Temporary cytoplasmic outgrowths in unicellular organisms and some cells of multicellular animals (eg, coelenterates).
Beam symmetry
Symmetry, in which the same organs are located along the rays diverging from the center (sponges, coelenterates).
Mantle
From Greek. mantion - cloak
Two folds hanging from the molluscs on the sides of the body.
Uterus
A hollow muscular organ within which a baby develops.
Megaspore
From Greek. mega - large, spore-seed, sowing
Large female spores in ferns.
Mesoglea
From Greek. mezos - middle, intermediate; gleios - sticky
Structureless gelatinous substance lying between the ecto- and endoderm in sponges and coelenterates. Highly saturated with water (up to 98%).
mesoderm
from the Greek mesos-medium, derma-skin
Median embryo sac in multicellular animals, including humans.
Mycology
From Greek. mycos - mushroom, logo teaching, science
Mushroom science.
Mycorrhiza
From Greek. mykos - mushroom, riza - root
Symbiosis of the mycelium of the fungus and the roots of a higher plant.
Microbiology
From Greek. micros - small, bios - life, logos - science
The biological discipline that studies microorganisms.
microspore
From Greek. micro-small, spore-seed, sowing
Small male spores in ferns.
Mixotrophs
From lat. mixio mixing
Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition: they are capable of photosynthesis, but also feed on organic matter, eating bacteria and other protozoa.
Spawning
The spawning of reproductive products by fish - mature eggs and milk, followed by fertilization.
social insects
A number of groups of insects that form permanent (seasonal or perennial) associations - families consisting of breeding and working individuals.
Fan
Part of the feather, formed by a network of thin horny plates (beards) of the first and second order.
organism
From lat. body - give a slim look
Any living being, an integral system, a carrier of life, having a set of properties: metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, etc.
Parapodium
Lateral mobile outgrowths of the body with a tuft of setae in polychaete worms.
Pathogenic bacteria
From Greek. pathos - disease, genesis - origin
These are bacteria that cause severe diseases in humans and animals.
Web
It is an air-hardening secretion of the glands, consisting mainly of a protein close to silk, but much more durable.
Pedipalps
From lat. pēs - leg + palpo - stroke, feel; "leg tentacles"
Leg tentacles are the mouthparts of arachnids, used to capture and hold prey. They are longer than chelicerae.
pinocytosis
From Greek. pino - to drink; cytosis - cell
Capture and absorption by the cell of fluid and substances dissolved in it.
Planula
From the Latin word planus - flat
Hydroid larva, covered with cilia, which later attaches to underwater objects and gives rise to a new polyp.
Placenta
From lat. placenta - cake
An organ of communication between the embryo and the mother's body during fetal development in placental mammals; Through the placenta, oxygen and nutrients come from the blood of the mother's body to the embryo, and decay products and carbon dioxide are released.
fruiting body
The outer part - what we usually call the "mushroom", consists of hyphae, very tightly intertwined.
Polymorphism
From Greek. polis - numerous,
morphe - form
The presence in the composition of one species of several clearly morphologically different forms (bees, ants, termites): “queen”, “workers”, “soldiers”, etc.
population
From lat. populus - people, population
The totality of all representatives of a given species occupying a certain space at the same time.
Breed
A collection of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man.
Pseudopodia
Outgrowths of the cytoplasm in sarcodes are formed when necessary for movement and food capture.
Chicks
Birds whose chicks emerge from the egg helpless stay in the nest for a long time and are fed by their parents.
Regeneration
From lat. regeneration - restoration, renewal
Restoration by the body of lost or damaged body parts.
Reflex
From lat. reflexus-reflected
The response of the body to irritation, carried out through the nervous system.
Rhizoids
From Greek. riza - root, eidos - species
Outgrowths of the body serve to attach to the ground or underwater rocks (in mosses, fern growths, lichens, some algae and fungi).
Sarcins
From the Latin words sarsina - a bunch, a knot
Spherical bacteria that look like dense packs.
Segments
From lat. segmentum segment
One of many homogeneous segments of the body of some animals, as well as one of the homogeneous sections of some organ.
