Home Roses Knowledge and skills in this area. Essence of skills and abilities. mastery levels. Application of knowledge, skills and abilities. Assimilation of knowledge and its levels

Roses

Knowledge and skills in this area. Essence of skills and abilities. mastery levels. Application of knowledge, skills and abilities. Assimilation of knowledge and its levels

1 SKILLS………………………………………………………………………………………………5

2 SKILLS………………………………………………………………………………………………7

2.1 Types of skills…………………………………………………………………………………….9

2.2 The role of exercise in developing skills………………………………………………………..10

2.3 Interaction of skills……………………………………………………………………..11

3 HABITS……………………………………………………………………………………..13

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………15

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………17

INTRODUCTION

Scientific knowledge, including psychological knowledge, is increasingly becoming a powerful productive force in our time. Therefore, mastering information from the field of mental hygiene, psychoprophylaxis, self-regulation and self-programming of the individual, which is so rich in the historical experience of mankind, is not only of theoretical interest, but also of direct practical importance. The modern well-informed reader is already sufficiently prepared not only to perceive this experience, but also to understand the essence of the mental processes underlying it.

The essence of man is open to the future, that its possibilities are universal. Man opposes the world of nature in his being as a universal force, possessing inexhaustible possibilities, going to infinity. And this dialectical unity of the constant, stable and constantly changing is one of the most important characteristics of a person. Truly man is the most changeable being.

In this regard, such human sciences as psychology, pedagogy, medicine face the big task of multiplying, developing and using those greatest reserves of the human nervous system and psyche. The advantages of mental self-programming over any kind of pharmacological and gene-surgical influences primarily consist in the fact that such self-programming makes a person a truly free creator of his own personality. It is this way of perfecting the personality that excludes any temptation to impose something unusual on her or, moreover, to deliberately program her behavior through outside interference.

Familiarization with the patterns and methods of programming mental activity will help to better understand the examples given, which he, not without reason, could perceive with distrust. Another thing is more important: the methods of self-programming and self-regulation of mental states provide ample opportunities for self-improvement of a person, creating additional "degrees of freedom" for his multilateral development.

Mastering the appropriate skills allows not only to intensify one's intellectual and physical labor to a high degree, but also to consciously and systematically overcome the negative traits of one's character and even correct some of the physical shortcomings of one's own body. It is this high level of self-regulation of the individual that excludes the possibility of extraneous negative influence and spiritual violence.

It is the developed ability for self-regulation and self-programming, manifested on the basis of a high moral level and ideological conviction, that will become one of the main characteristics of the psychological image of a person of the future.

1 SKILL

skill they call both the most elementary level of performing actions, and the skill of a person in this type of activity. A first grader is said to be able to read. Adults can also read. Between these "skills" lies a long-term path of exercises, improving reading skills. These are, of course, qualitatively different skills in terms of their psychological structure. It is necessary to distinguish between elementary skills that follow knowledge and the first experience of actions, and skills that express one or another degree of skill in performing an activity that occurs after the development of skills. Elementary Skills- these are actions that have arisen on the basis of knowledge as a result of imitation of actions or independent trial and error in handling the subject. Skill-mastery arises on the basis of already developed skills and a wide range of knowledge.

An example of the ratio of elementary skills, skills and craftsmanship on the example of a teacher's work.

A student of a pedagogical university has an elementary ability to work with a board. The skill arose during the student's studies at school and university, but the student purposefully and constantly did not exercise in its implementation. Psychology, pedagogy, private methodology provide a theoretical basis for this skill. Thus, the study in the course of psychology of the concepts of "contrast of sensations", "relation of figure and background", "distribution and concentration of attention" substantiates the requirements that apply to notes on the board. However, even after graduating from high school, a student may not acquire the skill to write on the board. The lack of skill leads to the fact that the teacher rushes with each next formula to the nearest free place on the board, randomly erasing previously written expressions, so that a mess of incoherent symbols remains on the board after the lesson.

The ability to take notes on the board is brought to the level of skill in the first years of work at school and then becomes an element of teacher's skill, which is characterized by seeing the entire record before it is meaningfully and accurately lined up on the board during the lesson.

The elementary ability to do something arises from imitation, from random knowledge. For example, fifth-graders who first got into a carpentry or metalwork workshop know how to saw, but most of them have incorrect tool handling techniques. The primary task of the teacher is to develop the correct skills for using tools and, in further labor training, to raise the performance of activities to the level of mastery.

The more complex the type of activity, the more perfect the machines that need to be controlled, the less hope for the success of skills that develop only as a result of observation and imitation.

2 SKILLS

The activity will be performed skillfully if the person has mastered the skills. Skill- a well-established way of doing things. Skill as a component of human activity should not be confused with skill in animals, which is a form of their behavior. Skill in animals is formed as a mechanism for their adaptation to the environment through trial and error.

The development of a skill in a person is based on detailed, conscious actions. At the initial stage of mastering the activity, the actions and movements integrated in the skill act as unrelated ones. Thus, in teaching reading, the division of words into syllables and the synthesis of syllables into a meaningful word represent the content of two different actions. By practicing reading, the student develops the skill of fluent reading. This means that now he does not set himself the task of breaking the word into parts and synthesizing it. The action has turned into a skill to read words as a whole, relying on individual letters. Only when meeting with a new, unfamiliar word, the skill gives way to separate actions for the analysis and synthesis of the syllabic composition of the word.

