The concept of truth and its criteria for the exam presentation. Presentation on social studies "Cognition. Truth and its criteria" (grade 10). Reasons for the relativity of truth

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1. What is cognition? 2. Types of knowledge. 3. Ways of knowing. 4. Intuition. 5. Truth and Its Criteria Lesson Plan

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1. What is cognition? Cognition is the reflection and reproduction of reality in the thinking of the subject, the result of which is knowledge about the world; the process of searching for truth. Knowledge is the result of cognition, a true reflection of reality in human thinking; scientific information. The process of cognition presupposes the presence of two sides: The subject of cognition is a person who knows an object or phenomenon. An object of knowledge is an object or phenomenon that is studied by a person.

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Ways of acquiring knowledge: spontaneous (a child, playing with a ball, broke glass  learned that glass is fragile); organized (students in a chemistry lesson conduct experiments; a biologist studies the behavior of animals). The results of cognitive activity reflect not only the properties of the subject being studied, but also how we organize the learning process (means and methods of cognition), and the characteristics of ourselves (our positions, preferences, previously accumulated experience, etc.). There cannot be one correct absolute method. It is possible that there are several different theories that explain the same phenomenon.

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2. Types of knowledge. First classification: knowledge about objects (What is a car? What is an algorithm?). knowledge about an action (how to fry a steak, sew a suit, etc.) knowledge about the property, use of an object (why does a dentist need a drill, a scientist need a computer, etc.) Second classification: Perceptual (from Lat. - perception) or empirical (from Greek - experience) a person gains knowledge through sensory perception of objects (for example, knowledge of what a cow looks like, what ammonia smells like, what a violin sounds like, etc.). A person draws everyday practical knowledge from the experience of everyday life, from practice. This is basic information about nature and people (for example, knowledge that the appearance of clouds portends rain, and blacks are distinguished by dark skin).

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Scientific knowledge is knowledge about the essence of objects and phenomena, about the connections between them; concepts, evidence, theoretical explanation are used (for example, knowledge about the structure of the atom, the chemical composition of a solution, etc.). Third classification: Fundamental knowledge - theoretical knowledge about the basic laws of the structure and development of man, society, and nature. Applied knowledge is knowledge aimed at achieving practical goals and solving specific problems. Fourth classification: Natural scientific knowledge - information from the sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, geography, astronomy, etc. Humanitarian knowledge - historical, philosophical, psychological, etc.

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3. Ways of knowing. Sensory cognition occurs through the five basic senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Elements of sensory experience: Sensations (arise as a result of the direct impact of an object on the senses); Perception (a holistic image of an object, formed from many of its very different properties); Representation (a sensory image of an object, stored in consciousness without its direct influence). Example. A man flips through a book. His senses allow him to see its color and feel the roughness of the cover. These sensations are combined into a single image of the book, and perception arises. Another time, without seeing the book, a person will be able to imagine it.

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Rational knowledge (logical) is carried out with the help of thinking, reason. By isolating the essential from the data received by the senses, a person strives to penetrate deeper into the essence of things and understand the patterns of phenomena. Elements of rational knowledge: Concept (reflection of objects in their general and essential characteristics); Judgment (a thought in which something is affirmed or denied through a connection of concepts); Inference (conclusions from logically related judgments). Example. People, comparing apples, pears, plums, identifying their similarities and differences, essential properties, identified them into a group of similar objects, which was called “fruit” (concept).

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Which of these sources of knowledge - reason or feelings - is decisive in cognitive activity? Proponents of sensationalism (Latin “sensus” - feeling), empiricists (Greek “empiria” - experience) recognized the decisive role of sensory experience, believed that sensations and perceptions are the basis of knowledge. Supporters of rationalism - rationalists (Greek "ratio" - reason) recognized reason as the main form of reliable knowledge. Both stages of cognition must be in unity, mutually complementing each other. One without the other does not lead to objectively correct knowledge, to truth.

