The possibilities of use and compatibility with each other are studied by such a section of linguistics as lexicology. In lexicology, the rules for the use of words are established depending on the context, speech situation, and other factors, which are called lexical norms. Violation of these norms will be a lexical error.
It is customary to distinguish several types of lexical errors.
Violation of the compatibility of words
Some words of the Russian language are part of stable combinations or idioms. Violation of their integrity, the use of another word instead of the usual one will be a lexical error: "Reading popular science literature enriches the horizons." In this sentence, the idiomatic expression "broaden one's horizons" is replaced by another, which is erroneous.
Sometimes a speaker or writer uses words that are opposite in their evaluative coloring, or incompatible in meaning: “terribly beautiful.” This combination looks ridiculous and will be considered a lexical error. But there is also a literary device based on a combination of incompatible words - an oxymoron, for example, "the living dead", and one should be distinguished from the other.
Word skip
Sometimes in speech, most often in oral speech, a word is omitted in a sentence, as a result of which the meaning of the phrase is distorted: “Her speech, like her mother, was characterized by a certain melodiousness and slowness.” In this phrase, the word "speech" is omitted before the noun "mother", from which the general meaning of the phrase becomes not very clear.
Verbosity
Verbosity can manifest itself in a meaningless, obsessive repetition of the same word in each subsequent phrase: “I love summer. The weather is hot in summer. Summer days seem to be made for relaxation. The best place for a summer holiday is the bank of a river or a lake.” Errors of this kind are more common in the speech of people with a poor vocabulary.
Another form of verbosity is tautology. A classic example of this kind is the phrase "", but there are also phrases in which only a fairly erudite person can recognize a tautology. So the phrase "price list" occurs quite often. Nevertheless, it is erroneous from a lexical point of view, because the word "price list" itself means "price list", which means that the word "price" in this phrase is a repetition.
Misuse of words due to misunderstanding of their meaning
Such a mistake occurs quite often when using borrowed words, if people do not know their exact meaning: "A whole galaxy of scammers has been identified" - an incorrect "pleiad" denoting a number of prominent personalities.
Phraseological turns can also be misused if their meaning is not understood or misinterpreted by the speaker: “Gripping his heart, he agreed” - the expression “grunting his heart” was mistakenly used instead of the stable phrase “reluctantly”.
The same type of lexical errors can be attributed to incorrect use of words that have a similar sound and spelling, but are different in meaning: “Alexandrian pillar” - the word “pillar” should be replaced by the noun “pillar”.
Stylistically incorrect use of words
This type of error includes the use in a sentence of one style of individual words inherent in another, for example, vernacular expressions and jargon in neutral literary speech: “Photographs of very cool people usually get on the covers of glossy magazines" - it is better to replace the jargon of "cool" in this context with neutral from the point of view of the stylistic coloring of the word "beautiful and famous".
Patriot of the motherland
Today, a sports commentator can say: "The athletes exchanged souvenirs," and the artist will calmly use the combination interior. In ads we meet price list, has recently appeared and service department. All this, if you think about it, is strange, because the French word souvenir means a keepsake, French interior- this interior, German price-list - price guide etc. Often use equally strange combinations: main leitmotif- although German keynote and that means leading motif; residential address- although French the address and that means residence; personal autobiography- although Greek autobiography and eat own biography; professional colleague- although the Latin word colleague and eat professional companion. These combinations seem illiterate, because they represent, as it were, a “doubled” translation of a foreign word into Russian - this word itself with a Russian equivalent.
The strangeness of the combinations is easy to detect: they are all replaced by a Russian expression, without losing their meaning: memorable gift, interior design, price tag, household service, main tune, residence.