The basis of any skill is the development and strengthening of conditioned reflex connections. The existing neural mechanisms cause a number of changes in the process of performing an action. First, as a result of developing a skill, the time for performing an action is sharply reduced. A novice typist types much more slowly than an experienced typist. As the writing skill improves, a person begins to write up to one hundred letters per minute, while at the beginning of training he barely manages to write 2-3 short words in the same time. Secondly, unnecessary movements disappear, the tension decreases when performing an action. As a result of well-developed motor skills, labor productivity increases, work quality improves and human fatigue decreases.

Developed motor skills allow you to restructure the structure of activity. There is a change in the ratio of analyzer systems that control the execution of an action. Prior to the development of skills, the accuracy and correctness of objective actions are controlled by the joint activity of the visual and motor analyzers with the leading role of vision. When a motor skill is strengthened, the need for visual control of movements is greatly reduced. Kinesthetic (sensation of movements) mechanisms are developed that independently control the accuracy of movements. A professional pianist, performing a piece, does not look at the keyboard. A good typist types with a “blind” method.

These facts indicate that in the process of developing a skill, the interaction between analyzers is restructured. Visual-motor control is replaced by motor control. The visual analyzer, as well as consciousness, are freed to process other signals, which must be taken into account in the process of activity.

Control of one sensory kinesthetic system reduces the degree of confidence in the correct performance of an action, especially in certain activities. Tactile sensitivity also becomes a system that duplicates the control of movement during operation. Practice has shown that the provision of a linotype keyboard (typesetting machine) with tactilely distinguishable characters improves the quality of typing.

A feature of the formation of skills is their gradual automation. Developed skills do not require mind control when performing them. Of course, in the initial period, consciousness controls the movement, but as the skill is developed, the control of consciousness is gradually turned off. It has been noticed that at the stage of a well-developed skill, conscious control over the movement can make it difficult to perform it. For example, a person, analyzing every step of his gait, loses confidence in his movements.

In order to understand the question of the ways and mechanisms of the formation of skills and abilities in students, one must first understand what skills and abilities provide. The relationship between the concepts of "skills" and "skills" has not yet been clarified. Most psychologists and educators believe that skill is a higher psychological category than skills. Practitioners adhere to the opposite point of view: skills represent a higher stage of mastering physical exercises and labor actions than skills.

Some authors understand skills as the ability to carry out any activity at a professional level, while skills are formed on the basis of several skills that characterize the degree of mastery of actions. Therefore, skill precedes skill.

Skill and skill is the ability to perform one or another action. They differ in the degree (level) of mastery of this action.

Skill is the ability to act, which has not reached the highest level of formation, performed completely consciously.

Skill is the ability to act that has reached the highest level of formation, performed automatically, without awareness of intermediate steps.

When a person reads a book, controlling its semantic and stylistic content, the reading of letters and words occurs automatically. When he reads the manuscript to identify typographical errors in it, then the control is already aimed at the perception of letters and words, and the semantic side of what is written goes by the wayside. But in both cases, a person can read, and this ability has been brought to the level of a skill.

Skill is an intermediate stage in mastering a new way of acting, based on some rule (knowledge) and corresponding to the correct use of knowledge in the process of solving a certain class of problems, but not yet at the level of skill. Skill is usually correlated with the level expressed at the initial stage in the form of acquired knowledge (rules, theorems, definitions, etc.), which is understood by students and can be arbitrarily reproduced. In the subsequent process of practical use of this knowledge, it acquires some operational characteristics, acting in the form of a correctly performed action, regulated by this rule. In case of any difficulties that arise, the student turns to the rule in order to control the action being performed or to work on the mistakes made.

Skills are automated components of a person's conscious action, which are developed in the process of its implementation. Skill emerges as a consciously automated action and then functions as an automated way of doing it. The fact that this action has become a habit means that the individual, as a result of the exercise, has acquired the ability to carry out this operation without making its implementation his conscious goal.

This means that when we form in the process of teaching a student the ability to perform some action, then at first he performs this action in detail, fixing in his mind every step of the action being performed. That is, the ability to perform an action is first formed as a skill. As this action is trained and performed, the skill improves, the process of performing the action is curtailed, the intermediate steps of this process are no longer realized, the action is performed fully automated - the student develops a skill in performing this action, i.e. the skill turns into a skill.

But in a number of cases, when the action is complex, and its implementation consists of many steps, with any improvement of the action, it remains a skill, without turning into a habit. Therefore, skills and abilities also differ depending on the nature of the corresponding actions.

If the action is elementary, simple, widely used when performing more complex actions, then its performance is usually formed as a skill, for example, the skill of writing, reading, oral arithmetic operations on small numbers, etc. If the action is complex, then performing this action, as a rule, it is formed as a skill, which includes one or more skills.

Thus, the term "skill" has two meanings:
the initial level of mastery of any simple action. In this case, the skill is considered as the highest level of mastery of this action, its automated execution: the skill turns into a skill.
the ability to consciously perform a complex action using a range of skills. In this case, a skill is an automated performance of elementary actions that make up a complex action performed with the help of a skill. The process of formation of educational skills and abilities (general and narrow-subject) is lengthy and, as a rule, takes more than one year, and many of these skills (especially general ones) are formed and improved throughout a person’s life.