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PROPERTIES OF TRUTH Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to the object, to reality. Truth acts as the agreement of the mind with itself, since knowledge is the revelation of the spiritual fundamental principle of the world. The most important sign of true knowledge is clarity.

Misconception

True.

The problem of truth is leading in the philosophy of knowledge. All problems of the philosophical theory of knowledge concern either the means and ways of achieving truth (issues of the sensual and rational, intuitive and discursive, etc.), or the forms of existence of truth (concepts of fact, hypothesis, theory, etc.), the forms of its implementation, the structure of cognitive relationships, etc. Concept. All of them concentrate truths related to the most important aspects of this problem, organize specifics into a general system and complement it ideologically.

problems. It is on a par with such concepts as “justice”, “goodness”, “meaning of life”. A person’s position in life and his understanding of his purpose often depend on how the truth is interpreted, how the question of whether it is achievable is resolved.

There are different understandings of truth. Here are some of them:

“Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to reality”;

“Truth is experimental confirmation”;

“Truth is a property more self-consistent than knowledge”;

“Truth is the usefulness of knowledge, its effectiveness”;

"Truth is an agreement."

Narsky and T.I. Oizerman note that the correct representation as a mental image arising as a result of cognition of an object is:

1) display, causally determined by what is displayed;

2) a mapping that is in a relationship of isomorphism or homomorphism with respect to what is being mapped;

3) a mapping in which the components that are in a relation of isomorphism or homomorphism to the components of the displayed one are associated with the last similarity relation.

The modern interpretation of truth, which is shared by most philosophers, includes the following points

Firstly, the concept of “reality” is interpreted primarily as an objective reality that exists before and independently of our consciousness, as consisting not only of phenomena, but also of the entities hiding behind them and manifesting themselves in them.

Secondly, “reality” also includes subjective reality; spiritual reality is also cognized and reflected in truth.

Thirdly, knowledge, its result - truth, as well as the object itself are understood as inextricably linked with the objective-sensory activity of a person, with practice; the object is defined through practice; truth, i.e. reliable knowledge of the essence and its manifestations, is reproducible in practice.

Fourth, it is recognized that truth is not only a static, but also a dynamic entity; truth is a process. These points delimit the dialectical-realistic understanding of truth from agnosticism, idealism and simplified materialism.

It is precisely for this reason - non-class and supra-historical - that the atomistic concept of Democritus is fundamentally true; Material bodies really consist of atoms, and atoms are indivisible. Although the atoms turned out to be different from what was imagined in antiquity, although the divisibility of atoms was subsequently proven (by the way, when criticizing the metaphysical position of centuries about the indivisibility of atoms, they forget that atoms are integral and truly indivisible within certain limits under certain

conditions; All chemistry, in particular, is based on this), yet this concept corresponded

and corresponds to its level of condition

practice, albeit primitive, ordinary, but quite definite experience. Within these limits it is true.

V.S. Solovyov noted:

“The truth lies first of all in the fact that it exists, i.e., that it cannot be reduced either to the fact of our sensation or to the act of our thinking, that it exists regardless of whether we feel it or whether we think it or not...

Unconditional truth is defined primarily not as a relation or being, but as that which is in a relation, or as an existent."

Famous scientist A-D. Aleksandrov writes that the very concept of “truth” covers both objective truth and moral rightness.

“The desire to find the truth, spread and establish it among people turns out to be an essential element of a moral position towards people... Knowledge of the truth enriches a person, allows him to better navigate reality.

Therefore, lying is not just contrary to the truth. Anyone who lies, as it were, robs a person, prevents him from understanding what is happening and finding the right path, constrains his freedom, and imposes on him the shackles of a distorted view of reality. Distorting and hiding the truth has always served to oppress. Disrespect for the truth, indifference to it expresses disrespect, indifference to people; you have to completely despise people in order to

Misconception.