The "doubling" of words has long been characteristic of the Russian literary language. In this simple way, a new word is, as it were, introduced into everyday life, even people who know languages are gradually getting used to it - with the help of familiar verbal "props". So is the word the form was once foreign, but when this Latin word entered our language in St. Petersburg in the time of Peter the Great, it was used for a long time in combination with Russian single-valued words image or view- to accustom the Russian public to a new concept. But as soon as the form developed its own meanings and the word began to be used more and more widely in combination with other Russian words, these "props" turned out to be superfluous; today and registration we recognize it as a completely Russian word, although there is nothing in it that is colloquial Russian in origin, not even a bookish suffix. So, recognizing that the "doubling" of a foreign word in colloquial speech is illiterate, we must distinguish between what is a violation of the literary language, and what is the simplest method of thought introducing a new term into our speech. And it turns out that, although such combinations are not literary, as a fact of speech everyday life they are stable, they exist in the Russian language for many centuries, again and again generating fresh rows of “tautologies” of this kind. Shame and disgrace same origin: vernacular shame introduces bookish Slavism into live speech shame. But how? Another thing is that to a modern reader, well-read and literate, such a way of “introducing” a foreign word seems unnecessary, meaningless, since the meaning of the explained word is always clear. This is where all the confusion, objections and corrections come from.
Let us ponder, however, the very process of converting a borrowed word into a Russian word. Not so long ago, for example, patriot of the motherland did not particularly cut the ear, because there was also factory patriot And city patriot and so on. In addition, we forgot the following. Before the revolution the word patriot generally did not enjoy sympathy, moreover, the revolutionary democrats repeatedly ridiculed the "false patriot". Nowadays patriot without quotes was supposed to reinstate himself, and a special clarification patriot of the motherland in this sense, it turned out to be not superfluous. At the beginning of the 19th century, when the combination arose, it sounded differently: Patriot of the Fatherland. The heroes of A. Ostrovsky's plays tried to "translate" him into the language of the Moscow Zaryadye: "a patriot of his Fatherland." Yours, not someone else's. The foreign word, having become Russian, "expanded" its meaning, but having become modern, it required clarifications.
Foreign words gradually expanded their meanings in combinations like people's democracy, professional colleague, reality… But once upon a time they seemed like “butter oil”. So who can take the liberty of forbidding combinations service department or memorable souvenir? Indeed, over time, some meaning, hidden from us today, can develop in them. Because, while coinciding in the meaning of words, the Russian and foreign versions do not match in the content of the concept hidden behind them, but the word ... the word lives in order to hone our thought in the concept - image - word.
There are many similar expressions (thought does not sleep, expressions multiply): nostalgia for the motherland, Practical activities, and at the same time torrential downpour, reminiscent of and weekday, And present day. Nostalgia- it's homesickness practice- and without that activity. However, at the same time, the combinations also reflect the natural development of the image contained in the name, an image that has somehow been forgotten.
indisputable fact, hard fact, real fact- what is it, if not fact of reality? Truth, real fact it is difficult to understand, the combination itself seems so pretentious. Fact- a real, undeniable event, therefore real fact, fact of reality, real fact are the same strange repetitions. However, the word fact may already be combined with a variety of words. As soon as a word slips out of a rigid "double" combination, similar to a tautology, it comes into use with other words, it no longer surprises anyone. Ink became not only black, but also red, green. Announcement seems like a repeat too informational now there is not only a message, but also a bureau, a map, a plan - and the word has changed its meanings, becoming a term.
Nevertheless, here is an indisputable fact: such tautologies are born every day. This is the crucible in which colloquial speech forges new images and concepts. Inexperienced or inept authors, taking advantage of this, generate stunted metaphors, very superficially developing the image that they imagine in the word. They create a dummy, a stamp, and if there are a lot of them, they can discredit the very train of thought, which is looking for a new meaning in tautologies. Stop right away! And why translate paper - indisputable fact of reality… it's just a fact.
True, one should also take into account such a thing: the expressiveness of the form of the new combination. After all, it is not a term-concept, after all, an image, a picture in short terms, maybe a proverb? Maybe a form of folk wisdom, which, in our times, when the proverb has been replaced by an anecdote, deftly snatches from the word in one definition a plastically accurate portrait of its time?