Core
The main tissue located in the center of the stem; performs a storage function.
Symbiosis
From Lat sim - together, bios - life
Forms of coexistence of various organisms.
Systematics
From Greek. systematically ordered
A branch of biology whose task is to describe and designate all existing and extinct organisms, as well as their classification.
Sclerotia
From Greek scleros - hard
Thickening that occurs at the site of interweaving of hyphae.
Thallus (thallus)
From Greek. thallus - sprout
The vegetative body of algae, fungi, lichens, some bryophytes, not divided into organs (leaf, stem, root) and not having real tissues.
Variety
A collection of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man.
Sporangium
From Greek. spore-sowing, seed; angeion - vessel
A unicellular or multicellular asexual organ that produces spores.
sporophyte
From Greek. spore - sowing, phyton - plant
A plant that produces spores.
Spirilla
From lat spirilla-bend
Spiral bacterial cells.
statocyst
From Greek. statees-standing, cystis-bladder
Balance organ: a small vesicle of ectodermal origin with sensitive cilia and pebbles inside.
Statolith
From Greek. statos - standing, lithos - stone
Small grains of sand that fall into the statocyst and act as "earing stones".
streptococci
From Greek. streptos-chain, coccos-grain
Ball-shaped bacteria form chains of cells
(causative agents of angina, scarlet fever).
warm-blooded animals
Animals that maintain a relatively constant body temperature when the ambient temperature changes (birds, mammals).
Trachea
From Greek. tracheilos - throat
Air-breathing tubes in some invertebrates.
tracheids
From Greek. tracheilos - throat, eidos - view
Dead spindle-shaped cells with thick membranes that perform conductive and support functions.
Turgor
From lat. turgere - to be swollen, full
The elasticity of plant cells, organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.
Phagocytosis
From Greek. phageo - devour, cytosis - cell
Absorption by the cell of large molecules of organic substances and even whole cells.
compound eyes
Compound eyes, consisting of a large number of individual small ocelli combined together.
Phycocyanin
From Greek. phycos - algae, cyanos - dark blue
Water-soluble pigment of blue color in chloroplasts of purple flowers.
Phycoerythrin
From Greek. phycos - algae, erythrin red
Water-soluble pigment of red color in chloroplasts of purple flowers.
finna
One of the larval stages of development in tapeworms. It has the appearance of a bubble, into the cavity of which one or several formed heads of worms are screwed, developing in the final host into adult worms.
Phytobenthos
From Greek. phyton - plant, benthos - depth
Bottom vegetation.
Phytoplankton
From Greek. phyton - plant, planktos - wandering
Unicellular algae in the water column.
Phytohormones
From Greek. phyton - plant, hormone - excite
Plant hormones that regulate the vital processes of the plant organism.
Phototaxis
From Greek. photos - light, taxis - location in order
Directional movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.
Chemosynthesis
from lat. chemia and Greek synthetics - connection
The process by which some microorganisms form organic substances from carbon dioxide due to the energy obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds.
chelicerae
From Greek. words hele - claw, claw and ceras - horn
These are the jaws - the oral organs of arachnids, serve to capture and kill prey.
Chitin
Solid and dense organic matter that is part of the external skeleton of arthropods.
Chlorella
From Greek. chloros - green
Unicellular algae.
Chlorophyll
From Greek. chloros - green, phyllon - leaf
A green pigment found in the chloroplasts of green plants.
cold-blooded animals
Animals whose body temperature changes depending on the ambient temperature (invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles).
Chord
From Greek. chorde - string
The elastic skeletal axis in chordates is located under the neural tube; performs a supporting function.
Chromatophores
From Greek. chroma - color, foros - bearing
Organelles of algae that contain pigments that enable photosynthesis.
Cyst
From Greek. cystos - bladder
A temporary form of existence of many unicellular organisms, characterized by the presence of a protective shell.
Strain
German strain-tribe, genus
An artificial population of microorganisms characterized by hereditarily fixed productivity.
Evolution
From lat. evolutionary deployment
Irreversible historical process of development of living organisms.
ectoderm
From Greek. ectos - outside, derma - skin
Outer embryo sac of a multicellular animal embryo.