Truth must be distinguished

from delusion. Error is a constant companion of truth. Often knowledge that has been considered true for a long time turns out to be a delusion. A striking example of this is the geocentric picture of the world, recognized for many centuries as an indisputable truth.

Morok – God of delusion, lies and

However, N. Copernicus showed in the 16th century that the truth is the heliocentric picture of the world, in which the center of the solar system is recognized not as the Earth, but as the Sun. A thought that is true in some conditions may become false in others. Thus, the proposition “water boils at 100° Celsius” is true only at normal atmospheric pressure. If the pressure is changed, it will lose its truth. Even those judgments that are considered reliable and true often contain a share of error. Misconception is a distorted reflection of reality, it is knowledge that does not correspond to what actually exists. People rarely achieved the truth without errors, bypassing error.

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In what ways is it achieved?

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“truth is the identity of thing and representation”

Thomas Aquinas

“The word “truth” means the correspondence of thought to object.”

R. Descartes

The most important property of true knowledge is its objectivity, independence from human consciousness, his passions and interests.

Aristotle's position

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“What seems to everyone is true.” (Protagoras)

“that the same thing exists and does not exist, that it is both bad and good, that other statements opposing each other are also true...” (criticism of Protagoras’ position by Aristotle)

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How can a person verify the truth of his knowledge about a subject?

Criteria of truth.

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CRITERIA OF TRUTH

Empiricists

• the source and justification of all knowledge is sensory experience;
• sensations are the only source and basis of knowledge (sensualists);
• Thinking is seen as a derivative of sensations;

Criticism of the empiricists' position

• at the levels of perception and representation, to obtain a holistic picture of the world, our consciousness uses elements of generalized knowledge;
• sensory experience can give a distorted view of reality;
• many theoretical postulates underlying scientific knowledge cannot be substantiated experimentally;
• sensory experience is the result of understanding, interpretation.

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• rationalists
• the criterion of truth is reason;
• Mathematics, starting with obvious truths and using methods of logical derivation of new knowledge from undoubted premises, was taken as a model of true knowledge.

• Difficulties in determining the unconditional foundations of knowledge (Descartes - “innate ideas”, Leibniz - “innate intuitions;
• Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry is the ideal of theoretically based knowledge. Which of them corresponds to real space and is true?

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Each of the systems of axioms of Euclid, Lobachevsky and Riemann was theoretically rigorous, the question arose as to which of them corresponds to real space and is true.

“The fundamental principles of Euclid are also nothing more than an agreement, and it would be just as unreasonable to find out whether they are true or false.” (A. Poincare)

Proponents of this view are conventionalists.

With this approach, the question of truth is completely removed.

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TRUTH AND ITS CRITERIA

TRUTH HOW TO DISTINCTION TRUTH FROM FALSE:

1.KNOWLEDGE IS TRUE WHEN IT IS LOGICALLY ORDERED

2. WHEN KNOWLEDGE IS USEFUL FOR A PERSON

The criterion of truth is practice: practical interaction of an observed phenomenon with some other phenomenon, material production, accumulated experience, scientific experiment.

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Criteria of truth

• Empiricists believed that the source and basis of all knowledge is sensory experience.
• For rationalists, reason was the criterion of truth.
• Conventionalist theories assumed that true scientific knowledge is an agreement between researchers - “conventions”
• Pragmatic theories of truth assume that the true consciousness is that which contributes to the solution of practical problems.

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Practice cannot be considered as a universal criterion of truth.

Criterion of truth - theory

If a practical problem has been solved, does that mean complete knowledge of the subject has been achieved?

Rejection of the idea of ​​knowledge development

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Shapes of truth

• Scientific truth
• Ordinary or everyday truth
• Artistic truth
• Moral truth

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Types of truth

• Absolute truth
• Relative truth
• The ideal, the limit to which our knowledge strives.
• Complete, exhaustive knowledge about a subject, that element of knowledge that cannot be refuted in the future.
• On the way to absolute truth, we receive relative truths.
• Knowledge that will change, deepen, and be replaced by new ones in the process of development of knowledge.