You can set the following levels of student mastery of actions that correspond to both learning skills and skills:
0 level - students do not own this action at all (no skill).
Level 1 - students are familiar with the nature of this action, they are able to perform it only with sufficient help from the teacher (adult);
Level 2 - students are able to perform this action on their own, but only according to the model, imitating the actions of a teacher or peers;
Level 3 - students are able to perform actions quite freely, being aware of each step;
Level 4 - students automatically, minimized and accurately perform actions (skill).
However, not all learning skills should reach the level of automation and become skills. Some learning skills are usually formed at school up to the 3rd level, others, mainly general ones, up to the 4th level, after which they are improved in subsequent training.

The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is the most important condition for preparing students for life, the way to establish a connection between theory and practice in educational work. Their use stimulates educational activity, inspires students' confidence in their abilities. Knowledge becomes a means of influencing objects and phenomena of reality, and skills and abilities become an instrument of practical activity only in the process of their application. The most important function of the application is to obtain new knowledge with its help, i.e., turning them into a tool of knowledge. In this capacity, the application of knowledge can often mean only a mental transformation of some initial models of reality in order to obtain new ones that more fully and perfectly reflect the real world. A typical example of such an application is the so-called mental experimentation. The ability to use acquired knowledge to obtain new ones is called intellectual skills and abilities. In practical activities, in addition to intellectual, the use of specific skills and abilities is mandatory, which together ensures the success of work.

The application of knowledge in each subject is unique. When studying physics, chemistry, natural science, physical geography, knowledge, skills and abilities are used in such activities of students as observation, measurement, fixing the data obtained in written and graphic forms, solving problems, etc. When studying humanitarian subjects of knowledge , skills and abilities are realized when students independently explain certain phenomena, when applying spelling rules, etc.

The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is associated, first of all, with the recognition in a particular situation of cases where such an application is appropriate. Special training in appropriate recognition is associated with the establishment of a fundamental similarity and, consequently, with the ability to abstract (abstract) from factors and features that, under given circumstances, can be considered insignificant. The unity of generalization and concretization makes it possible to avoid solving problems only based on memory, and not on a comprehensive analysis of the proposed conditions, that is, to avoid the formalism of knowledge. Another necessary condition is the possession of a sequence of application operations. Training of this kind of actions is usually given more attention, but even here there are errors - most often attempts to reduce it to purely algorithmic procedures in a once and for all given sequence. The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is successful when it acquires a heuristic and creative character.

Learning is impossible without the use of cash (albeit minimal, drawn from everyday experience) knowledge, skills and abilities and is an expediently organized system of consistent application of knowledge, skills and abilities. In some cases, the application can only be mental, imaginary. The improvement of knowledge, skills and abilities also occurs only in the process of their application, therefore, the repetition of what has been learned should, as a rule, not be a simple reproduction, but its application in more or less new conditions. For the application of knowledge, skills and abilities, interdisciplinary connections are important, since actions with real objects require simultaneous accounting of knowledge in several academic subjects. Self-control contributes to the successful application of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Who needs a person without knowledge, certain skills and abilities? He will be tolerated in the family, but it is difficult for such an individual to find a job. Knowledge is the key to career growth; without it, a person gradually degrades.

In everyday life, certain skills and abilities are very useful. In the article we will give a list of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for life.

What are skills?

Skills are things that we learn all the time. For example, the ability to write, read, or make something is a skill. The list of human skills can be divided into several groups:

Complex and simple.

Theoretical.

Practical.

All of them are achieved only through practice, requiring a certain attention on the part of the student.

Let's take a closer look at the main points from the list of human skills presented above.

Complex and simple skills

Let us give an example of teaching complex and simple skills on mastering the operation of a computer.

Nowadays, children are born with a mouse in their hands, as adults joke. Some of them master the computer at the user level, others are waiting for the future of programmers. Such children are interested in the possession of certain computer programs, the development of text processes and other knowledge related to computers. Learning all this is called a complex skill.

Simple means the ability to use a computer at the user level: print, work with e-mail, communicate in social networks.

Theoretical skills

We continue to consider the skills of a person, the list of which is presented above. This time we will talk about theoretical knowledge and skills.

A characteristic feature of the skill is the ability to navigate in its essence and apply in practice. A person is capable of possessing theoretical skills, but has never used them as a tool for carrying out this or that activity.

Practical skills

The main components of this type of human skills, the list of which is given above, look like this:

going through personal experience;

lack of difficulties in implementation;

bringing to automation.

All these points are compatible with the utmost attention in the moments of learning a particular skill. Here we come to this moment.

Types of attention

Psychologists have proven that there are three types of attention. It can be involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

Arbitrary attention

At school, we learn this type, because in order to master this or that material, we are forced to focus on the teacher's explanation.

Arbitrary attention is concentration with the help of volitional efforts on any object. For example, an adult learns to drive a car. All his attention is focused on the road, the novice driver tries to go around the pits that have arisen on the way, closely monitors other cars, keeping a distance on the road.

involuntary attention

Imagine the situation: you are sitting at home, reading a book. Suddenly the front door slams, you are distracted and listen. Having understood the reason for the cotton (one of the household members returned), you start reading again.

The door slam acts as an irritant, the attention directed to it is involuntary.

Post-voluntary attention

For a person who has mastered the skill to perfection, its implementation will not be difficult under any circumstances. Laziness, poor health, frustration - this is not a reason to spoil the work, because it has been brought to automatism.

Post-voluntary attention is characterized by the automaticity of actions, which is described above.

Habits of Highly Effective People

Thirty years ago, a wonderful book by the American writer Stephen Covey was published. It was republished in 2004, translated into 40 languages of the world, the number of sales exceeded all conceivable indicators. In 2011, the book entered the TOP-25 among the most influential in the business world.