Embryology
from the Greek embryo-embryo and logo-teaching
Branch of biology that studies the embryonic period of development of organisms.
Endoderm
From Greek. enthos - inside, derma - skin
Inner leaf of a multicellular animal embryo.
The part of the nervous system that innervates the internal organs. The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic parts.
Adrenaline is a hormone of the adrenal medulla, the secretion of which is enhanced in stressful situations.
Axon - a process of a neuron, through which excitation is transmitted to other neurons or to a working organ.
Alveolus - bubble-like formation in the lungs, braided with blood capillaries.
Analyzers are complex systems of sensitive nerve formations that perceive information from the environment and analyze it (visual, auditory, gustatory, etc.). Each analyzer consists of three sections: peripheral (receptors), conductor (nerve) and central (corresponding zone of the cerebral cortex). Currently, along with the term analyzer, the concept of "sensory system" is used.
Androgens are male sex hormones produced mainly by the testes, as well as by the adrenal cortex and ovaries.
Antigens - substances that are perceived by the body as foreign and cause a specific immune response.
Antibodies are human plasma proteins that have the ability to bind antigens. Interacting with microorganisms, antibodies prevent their reproduction and/or neutralize the toxic substances they release.
The aorta is the main artery of the circulatory system; supplies blood to all tissues and organs of the body.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the organs and tissues of the body.
The tympanic membrane is a thin membrane that separates the external auditory canal from the tympanic cavity in the human ear.
Unconditioned reflexes are relatively constant, innate reactions of the body to the influences of the outside world, carried out with the help of the nervous system. For example, blinking, sucking, sneezing in newborns.
Pregnancy is a physiological process in a woman's body, in which a fetus develops from a fertilized egg. It lasts an average of 280 days. It ends with childbirth - the birth of a child.
Myopia is a lack of vision in which close objects are clearly seen and distant objects are poorly seen.
The vagus nerve is a large parasympathetic nerve that slows down the rhythm and force of the heart contractions.
The bronchi are the airways that connect the trachea and the lungs.
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood from organs and tissues to the heart.
Vitamins are low molecular weight organic compounds that have high biological activity and are involved in metabolism. A person must receive vitamins from food. With their deficiency, beriberi develops - diseases associated with metabolic disorders. There are water-soluble (C, B1, B6, etc.) and fat-soluble (A, E, D, etc.) vitamins.
Taste analyzer - perceives and analyzes soluble chemical irritants acting on the organ of taste (tongue).
The inner ear is a system of communicating, fluid-filled canals and cavities in the cartilaginous or bony labyrinth in vertebrates and humans. In the inner ear are located the perceiving parts of the organs of hearing and balance - the cochlea and the vestibular apparatus.
Excitability - the ability of organs and tissues to respond to the action of stimuli with a specific reaction - excitation, in which a living system passes from a state of rest to activity.
Villi are microscopic outgrowths of the intestinal mucosa, which greatly increase the absorption surface.
Inflammation is a complex adaptive vascular tissue response of the body to the effects of various pathogens: physical, chemical, biological.
Absorption is a set of processes that ensure the transfer of substances from the digestive tract to the internal environment of the body (blood and lymph).
Isolation (excretion) - removal from the body into the environment of the end products of metabolism - water, salts, etc.
Higher nervous activity - the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, providing the most perfect adaptation of a person to the environment. The basis of higher nervous activity is conditioned reflexes. The doctrine of higher nervous activity was created by IP Pavlov.
Gamete is a sex cell.
A ganglion is a ganglion located outside the central nervous system. Formed by a cluster of bodies of neurons.
Hemoglobin is the red respiratory pigment of human blood. A protein that contains iron (II). Found in erythrocytes. Carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the respiratory organs. Co-
The amount of hemoglobin in human blood is 130-160 g / l, in women it is somewhat less than in men.
Hygiene is a field of medicine that studies the influence of living and working conditions on human health. Develops measures to prevent diseases, ensure optimal living conditions, maintain health and prolong life.