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Properties of truth

• Concreteness is the dependence of truth on place, time and other conditions for its receipt.
• Objectivity is the content of our knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity.

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TRUTH AND FALSE

“The human mind is like an uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things, reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.” (F. Bacon)

• These are misconceptions, the origins of which are rooted in human nature itself, in the peculiarities of our knowledge.
• “fullness” is a sign of health.
• all authority is from God
• lack of complete and accurate information about the subject of interest to us, as well as the necessary means for processing it

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Literature: Bogolyubov L.N., Social studies 19th grade

Profile level, M., “Enlightenment”, 2008.

Internet resources:

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It is important for a person to
the object of his will... was
objective good...
subject and content
thoughts were objective
true and its subject
feelings were objective
beautiful, that is, not only
for him, but also for everyone
certainly" (V.S. Soloviev)
1

What knowledge
should be considered
true?
To what extent
it's available
to the knower
to a person?
What
ways
achieved?

Concept of truth

"Word
"true"
means
correspondence
thoughts
subject"
"The truth is
identity of a thing
And
representation"
Thomas Aquinas
Aristotle
R. Descartes

Concept of truth

“Whatever seems to everyone is
certain" (Protagoras)
"that the same thing exists
and does not exist that it is
good and bad that others
opposite to each other
statements also
are true..." (criticism of the position
Protagoras by Aristotle)

Concept of truth

“Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to reality”
“Truth is experimental confirmation”
“Truth is the usefulness of knowledge, its effectiveness”
“Truth is an agreement”
“Truth is the property of self-consistency”
“Truth is a process” (firstly, as a process
changes towards ever greater completeness
reflection of the object and, secondly, as a process
overcoming misconceptions in the structure of concepts,
theories)

TRUTH is knowledge that corresponds to
subject of knowledge, coinciding with it

Properties of truth

1
2
dependence of truth
from place, time and
other conditions of it
receiving
this is the content
our knowledge, which
does not depend on
person,
not from humanity
Specificity
Objectivity

Types of truth

Absolute
true
Exhaustive
reliable knowledge about
nature, man and
society.
Knowledge about the subject that
can't be
refuted in the future
or supplemented.
There is little such knowledge.
Relative
true
Incomplete, inaccurate knowledge
appropriate
a certain level
development of society,
which determines
ways to get it
knowledge.
Knowledge that can
change, deepen,
be replaced by a new one in
development process
knowledge.

Reasons for the relativity of truth

The world is endlessly changing
Human cognitive capabilities
limited
Possibilities of cognition depend on real
historical conditions for the development of spiritual culture,
material production available
by means of observation and experimentation
time and are determined by the level
Features of cognitive activity
person

Shapes of truth

Scientific truth
Ordinary or
everyday truth
Artistic
true
Moral truth

Opposites of Truth

Misconception is a deviation from the truth that we accept
for the truth.
The first classification of fallacies was given by F. Bacon under
named after “idols” (“idols of the clan”, “idols of the cave”, “idols
square (market)", "theater idols")
Some philosophers see the reason for the emergence of misconceptions in
human will (Leibniz, Schopenhauer), the majority
attributes them to reason or social interests (Marx).
A lie is a statement that is not true
expressed in this form consciously - and by this
different from delusion.

What is the criterion (measurement) of truth?

Criterion - (from the Greek kriterion - a means for
judgments) –
1) a sign on the basis of which
assessment, determination or
classification of something;
2) a measure of evaluation.
The criterion of truth is a means of verification
the truth of human knowledge.

Criteria of truth in different theories

Empiricists believed that the source and justification
all knowledge is sensory experience.
For rationalists, the criterion of truth was
intelligence.
Conventionalist theories assumed that
true scientific knowledge is an agreement between
researchers - "conventions"
Pragmatist theories of truth assume that
true is the consciousness that
contributes to solving practical problems.
Marxism: the criterion of truth is practice =
material production + scientific
experiment.