Those who happened to read it will confirm what was written. The book is called The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Personal Development Tools. As you might guess, this is a list of the skills of highly effective people that you can check out right now.

Act in accordance with your life principles, regardless of the prevailing circumstances and environmental conditions. In other words, be proactive.

Imagine the end goal before taking action.

Do everything important and urgent first. Know how to prioritize your activities.

Think positive.

Learn to listen to those around you. This is more important than being heard by them.

Strive for mutually beneficial interaction.

Work on yourself, because there is no limit to perfection.

Compiling a resume

Speaking of human skills, it is difficult to ignore the ability to write a resume correctly. Skills and knowledge are necessary both in everyday life and in employment.

What is the employer looking for? Why are some applicants constantly invited for interviews, while others sit at home for weeks? It's all about a well-crafted resume.

Let's give an example of instructions for skills and abilities for a resume. The applicant needs the ability to profitably present information about their skills. This resume block is filled in in accordance with the required skills and knowledge for the position you are looking for.

A person applying for a vacancy that requires constant contact with other people must have the following skills:

Correct oral and written language.

Ability to be tactful.

The ability to convince.

Experience of successful sales, if the applicant gets a job in the relevant position.

Ability to find an approach to clients.

Ability to learn quickly.

Promptly respond to information received from the client.

Anyone who applies for a managerial position will need to possess the business and personal qualities of an employee who is ready to become a boss over others:

Ability to make decisions and take responsibility for them.

High communication skills, the ability to win over people.

Ability to quickly resolve conflict situations.

Persistence.

The effectiveness of personnel management.

Analytical thinking.

21st century skills

The necessary skills for a person of the 21st century, striving to move up the career ladder and be successful in life, are as follows:

Competent presentation of thoughts on paper. Agree, a business letter with many errors, written by a company secretary, looks repulsive and ridiculous. And the usual friendly correspondence, in which a certain number of errors, does not honor an illiterate comrade.

Ability to speak fluently. It is useful both at work and in simple communication. It is always pleasant to deal with an interlocutor whose speech is like a babbling stream instead of a polluted swamp.

Self-confidence is another essential quality. A modern person must have the ability to defend his opinion, blind obedience and trust will appeal to manipulators.

Planning your own time. There are boring and routine tasks at work, but you have to do them. In order for the work to go faster, you need to properly manage your time. In everyday life, it is easier to live according to a schedule, a person knows what needs to be done in a certain time, it is easier for him to control himself.

Constant updating of your knowledge and skills. Communication with professionals of this or that business will help to learn something.

Mastering new technologies. Do not neglect the study of computer use, referring to age, for example.

Ability to solve problems, creative approach to work. According to the instructions, it is easy to work, everyone is able to do it. But creative thinking brings much better results in career advancement.

The ability to sell your time. There is a phrase: "know your worth." It can be attributed to the ability to value your time, when negotiating wages, do not hesitate to raise it. Your knowledge and skills are worth a little more than the employer offers for them.

Ability to work in a team. This phrase is constantly found in the descriptions of numerous vacancies. A person who is ready to reveal his potential, working in a team, will quickly overcome the steps of the career ladder.

Applying your knowledge. This is written above, theory is a good thing, but without practice it does not represent any advantages for its owner.

What skills do women need to live?

All of the above applies mainly to working skills and abilities. Life dictates its own rules, you have to follow them regardless of your own desires. We will talk about the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for life in this subsection.

The main skill a woman needs is the ability to keep a home. This includes cooking delicious food, raising children and maintaining order. In addition, she must be diversified, help her man in certain matters. Behind every successful man there is always a strong woman - this phrase has been heard by many.

Male skills

The list of human skills is presented above. This subsection is dedicated to what a modern man should have:

Ability to thoroughly understand your work.

Ability to apply knowledge in practice.

Ability to listen to the words of relatives, friends and colleagues.

Be competent in everyday matters.

Conclusion

We have dealt with the list of human skills and abilities necessary for modern personalities. We talked about their features, about ways to master certain skills. The article describes the types of skills and attention.

Knowledge, skills and abilities are the three main components necessary for a modern person to successfully move up the career and ladder and interact with people around them. The more we know and know how, the better for us and others. There is an opportunity to help others, to be useful to relatives, friends and those who simply need help.

The immediate goals of any academic subject are the assimilation by students of a system of knowledge and their mastery of certain skills and abilities. At the same time, the mastery of skills and abilities occurs on the basis of the assimilation of effective knowledge, which determines the corresponding skills and abilities, i.e. indicate how one or another skill or skill should be performed. In order to understand the question of the ways and mechanisms of the formation of skills and abilities in students, one must first understand what skills and habits are. The relationship between the concepts of "skills" and "skills" has not yet been clarified. Most psychologists and educators believe that skill is a higher psychological category than skills. Practitioners adhere to the opposite point of view: skills represent a higher stage of mastering physical exercises and labor actions than skills. Some authors understand skills as the ability to carry out any activity at a professional level, while skills are formed on the basis of several skills that characterize the degree of mastery of actions. Therefore, skill precedes skill. Other authors understand skills as the ability to carry out any action, operation. According to them, skill precedes skill, which is considered as a more perfect stage of mastering actions.