The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon in which the centers of the autonomic nervous system are located. Closely related to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus regulates metabolism, the activity of the cardiovascular, digestive, excretory systems and endocrine glands, the mechanisms of sleep, wakefulness, and emotions. It connects the nervous and endocrine systems.
The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that produces hormones that affect the growth and development of the body, as well as metabolic processes. The pituitary gland regulates the activity of other endocrine glands. Damage to the pituitary gland leads to various diseases - dwarfism, gigantism, etc.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide made up of glucose molecules. It is synthesized and deposited in the cytoplasm of liver and muscle cells. Glycogen is sometimes referred to as animal starch because it serves as a reserve nutrient.
The pharynx is the part of the digestive canal that connects the oral cavity with the esophagus, and the nasal cavity with the larynx.
Homeostasis is the relative dynamic constancy of the composition and properties of the internal environment of the body, as well as the mechanisms that ensure this stability.
The brain is a part of the central nervous system located in the cranial cavity. Includes 5 departments: oblong, posterior (bridge and cerebellum), middle, intermediate (thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres and corpus callosum).
Gonads are the sex glands in humans and animals.
Hormones are biologically active substances produced in the body by special cells or organs (endocrine glands) and released into the blood. Hormones have a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues. With their help, humoral regulation of body functions is carried out.
The larynx is the initial section of the airways, protecting them from food ingress.
Thorax - a set of thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum, forming a strong support for the shoulder girdle. The space inside the chest (thoracic cavity) is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. Inside the chest cavity are the lungs and the heart.
Humoral regulation - coordination of vital processes in the body, carried out through liquid media (blood, lymph, tissue fluid) with the help of hormones and various metabolic products.
Farsightedness is a lack of vision that makes it difficult to see clearly at close range. Depends on the weak refractive power of the cornea and lens or too short anterior-posterior axis of the eye.
Dendrites are branching processes of neurons that conduct nerve impulses to the body of a nerve cell.
Dermis is the connective tissue part of the skin of vertebrates and humans, located under the outer layer - the epidermis.
The diaphragm is a muscular septum that completely separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
Dominant - a strong, persistent focus of excitation that occurs in the central nervous system. The dominant focus has an inhibitory effect on the activity of other nerve centers.
Respiration is a set of processes that ensure the entry of oxygen into the body, its use for the oxidation of organic substances with the release of energy and the release of carbon dioxide into the environment.
The respiratory center is a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata and other parts of the brain that provide the rhythmic activity of the respiratory muscles.
Glands are organs that secrete special substances (secrets) that are involved in metabolism. There are glands of external, internal and mixed secretion.
Glands of external secretion - usually have excretory ducts and secrete secrets on the surface of the body (sweat, sebaceous) or in the cavity of internal organs (salivary, intestinal, etc.).
Endocrine glands - do not have excretory ducts and secrete the substances they produce into the blood or lymph (pituitary, epiphysis, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, etc.).
Glands of mixed secretion - have intra- and exocrine secretion (pancreas and genital - ovaries and testes).
The yellow spot is an area on the retina located along the optical axis of the eye, where the largest number of cones is concentrated.
Gastric juice is a colorless liquid that contains digestive enzymes, mucus and hydrochloric acid solution.
Bile is a secret produced by liver cells. Contains water, bile salts, pigments, cholesterol. Bile promotes emulsification and
absorption of fats, increased contractions of the muscles of the intestine, activates the enzymes of pancreatic juice.
Vital capacity is the sum of tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and inspiratory reserve volume. measured with a spirometer.
A zygote is a fertilized egg. The initial stage of development of the embryo.
The visual analyzer is a set of visual receptors, the optic nerve and parts of the brain that perceive and analyze visual stimuli.
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist the action of damaging agents, while maintaining its integrity and biological individuality. Protective reaction of the body.
The immune system is a group of organs (red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, etc.) involved in the formation of immune cells.
Infectious diseases are diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms.
Artificial respiration - therapeutic techniques used to stop natural breathing. The caregiver actively blows (exhales) his own air into the lungs of the victim. In the absence of palpitations, it is combined with an indirect heart massage.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels through the walls of which the exchange of substances and gases between the blood and tissues of the body is carried out.