Empiricists

Source and
justification for all
knowledge sensual
experience;
Feel
are
the only one
source and
basis
knowledge
(sensualists);
Thinking
is being considered
as a derivative
from sensations;
Empiricism was formed in 17 - 18
centuries (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume)
CRITICISM:
at the levels of perception and
submissions to receive
our holistic picture of the world
consciousness uses elements
generalized knowledge;
sensory experience can give
misrepresentation of
reality;
many theoretical postulates,
underlying scientific knowledge,
cannot be justified empirically;
sensory experience is the result
understanding, interpretation.

Rationalists

The criterion of truth
the mind appears;
Per sample
true knowledge
accepted
mathematics,
starting with
obvious truths and
using
Boolean methods
bringing out new
knowledge from
undoubted
parcels.
CRITICISM:
Difficulty in defining
unconditional foundations of knowledge
(Descartes - “innate
ideas”, Leibniz “innate intuitions;
Euclidean and non-Euclidean
geometry is ideal
in theory
grounded knowledge. Which
which of them corresponds
real
space, is
true?

Each of the system
axioms of Euclid,
Lobachevsky and
Riman was
theoretically rigorous
the question arose about
about which one of them
corresponds
real
space,
is true.
“The fundamental principles of Euclid are also nothing more than
as an agreement, and it would be just as unreasonable
to find out whether they are true or false."
(A. Poincare). Proponents of this point of view -
conventionalists. With this approach the question
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about truth
generally removed.

Practice cannot be considered as
universal criterion of truth.
If
practical
the task was successful
to decide means
completeness of knowledge
about the subject
achieved?
Criterion of truth - theory
Rejection of the idea
development of knowledge

Practice as a criterion of truth

Practice (from the Greek praktikos – active, active) –
holistic organic system of active
material activities of people aimed at
transformation of reality,
carried out in a certain sociocultural
context. Its forms:
11
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Material
to add Titleproduction
22
Click
Socially transformative
to add Title
activity
13
ClickScientific
to add Title
experiment

Practice functions:

1) starting point, source of knowledge (needs
practices are brought to life by existing sciences);
2) the basis of knowledge (precisely thanks to
transformation of the surrounding world is taking place
the deepest knowledge of the properties of the environment
peace);
3) practice is the driving force of development
society;
4) practice is the goal of knowledge (a person learns the world,
to use the results of knowledge in
practical activities);
5) practice is the criterion of the truth of knowledge.

Summarize

What is the classical definition of truth as
philosophical concept?
How is the objectivity of truth expressed?
Define the concept of “absolute truth”
What is the relativity of extracted
us truths?
HOMEWORK:
Read paragraph 6, complete the tasks, work with
source.

Truth and its criteria It is important for a person “that
the object of his will... was
objective good...
subject and content
thoughts were objective
true and its subject
feelings were objective
beautiful, that is, not only
for him, but also for everyone
undoubtedly". (V.S. Soloviev)
TRUTH AND ITS CRITERIA

What knowledge should be considered true? To what extent is it accessible to a person who knows? In what ways is it achieved?

"Word
"true"
means
correspondence
thoughts
subject."
"the truth is
identity of a thing
And
representation"
Thomas Aquinas
Aristotle's position
R. Descartes

“What seems to everyone is true.” (Protagoras)

"which is the same thing
exists and does not
exists that it is
bad and good that
other opposite
statements to each other
also true..." (criticism
Protagoras' position
Aristotle)
“WHAT IT SEEMS TO EVERYONE IS
RELIABLE." (PROTAGORUS)

How can a person verify the truth of his knowledge about a subject?

CRITERIA OF TRUTH

Empiricists
source and
justification for all
knowledge sensual
experience;
Feel
are
the only one
source and
basis
knowledge
(sensualists);
Thinking
is being considered
as a derivative
from sensations;
Criticism of the empiricists' position
at the levels of perception and
submissions to receive
our holistic picture of the world
consciousness uses elements
generalized knowledge;
sensory experience can give
misrepresentation of
reality;
many theoretical postulates,
underlying scientific knowledge,
cannot be justified empirically;
sensory experience is the result
understanding, interpretation.