Skill and skill is the ability to perform one or another action. They differ in the degree (level) of mastery of this action. Skill- this is the ability to act, which has not reached the highest level of formation, performed completely consciously. Skill - this is the ability to act, which has reached the highest level of formation, performed automatically, without awareness of the intermediate steps. When a person reads a book, controlling its semantic and stylistic content, the reading of letters and words occurs automatically. When he reads the manuscript to identify typographical errors in it, then the control is already directed at the perception of letters and words, and the semantic side of what is written goes by the wayside - such is, say, the work of a typographical or publishing proofreader. But in both cases, a person can read, and this ability has been brought to the level of a skill.

Skill is an intermediate stage in mastering a new way of acting, based on some rule (knowledge) and corresponding to the correct use of knowledge in the process of solving a certain class of problems, but not yet at the level of skill. Skill is usually correlated with the level, expressed at the initial stage in the form of learned knowledge (rules, theorems, definitions, etc.), which is understood by students and can be arbitrarily reproduced. In the subsequent process of practical use of this knowledge, it acquires some operational characteristics, acting in the form of a correctly performed action, regulated by this rule. In case of any difficulties that arise, the student turns to the rule in order to control the action being performed or to work on the mistakes made.

Skills are automated components of a person's conscious action, which are developed in the process of its implementation. Skill arises as consciously automated action and then functions as automated way to do it. The fact that this action has become a habit means that the individual, as a result of the exercise, has acquired the ability to carry out this operation without making its implementation his conscious goal. This means that when we form in the process of teaching a student the ability to perform some action, then at first he performs this action in detail, fixing in his mind every step of the action being performed. That is, the ability to perform an action is first formed as a skill. As this action is trained and performed, the skill improves, the process of performing the action is curtailed, the intermediate steps of this process are no longer realized, the action is performed fully automated - the student develops a skill in performing this action, i.e. skill becomes skill. But in a number of cases, when the action is complex and its implementation consists of many steps, with any improvement of the action, it remains a skill, without turning into a skill. Therefore, skills and abilities also differ depending on the nature of the corresponding actions. If the action is elementary, simple, widely used when performing more complex actions, then its performance is usually formed as a skill, for example, the skill of writing, reading, oral arithmetic operations on small numbers, etc. If the action is complex, then the performance of this action, as a rule, is formed as a skill, which includes one or more skills.

Thus, the term "skill" has two meanings: 1) the initial level of mastery of some simple action. In this case, the skill is considered as the highest level of mastery of this action, its automated execution: the skill turns into a skill; 2) the ability to consciously perform a complex action using a number of skills. In this case, a skill is an automated performance of elementary actions that make up a complex action performed with the help of a skill. The process of formation of educational skills and abilities (general and narrow-subject) is lengthy and, as a rule, takes more than one year, and many of these skills (especially general ones) are formed and improved throughout a person’s life.

You can set the following levels of student mastery of actions that correspond to both learning skills and skills:

Level 0 - students do not master this action at all (no skill);
Level 1 - students are familiar with the nature of this action, they are able to perform it only with sufficient help from the teacher (adult);
Level 2 - students are able to perform this action on their own, but only according to the model, imitating the actions of a teacher or peers;
Level 3 - students are able to perform actions quite freely, being aware of each step;
Level 4 - students automatically, minimized and accurately perform actions (skill).

However, not all learning skills should reach the level of automation and become skills. Some learning skills are usually formed at school up to the 3rd level, others are mainly general, up to the 4th level, after which they are improved in subsequent training. We believe that mastering various levels of educational skills and abilities and applying them in practice could be called structuring knowledge.

The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is the most important condition for preparing students for life, the way to establish a connection between theory and practice in educational work. Their use stimulates educational activity, inspires students' confidence in their abilities. Knowledge becomes a means of influencing objects and phenomena of reality, and skills and abilities become an instrument of practical activity only in the process of their application. The most important function of the application is to obtain new knowledge with its help, i.e. turning them into a tool of knowledge. In this capacity, the application of knowledge can often mean only a mental transformation of some initial models of reality in order to obtain new ones that more fully and perfectly reflect the real world. A typical example of such an application is thought experimentation. The ability to use acquired knowledge to obtain new ones is called intellectual skills and abilities. In practical activities, in addition to intellectual, it is necessary to use specific skills and abilities, which together ensure the success of work.

The application of knowledge, skills and abilities - one of the stages of assimilation - is carried out in a wide variety of activities and largely depends on the nature of the subject, the specifics of the content being studied. It can be pedagogically organized by performing exercises, laboratory work, and practical activities. Particularly profound in its impact is the application of knowledge to solving educational and research problems. The application of knowledge enhances the motivation of learning, revealing the practical significance of what is being studied, makes knowledge more solid, really meaningful. The application of knowledge in each subject is unique. When studying physics, chemistry, natural science, physical geography, knowledge, skills and abilities are used in such types of student activities as observation, measurement, recording the data obtained in written and graphic forms, problem solving, etc. When studying humanitarian subjects, knowledge, skills and abilities are realized when students independently explain certain phenomena, when applying spelling rules, etc.

Let's add: general educational skills and abilities are those skills that correspond to actions that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, disciplines, and which become operations for performing actions used in many school subjects and in everyday life. To master them, so-called narrow-subject skills and abilities are necessary. They correspond to such actions that are formed in any educational subject, which can become operations for performing only other specific actions of this subject or related ones. For example, the skills of reading and writing natural numbers and actions on them during the initial formation are purely mathematical skills (actions), but then, when they are already formed, they turn into operations that are widely used not only for performing various mathematical actions, but also for actions. in many other subjects (even such as history or literature) and in everyday life practice. Therefore, these skills are general education. But the ability to find the derivative of a certain function corresponds to such an action that is used in the course of mathematics and, in some cases, in the courses of physics and chemistry. Therefore, this skill is narrow-minded.