Caries is the gradual destruction of tooth tissues. One of the most common human diseases, manifested in the formation of a defect in enamel and dentin.
Valves - folds that separate the sections of the heart and prevent the reverse flow of blood (in humans - tricuspid, bicuspid, or mitral, two semilunar).
Cones are light-sensitive flask-shaped cells (photoreceptors) located in the human retina. Provide color vision.
The cerebral cortex is a layer of gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. The highest department of the central nervous system, which regulates and coordinates all the vital functions of the body in its interaction with the environment.
The organ of Corti is the receptor part of the auditory analyzer, located in the inner ear and represented by hair cells in which nerve impulses arise.
Blood is a tissue of the internal environment, the intercellular substance of which is represented by a liquid (plasma). The composition of blood, in addition to plasma, includes formed elements - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.
Blood pressure is the pressure of blood on the walls of blood vessels and chambers of the heart, resulting from its contractions and vascular resistance. The pressure at the time of ventricular contraction is systolic, and during diastole it is diastolic.
Circulation - the movement of blood through the system of blood vessels (large and small circles of blood circulation), mainly due to contractions of the heart.
Leukocytes are white human blood cells. They play an important role in protecting the body from infections - they produce antibodies and absorb bacteria.
Lymph is a fluid that circulates through the vessels and nodes of the lymphatic system. Contains a small amount of proteins and lymphocytes. It performs a protective function, and also ensures the exchange of substances between body tissues and blood.
The lymphatic system is a collection of lymphatic vessels and nodes through which lymph moves.
Lymphocytes are a form of non-granular leukocytes. Participate in the development and maintenance of immunity.
A mediator is a chemical substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors on the plasma membrane of a cell. In this case, its permeability for certain ions changes and an active electrical signal arises. Mediators are involved in the transfer of excitation from one cell to another. The role of mediators is carried out by adrenaline, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.
Slow-wave sleep is a phase of sleep characterized by a decrease in all functions of the human body, the absence of dreams.
Tonsils - accumulations of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx, performing a protective role.
Myocardium is the muscular layer of the heart.
Myofibrils are contractile fibers made up of protein filaments.
The cerebellum is part of the human hindbrain. Plays a leading role in maintaining body balance and coordination of movements.
The mammary glands are paired human skin glands. Develop in women by the period of puberty. After childbirth, they begin to produce milk.
Urine is a excretory product of animals and humans, produced by the kidneys. Consists of water (96%) and the salts contained in it, as well as final
products of protein metabolism (urea, uric acid, etc.). In the process of urine formation, the primary urine is first obtained, and then the final urine.
The adrenal glands are paired endocrine glands. The cortical layer of the adrenal glands secretes corticosteroids, as well as partially male and female sex hormones; medulla - adrenaline and norepinephrine. They play an important role in the regulation of metabolism and in the adaptation of the body to adverse conditions.
The outer ear is the outer part of the auditory analyzer.
A neuron is a nerve cell, the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. There are sensory, intercalary and motor neurons. They consist of a body and processes - dendrites and axons that are involved in the transmission of excitation.
Neurohumoral regulation - joint regulation of body functions by nervous and humoral mechanisms.
Nervous regulation is the coordinating influence of the nervous system on cells, tissues and organs, bringing their activity in line with the needs of the body.
Nerve fibers - processes of nerve cells that conduct nerve impulses.
Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers covered by a common sheath.
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidneys. It has the appearance of a cup-shaped capsule with a tubule extending from it.
Metabolism - a set of chemical transformations of substances, including the processes of their entry into the body, changes, accumulation and removal of metabolic products. Metabolism is carried out with the participation of enzymes and includes the reactions of synthesis and splitting.
Olfactory sensory system - performs the perception and analysis of chemical stimuli. It is represented by the epithelium of the nasal cavity, the olfactory nerve and the olfactory centers of the cerebral cortex.
Fertilization is the process of fusion of female and male sex cells. As a result of fertilization, a zygote is formed.
Posture is the body position habitual for each person when walking, standing and sitting.
Touch - provides the ability to perceive and distinguish the shape, size and nature of the surface of an object.