In the 19th century, Moscow magazines laughed at such expressions that appeared in abundance on the pages of Otechestvennye Zapiski and Sovremennik: old veterans, haughty arrogance, nobleman, perfidious treason, naive simplicity, ghostly vision, comforting consolation, lethargic dreams. Do not be surprised that in some expressions both words are, as it were, Russian. Not at all, not Russians. hubris, nobleman, treacherous, vision- high Slavic words, which, like other people's words, had to be introduced into the native lexicon. But are these "images" really that bad and have we forgotten about them? Not at all ... More precisely: simply veterans? Maybe ... But there are veterans and young, young, "fresh" - all sorts. Why not be old veterans too?
Disagreeed (and quite recently) with such expressions as evening serenade, industrial industry or scientific ideal. And it is true, according to logic, it seems to be nonsense, repetition or contradiction, but it is good according to the feeling expressed in it.
In the 19th century, such terrible combinations of words were born: earth ground, face physiognomy, and in our time: exhibits of the exhibition, open vacancy, biography of life, time keeping, folklore, memorial monument. Such examples were given by the writers B. Timofeev and K. Chukovsky, who dealt with the issues of the culture of speech, and, perhaps, after their speeches, these expressions disappeared, in any case, in written texts. It’s good or not that they disappeared, it’s impossible to answer unequivocally, but some are a pity. There is something in them. They are not all like bold risk, raising a toast, duplicate twice, progress forward who cannot see the way, both because of their awkwardness and thoughtlessness.
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Exercise 63. Evaluate word combinations in terms of lexical correctness. Determine the type of error.
Patriot of one's homeland, confirm the statement, vacant vacancy, price list, folklore, autobiography of life, unite together, a huge colossus, mutually with each other, dance a dance, first premiere, atmospheric air, ultimately, treat sports in a sporty way, import from abroad, return back.
Exercise 64. Find and correct errors in the use of paronyms.
1. Clinton was guided by humanitarian motives. 2. So, put on your headphones. 3. She looked at me thoughtfully for a while. 4. He tries to clarify the contents of the manuscript. 5.New business is blooming. 6. This singer, who made a heroic attempt to retrain from an eternal teenage girl into a burning emancipe, is an amateur young lady. 7. She gets up, puts on a fur coat, a hat, boots and, as if nothing had happened, goes out into the street. 8. Finally, "Spartak" broke the resistance of the British. 9. It is quite realistic to pass the law in the first reading. 10. It doesn’t matter what she did in her life, but what matters is what tone she set for society.
Exercise65. Correct the mistakes. For reference, refer to the dictionary of paronyms.
1. On November 17, the premiere of the play "Thunderstorm" will take place at the Moscow Theater for Young Spectators, in the title role with Yulia Svezhakova, a young rising star. 2. And as a child, I remember, I always dreamed of working as an ice cream maker. 3. This money could have been spent in other ways. 4. He was wearing a champion medal. 5. Jack was amazed by the fact that after so much suffering he did not become embittered at all and did not lose confidence in people. 6. Balm for rubbing into the skin. 7. The list of similar body shaping methods could be extended. 8. The mayor brought another gift to the inhabitants of the garden - he restored the building of the New Opera House at the expense of the city. 9.Cosmetic company needs: beauticians, make-up artists, massagers. 10. There is a profound difference between us. 11. In August, there was a massive sale of these apartments. 12. These painful bacteria can be anywhere. 13. Unfortunately, recently not all parents are able to pay for the trip. 14. She must have heightened sensuality - well, it was necessary to burst into tears because of such nonsense! 15. Winter has finally begun and the rivers have become.
Exercise66. Find the distortions caused by the unsuccessful use of the verb in the composition of stable phrases, if necessary, note other shortcomings; fix them.