It is quite difficult to draw a clear line between narrow-subject and general educational skills and abilities. The formation of general educational skills and abilities is a special pedagogical task.

However, not all teachers consider this problem from this point of view. It is often believed that a special, purposeful development of these skills and abilities is not needed, since the students themselves acquire the necessary skills in the learning process. This position is incorrect. The student in his educational activity really processes and transforms the methods of educational work that the teacher asks him. Such internal processing leads to the fact that the way the child has learned to work with educational material can sometimes differ quite sharply from the teacher's standard. At the same time, the teacher, as a rule, does not control this process, fixing only the quality of the result obtained by the student (solved or unsolved problem; meaningful or shallow, fragmentary, uninformative answer, etc.), and does not imagine what individual skills , methods of educational work in the child spontaneously developed. And these techniques may turn out to be irrational or simply incorrect, which significantly prevents the student from advancing in the educational material, developing educational activities. Cumbersome systems of irrational methods slow down the educational process, make it difficult to form skills and automate them. Throughout the course of schooling, students should form general educational skills, and the skills are consciously controlled, some of which are then automated and become skills. What should the teacher do about it? Let's note two main points, or stages: goal setting and organization of activities. First of all, a special goal is set for children - to master a certain skill. When a teacher is confronted with a student's lack of a particular skill, he must first ask himself the question, has such a goal been set before him? Are students aware of it? After all, only the most intellectually developed students independently identify for themselves and realize the operational side of educational activity, while the rest remain at the level of intuitive-practical possession of skills. A very common shortcoming in the organization of the educational work of schoolchildren is that they do not see the educational task, the educational goal behind the work they perform. Of course, at first, and periodically in more complex cases in the future, the teacher, giving this or that task, himself indicates the learning task that the student must solve when completing this task. But gradually, students acquire the ability, ability and habit to see behind any work they do the knowledge, skills and abilities that they must acquire as a result of this work. In addition to understanding the goal, the student needs to understand its relationship to the motive of his activity.

Learning motivation is always individual: each child has his own system of motives that encourage him to learn and give meaning to learning. It is known that the informal mastering of higher intellectual skills is possible only with cognitive motivation. Nevertheless, even with the predominance of cognitive motivation, the child will still have other motives - broad social, success, avoidance of punishment, etc. The teacher has to focus on this whole wide range of motives. Setting the goal of teaching this skill, he must enable each student to understand what personal meaning will be contained in this work, why he needs this skill (having mastered it, he will be able to perform complex tasks that are much more interesting than those that he is doing now; he will be able to quickly and correctly solve problems of a certain type, get high marks, etc.). In order to set a clear goal for the students, he must first himself have an appropriate program for the formation of skills. With the planned-thematic system of organizing the educational process, this program is provided in each educational minimum - a list of basic knowledge, skills and abilities that must be acquired by all students when studying the educational topic. The training minimum includes only the most important, essential issues, without the knowledge of which the subsequent study of the curriculum is impossible. It also includes the development of educational skills, both provided for by the curriculum and not provided for by it, without mastering which the activities of students will not be sufficiently rational and effective.

After the motivational formation of skills, the stage of organizing joint activities with the teacher follows. In this joint activity, the student must, first of all, receive a sample or rule, an algorithm of work. It is desirable that, having received a ready-made sample, the children themselves (but under the guidance of a teacher) develop a system of rules according to which they will act. This can be achieved by comparing the task being performed with a given sample. For example, when teaching the ability to draw up a plan diagram, the teacher can show in the form of a sample plan for a specific topic already familiar to children. Focusing on it, students complete a task on another, related topic - they make a plan for this educational material. Then, together with the teacher, they carefully analyze several works from the class, comparing them with each other and with the sample. It is determined which elements in the plan-scheme are highlighted, which connections are shown, which are absent, and which are superfluous, unnecessary. As can be seen from the above example, joint activity with the teacher to develop a conscious skill is always externally deployed. Students usually have an insufficiently developed ability to act internally, theoretically, having a cognitive task. In any case, acting according to the plan, they encounter significant difficulties. Therefore, they need easier, more accessible actions, external in form. Thus, the main path here is a joint activity, and the method is the execution of external actions. Moreover, external actions should be maximally deployed at first, and only then, as the skill is developed, they can be reduced.

After students understand the rules by which they need to act, exercises are needed to use the acquired skill. It is not enough for a student to know the rational rules of academic work; he must also learn to apply them in his own practice. Exercises during which the skill is worked out should be varied. For example, when teaching the ability to distinguish between the main and the secondary, the following exercises-tasks are used, in particular: to highlight in the text those parts of it that are most essential for revealing its content; omit secondary points when retelling the text; arrange the educational material in a certain order, corresponding to the degree of its importance; compare any phenomena that are similar in the main and different in particular, while clearly explaining what is significant here and what is not. The training required to develop a skill should not be one-sided or excessive. A skill that a child has sufficiently mastered on simple material is then often difficult to incorporate into complex activities involving the use of different skills. Performing a special exercise, the student focuses on the correct application of one new skill. When a more difficult task requires him to distribute his attention, to include this skill in the system of previously established ones, it begins to “fall out”. So, in the lessons of the Russian language and literature, a student who did the exercises well may make mistakes, not using the same rules in dictation, and one who correctly wrote dictations may make mistakes when working on an essay. This can be avoided by teaching the child to combine the formed skill or skill with others so that he can use them together, at the same time, mastering more and more complex ways of activity.