Rods are light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) in the retina. Provides twilight vision. Unlike cones, they are more sensitive, but do not perceive colors.
The parasympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system, the centers of which are located in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, and midbrain. Together with the sympathetic nervous system, it is involved in the regulation of the activity of all internal organs and glands.
The forebrain is the anterior part of the brain of vertebrates, subdivided into the final (large hemispheres of the brain) and diencephalon.
The pericardium is a pericardial sac, a connective tissue sac that surrounds the heart.
The liver is a digestive gland. In addition to the synthesis of bile, it is involved in the metabolism of proteins, etc. It performs a barrier function.
Nutrition - the entry into the human body and the assimilation of substances necessary to replenish energy costs, build and renew tissues. Through nutrition as an integral part of metabolism, the body is connected with the external environment. Insufficient and excessive nutrition leads to metabolic disorders (dystrophy, obesity).
Plasma is the liquid part of blood and lymph.
The placenta, a child's place, is an organ that communicates the fetus with the mother's body. Through the placenta, oxygen and nutrients are supplied from the mother, and metabolic products are removed from the body of the fetus. It also performs hormonal and protective functions.
A fetus is a human embryo in the period of intrauterine development after the laying of the main organs and systems (from the 9th week of pregnancy until birth).
Flat feet - flattening of the arch of the foot, causing pain.
The pancreas is a gland of mixed secretion. Its exocrine function is to produce enzymes involved in digestion, and its intrasecretory function is to secrete hormones (insulin, glucagon) that regulate carbohydrate metabolism.
Subcutaneous adipose tissue is a type of connective tissue. Serves as an energy depot of the body.
Sweat glands - external secretion glands involved in the release of metabolic products, thermoregulation. located in the skin.
The kidney is an organ of excretion. Nitrogen-containing metabolic products are excreted through the kidneys in the urine.
Conductivity - the ability of nerve and muscle cells not only to produce, but also to conduct an electrical impulse.
The medulla oblongata is a section of the brain stem located between the pons and the spinal cord. The medulla oblongata contains centers for breathing, circulation, sneezing, coughing, swallowing, etc.
The diencephalon is a part of the brain stem that includes several areas (including the hypothalamus). In the diencephalon are the higher centers of the autonomic nervous system.
Pulse - periodic oscillations of the walls of the arteries, occurring synchronously with the contractions of the heart.
The iris (iris) is a thin movable diaphragm of the eye with a pupillary opening in the center. Contains pigment cells that determine eye color.
Irritability is the ability of cells, tissues or the whole organism to respond to changes in the external or internal environment.
Rational nutrition is a nutrition system that maximally satisfies the current energy and plastic needs of the body.
The Rh factor is a protein (antigen) found in people's blood. About 85% of the world's population have the Rh factor (Rh+), the rest do not have it (Rh-). The presence or absence of the Rh factor is taken into account during blood transfusion.
Reflex - a response of the body to a change in the conditions of the external or internal environment, carried out with the participation of the nervous system. There are unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.
Reflex arc - a set of nerve formations involved in the reflex. Includes receptors, sensory fibers, nerve center, motor fibers, executive organ (muscle, gland, etc.).
Receptor - a formation that perceives irritation. Receptors can be nerve endings or specialized cells (eg, rods and cones in the retina). Receptors convert the energy of the stimulus acting on them into nerve impulses.
The cornea is the anterior transparent part of the sclera that transmits light rays.
Childbirth is a complex physiological act of expulsion of the fetus and afterbirth (placenta, membranes and umbilical cord) from the uterine cavity.
Sebaceous glands are glands located in the skin that secrete a secret that makes the skin and hair water-repellent and elastic.
Self-regulation - the ability of a biological system to independently maintain various physiological indicators at a relatively constant level (blood pressure, body temperature, blood sugar, etc.).
Blood clotting is a protective reaction of the body, expressed in stopping bleeding (formation of a clot) when a vessel is damaged.
Secretion is the process of formation and secretion of special substances from gland cells - secrets.
The spleen is an unpaired organ of vertebrates and humans, located in the abdominal cavity. Participates in hematopoiesis, metabolism, performs immunobiological and protective functions.