CRITERIA OF TRUTH

rationalists
criterion of truth
the mind appears;
For an example of the true
knowledge was accepted
mathematics,
starting with
obvious truths and
using
Boolean methods
bringing out new
knowledge from
undoubted
parcels.
criticism
Difficulty in defining
unconditional foundations of knowledge
(Descartes - “innate
ideas”, Leibniz “innate intuitions;
Euclidean and non-Euclidean
geometry is ideal
theoretically based
knowledge. Which one of them
corresponds
real
space, is
true?

Each of the system
axioms of Euclid,
Lobachevsky and Riemann
was theoretically
strict, there was a question
about which one of them
corresponds
real
space, is
true.
“The fundamental principles of Euclid are also nothing more than
agreement, and it would be just as unreasonable
to find out whether they are true or false." (A. Poincare)
Proponents of this view are conventionalists.
With this approach, the question of truth is completely removed.

TRUTH AND ITS CRITERIA

Criterion of truth -
practice:
TRUE
HOW TO DISTINGUISH TRUTH FROM
MISCONCEPTIONS:
1.KNOWLEDGE IS TRUE WHEN IT IS
LOGICAL ORDER
2. WHEN KNOWLEDGE IS USEFUL FOR
PERSON
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practical
interaction
observed
phenomena with any
others,
material
production,
accumulated experience,
scientific experiment.

Criteria of truth

Empiricists believed that the source and
the basis of all knowledge is sensory
experience.
For rationalists, the criterion of truth was
intelligence.
Conventionalist theories assumed that
true scientific knowledge is an agreement between
researchers - "conventions"
Pragmatist theories of truth assume that
true is the consciousness that
contributes to solving practical problems.
10

Practice cannot be considered as a universal criterion of truth.

If
practical
the task was successful
to decide means
completeness of knowledge
about the subject
achieved?
Criterion of truth - theory
Rejection of the idea
development of knowledge

Shapes of truth

Scientific truth
Ordinary or
everyday truth
Artistic
true
Moral truth

Types of truth

Absolute truth
Ideal, limit to
which to strive for
our knowledge.
Full,
comprehensive knowledge
about the subject, that element
knowledge that is not
May be
will be refuted in the future.
Relative truth
On the way to absolute
the truth we receive
relative truths.
Knowledge that will
change,
deepen,
be replaced by new ones in
development process
knowledge.

Properties of truth

Specificity –
dependence of truth
from place, time and
other conditions of it
receiving.
Objectivity –
this is what it is
content of our
knowledge that is not
depends neither on
person or from
humanity.

TRUTH AND FALSE

"The mind of man
likened to uneven
the mirror, which
mixing with nature
things have their nature,
reflects things in
twisted and
disfigured
form." (F. Bacon)
These are misconceptions, origins
which are rooted in
the most human
nature, especially
our knowledge.
"fullness" -
a sign of health.
all authority is from God
lack of complete and
accurate information about
of interest to us
subject, as well as
necessary funds for
its processing

Literature: Bogolyubov L.N., Social studies 19th grade
Profile level, M., “Enlightenment”, 2008.
Internet resources:
http://www.sweden4rus.nu/rus/visual/fotos/image.asp?id=3214
http://minomos.narod.ru/Galery/15.htm
http://www.eurosmi.ru/science/41.html
http://his.1september.ru/2002/01/5.html
http://catalog.catalog.catalog.ww.infanata.org/2008/10/page/4/
http://activerain.com/blogs/sashadear
http://www.univer.omsk.su/omsk/Edu/Math/eevklid.htm
http://www.rkm.kz/node/672
http://eva.ru/eva-life/contest/contestphoto.xhtml?contestEntryId=90965&showAll=true