All this complex work is aimed at ensuring that the external practical activity of the student becomes his internal property and can be performed mentally. Today, when preparing for the Unified State Exam, at school, in a variety of lessons, children are testing on a very large scale - teachers tend to literally “train” them, giving a huge number of tests from the USE materials for previous years. What happens here - the development of skills or abilities, automation or memory training? We believe that, from the point of view of psychology, the appearance of neoplasms at this stage (the last in school life), most likely, does not occur - the abundance of material for the average student exceeds his intellectual capabilities, allowing only a few new and, most importantly, necessary knowledge, skills and abilities - and often at the exam in the form of the exam, one has to deal with the fact that the so-called "weak" students completely thoughtlessly fill out the paper form without analyzing the text, the content of the examination task.

Another necessary condition is the possession of a sequence of application operations. Training of this kind of actions is usually given more attention, but even here there are errors - most often attempts to reduce it to purely algorithmic procedures in a once and for all given sequence. The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is successful when it acquires a heuristic and creative character. Learning is impossible without the use of cash (albeit minimal, drawn from everyday experience) knowledge, skills and abilities and is an expediently organized system of consistent application of knowledge, skills and abilities. In some cases, the application can only be mental, imaginary.

The improvement of knowledge, skills and abilities also occurs only in the process of their application, therefore, the repetition of what has been learned should, as a rule, not be a simple reproduction, but its application in more or less new conditions. For the application of knowledge, skills and abilities, interdisciplinary connections are important, because actions with real objects require simultaneous accounting of knowledge in several academic subjects. Self-control contributes to the successful application of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Questions and tasks

1. What do practicing teachers and psychologists of various scientific fields understand as skills and abilities?
2. Try to establish the difference between skills and abilities and points of mutual transition.
3. Tell us about the levels of mastery by students of actions that correspond to both learning skills and skills.
4. What is the structure of knowledge?
5. How is the application of knowledge and skills in practice?
6. What is the difference in the application of skills and abilities in the fields of the humanities and the exact sciences?
7. What is the heuristic and creative nature of the application of skills and abilities?
8. Tell us about the role of self-control in the successful application of knowledge, skills and abilities.
9. What is the difference between general educational and narrow-subject skills and abilities?
10. What are the features of their formation?

The processing of sensory data in consciousness leads to the formation of representations and concepts. It is in these two forms that knowledge is stored in memory. The main purpose of knowledge is to organize and regulate practical activities.

Knowledge is a theoretically generalized socio-historical experience, the result of a person's mastery of reality, its knowledge.

Knowledge and action are closely intertwined. Actions with objects simultaneously provide knowledge about their properties and the possibility of using these objects. When we meet with unfamiliar objects, we strive first of all to gain knowledge about how to deal with them, how to use them. If we are dealing with a new technical device, then first of all we get acquainted with the instructions for its use. On the basis of the instruction, the movements are postponed in the form of motor representations. However, movement is usually not enough to properly handle the object. Certain theoretical knowledge is required about some properties of the device, about the patterns and features of the phenomena associated with it. This knowledge can be acquired from specialized literature and used when working with the device.

Knowledge raises activity to a higher level of awareness, increases a person's confidence in the correctness of its implementation. Performance of activity is impossible without knowledge.

In addition to knowledge, the necessary components of activity are skills and abilities. The ratio of these components is explained by psychologists ambiguously: some researchers believe that skills precede skills, others believe that skills arise before skills.

In addition, the concept of skill is also ambiguously interpreted. So, skill is sometimes reduced to knowledge of a particular case, understanding the sequence of its implementation. However, this is not yet a skill, but only a prerequisite for its occurrence. Yes, both a first-grader and a senior student can read, but these are qualitatively excellent skills in terms of their psychological structure. Therefore, one should distinguish between elementary skills that immediately follow knowledge and the first experience of actions, and skills that manifest themselves as mastery in performing activities that occur after the development of a skill. Elementary skills are actions that arise on the basis of knowledge as a result of imitation of actions or independent trial and error in handling an object. They can arise on the basis of imitation, from random knowledge. Skill - mastery arises on the basis of already developed skills and a wide range of knowledge. Thus, a necessary internal condition for skill is a certain skill in performing the actions that make up this activity.

So, skill is a person's readiness based on knowledge and skills to successfully perform a certain activity. Skills are consciously controlled parts of the activity, at least in the main intermediate points and the final goal.

The existence of a large number of activities determines the existence of a corresponding number of skills. These skills have both common features (what is necessary for any type of activity: the ability to be attentive, plan and control activities, etc.), and excellent features, due to the content of a particular type of activity.

Since an activity consists of various actions, the ability to perform it consists of a number of individual skills. The more complex the activity, the more advanced the mechanisms and devices that need to be controlled, the greater the skill of a person should be.

A skill is an action formed by repetition and is characterized by a high degree of comprehension and the absence of element-by-element conscious regulation and control.

Skills are components of a person's conscious activity that are performed completely automatically. If action is understood as a part of an activity that has a clearly defined conscious goal, then a skill can also be called an automated component of an action.

As a result of the repeated performance of the same movements, a person has the opportunity to perform a certain action as a single purposeful act, without setting himself a special goal of consciously choosing ways to perform it, and without specifically focusing attention on the performance of individual operations.