The testicles (testicles) are the male sex glands in which spermatozoa are produced.
A cardiac cycle is a period that includes one contraction and one relaxation of the heart.
The heart is the main organ of the circulatory system. Consists of two halves, each of which includes an atrium and a ventricle.
The retina is the inner shell of the eye, which contains light-sensitive receptors - rods and cones.
Sympathetic nervous system - a section of the autonomic nervous system, including nerve cells of the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord and nerve cells of the border sympathetic trunk, solar plexus, mesenteric nodes, the processes of which innervate all organs. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the regulation of a number of body functions: impulses are carried through its fibers, causing increased metabolism, increased heart rate, vasoconstriction, dilated pupils, etc.
Synapse - a zone of functional contact between neurons and other formations.
Systole is the contraction of the atria or ventricles of the heart.
The sclera is the outer opaque membrane that covers the eyeball and passes in front of the eye into the transparent cornea. Performs protective and shaping functions.
Auditory analyzer - performs the perception and analysis of sounds. Consists of the inner, middle and outer ear.
Salivary glands are external secretion glands that open into the oral cavity and produce saliva.
Contractility - the property of muscle fibers to change their shape and size - to perform a motor function.
The somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system that innervates the musculoskeletal system and skin.
Sperm - produced by the male gonads. Consists of
matozoids (male sex cells) and seminal fluid, which ensures their mobility.
The middle ear is a part of the organ of hearing, consisting of an air-filled tympanic cavity and three auditory ossicles - the malleus, anvil and stirrup. Separated from the external auditory canal by the tympanic membrane.
The vitreous body is a gelatinous mass that fills the cavity of the eye. It is part of the optical system of the eye.
Joint - a movable connection of bones, which allows the bones to move in different planes. There are uniaxial (only flexion - extension), biaxial (also adduction and abduction) and triaxial (rotation) joints.
Thermoregulation - regulation in the body of the processes of formation and release of heat.
Tissue fluid is one of the components of the internal environment of the body. Fills intercellular spaces in tissues and organs of animals and humans. Serves as a medium for cells, from which they absorb nutrients and into which they give metabolic products.
Inhibition is an active physiological process, manifested in the cessation or weakening of current activity. Along with excitation, it ensures the coordinated work of all organs and systems.
Trachea - part of the respiratory tract, located between the larynx and bronchi. Consists of cartilaginous semirings connected by ligaments. It branches into two bronchi.
Thrombocytes (red platelets) are blood cells involved in clotting.
Conditioned reflexes are reflexes developed under certain conditions (hence the name) during the life of an animal and a person. They are formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes.
Phagocytes are leukocytes capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies (phagocytosis). Participate in the development of immunity.
Enzymes are biological catalysts, substances of a protein nature.
Fibrin is an insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen during blood clotting.
Fibrinogen is a soluble protein that is constantly present in the blood. Able to turn into fibrin.
Formed elements of blood - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.
Photoreceptors - rods and cones of the retina - light-sensitive formations that convert light energy into nerve impulses.
The lens is a structure of the eye that looks like a biconvex lens and is located behind the iris. It is part of the optical system of the eye. Provides refraction and focusing of light rays on the retina.
The central nervous system (CNS) is the main division of the nervous system, represented by the spinal cord and brain.
A suture is a method of fixed connection of bones, in which numerous protrusions of one bone enter the corresponding recesses of another (for example, the bones of the skull).
The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that secretes hormones that affect the growth and development of the body, as well as the intensity of metabolism.
Embryo - the embryo of animals and humans.
Endocrine glands - endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts and secrete hormones directly into the blood (pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, adrenal glands, etc.). Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands are involved in the neurohumoral regulation of body functions.
The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin.
Epithelium - a layer of closely spaced cells covering the surface of the body (for example, skin), lining all its cavities and performing mainly protective, excretory and absorbing functions. Most of the glands are made up of epithelium.
Erythrocytes are red blood cells containing hemoglobin. They carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Human erythrocytes do not have a nucleus.
The ovaries are a paired female sex gland, in which eggs (female sex cells) are formed and mature. The ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity and produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