Due to the fact that some actions are fixed in the form of skills and pass into the plan of automated acts, the conscious activity of a person is freed from the need to regulate relatively elementary acts, and is directed to the implementation of complex tasks.

When automating actions and operations of their transformation into skills, a number of transformations occur in the structure of activity. First, automated actions and operations merge into a single holistic act called skill (for example, a complex system of movements of a person who writes a text, performs a sports exercise, performs a surgical operation, produces a detail of an object, gives a lecture, etc.). At the same time, superfluous, unnecessary movements disappear, and the number of erroneous ones drops sharply.

Secondly, control over an action or operation during their automation is shifted from the process to the final result, and external, sensory control is replaced by internal, proprioceptive. The speed of the action and operation increases sharply, becoming optimal or maximum. All this happens as a result of exercise and training.

The physiological basis for the automation of activity components, which are initially presented in its structure in the form of actions and operations and then turn into skills, is, as shown by N.A. Bernstein, the transition of the management of activity or its individual components to the subconscious level of regulation and bringing them to automatism.

Since skills are included in the structure of actions and various activities in large numbers, they interact with each other, forming complex systems of skills. The nature of their interaction can be different: from consistency to counteraction, from complete merging to mutually negative inhibitory influence - interference. Coordination of skills occurs when: a) the system of movements related to one skill corresponds to the system of movements related to another skill; b) when the implementation of one skill creates favorable conditions for the implementation of another (one of the skills serves as a means of better mastering the other); c) when the end of one skill is the actual beginning of another and vice versa. Interference occurs when one of the following contradictions appears in the interaction of skills: a) the system of movements that relate to one skill contradicts, does not agree with the system of movements that make up the structure of another skill; b) when, when moving from one skill to another, you actually have to relearn, destroy the structure of the old skill; c) when the system of movements related to one skill is partially contained in another skill already brought to automatism (in this case, when a new skill is performed, movements characteristic of a previously learned skill automatically occur, which leads to a distortion of the movements necessary for a new skill) d) when the beginning and end of sequentially performed skills do not coincide with each other. With full automation of skills, the phenomenon of interference is reduced to a minimum or completely disappears.

Important for understanding the process of skills formation is their transfer, that is, the distribution and use of skills formed as a result of performing certain actions and activities to others. In order for such a transfer to be fulfilled normally, it is necessary that the skill become generalized, universal, consistent with other skills, actions and activities, brought to automatism.

Skill, unlike skills, is formed as a result of coordination of skills, their combination into systems with the help of actions that are under conscious control. Through the regulation of such actions, optimal control of skills is carried out. It consists in ensuring the error-free and flexible execution of actions, that is, obtaining a reliable result of the action as a result. The action itself in a skill structure is controlled by its target. For example, elementary school students, when learning to write, perform actions related to writing individual elements of letters. At the same time, the skills of holding a pencil in the hand and performing elementary hand movements are performed, as a rule, automatically. The main thing in skill management is to ensure the accuracy of each action, its sufficient flexibility. This means the practical elimination of low quality work, variability and the ability to adapt the system of skills to the conditions of the activity, change from time to time, while maintaining positive work results. Thus, the ability to do something with one's own hands means that a person who has such skills will always work well and is able to maintain a high quality of work under any conditions. The ability to teach means that the teacher is able to teach any normal student what he knows and can do himself.

One of the main qualities that belong to skills is that a person has the ability to change the structure of skills - skills, operations and actions that are part of the skills, the sequence of their implementation, while maintaining the end result unchanged. A skilled person can replace one material with another in the manufacture of any product, make it himself or use the available tools, other improvised means, in a word, he will find a way out in almost any situation.

Skill, unlike skills, is always based on active intellectual activity and necessarily includes thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skill from skills. The activation of intellectual activity in skills occurs at those moments when the conditions of activity change, non-standard situations arise that require the prompt adoption of reasonable decisions. Skill management at the level of the central nervous system is carried out by higher anatomical and physiological authorities than skill management, that is, at the level of the cerebral cortex.

Skills and abilities are divided into several types: motor, cognitive, theoretical and practical. Motor ones include a variety of movements, complex and simple, that make up the external, motor aspects of activity. There are special types of activity (for example, sports), entirely built on the basis of motor skills and abilities. Cognitive skills include the ability to search for, perceive, remember and process information. They correlate with the basic mental processes and involve the formation of knowledge. Theoretical skills and abilities are associated with abstract intelligence. They are manifested in the ability of a person to analyze, generalize the material, put forward hypotheses, theories, and transfer information from one sign system to another. Such skills and abilities of everything turn out to be in the creative work associated with obtaining the ideal product of thought. Practical skills are manifested in the performance of practical activities, the manufacture of a particular product. It is on their example that one can demonstrate the formation and manifestation of skills in its purest form.

Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills and abilities. Thanks to them, the automation of skills, the improvement of skills, activities in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of their preservation. Without constant, systematic exercise, skills and abilities often lose their quality.

Another element of activity is habit. It differs from skills and abilities in that it is a so-called unproductive element of activity. If the skills and abilities are associated with the solution of a task, providing for the receipt of a product and are flexible enough (in the structure of complex skills), then the habit is an inflexible (often unreasonable) part of a person’s mechanical activity and does not have a conscious goal or a pronounced productive end. Unlike mere habits, a habit can be consciously controlled to a certain extent. But it differs from skill in that it is not always reasonable and useful (bad habits). Habits as elements of activity is the least flexible part of it. Therefore, it is important that the child immediately consolidates good habits that have a positive impact on the formation of the personality as a whole.