A.1. It is not necessary to build a problem out of this fact. 2. The speaker was advised not to make vain promises. 3. The committee made a compromise decision without consulting the experts. 4. In the evenings, the professor gives lectures to students of the correspondence department. 5. Russians have made a significant contribution to the development of Alaska. 6. We need to put in large-scale studies. 7. These words finally undermined the patience of the deputies. 8. We must pay tribute to the president's idea. 9. The process of privatization of state-owned enterprises is rather complicated. However, the world has adopted a special technique that allows you to perform this event. 10. Keep your promise. 11. Russia, it seems to us, puts extraordinary demands on its allies. 12. When the Chelyuskin radio operator said that planes were flying to our aid, everyone immediately felt better. 13. A woman in space only causes difficulties.
B.1. The actions of the mercenaries endangered the borders of the state. 2. The body of the deceased will be transferred to the earth. 3. The Baltics also fall within the zone of US interests. 4.Tajikistan is a country that anticipated the fruits of totalitarianism.
Exercise 67. Find errors in the nominal part of stable combinations.
1. To get the order, we colluded with one of the private firms. 2. The speech made by the deputy was of a provocative nature. 3. The Speaker of the Parliament had a two-hour conversation with Siberian scientists. 4. We must salute him: this man, together with the committee for the rehabilitation of the repressed, dealt with the situation that arose around the Kronstadt rebellion. 5. A heavy load fell on the soldiers who guarded the territory adjacent to the outpost. 6. There is no reason to panic. 7. Transfer suggests that it is necessary to change the entire structure of the program. 8. In my opinion, such a power does not evoke authority. 9. At the World Championships, the team won a number of successes. 10. Powermen's threats to turn off electricity in the entire region go beyond all limits. 11. The study of literature at school is launched into anarchy.
Exercise 68. Determine which errors violated the accuracy of speech. Fix them.
1. The building will be decorated with stained-glass windows made of colored cast glass. 2. All veterans in the region know that they will always receive the necessary care here. 3. A complex of unresolved problems must be solved comprehensively. 4. The cost of staying in this hospital is not funded by the state. 5. It also happens that in response to criticism you get a reverse boomerang. 6. Widespread testing of this vitamin bioactive cream has led to extremely positive results. 7. The above metal was not delivered to the customer plant. 8. He told us about his plans for the future. 9. It has become economically disadvantageous for rural producers to sell livestock at prevailing prices. 10. These data allowed the author to base the following conclusions and suggestions.
One of the most important conditions for the culture of speech is the observance of the norms of the literary language, including lexical norms.
Firstly, the norm of word usage can be defined as the use in speech (oral and written) of only those words and set phrases that are part of the literary language.
The deviation from the norm in this case consists in the unmotivated use of non-literary vocabulary - dialectisms, jargon, vernacular.
Secondly, the norm of word usage can be defined as the correspondence of words and phraseological units used in speech to standard, generally accepted units recorded in dictionaries.
Numerous and varied deviations from the norm, classified as a discrepancy between a word and a dictionary reference unit, often lead to a violation of such important requirements for the speaker's language as its general intelligibility and accuracy.
Accuracy as a sign of speech culture is determined by the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of speech and the laws of the Russian language. The accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage, the correct use of polysemantic words, homonyms, paronyms, foreign words, terms.
When selecting lexical means, the following factors should be taken into account: the meaning of the word, its ambiguity, combination with other words, emotionally expressive coloring, stylistic characteristics, and scope of use.
Failure to comply with the basic criteria for the selection of lexical means leads to errors in word usage. The most typical of them are: the use of words in an unusual meaning; polysemy not eliminated by the context, generating ambiguity; pleonasms and tautology, confusion of paronyms; word-combination errors.
The most common type of lexical error is use of a word in an unusual sense.
With ignorance of the exact meaning of a particular word, such a type of lexical error is associated as mix of paronyms those. words that are similar in sound but different in meaning.
Wrong to say, for example, stem processes (to arise means to arise, to appear from something), to present the word (correctly: to provide the word). Verb provide means “to give the opportunity to use something” ~ “to provide an apartment, vacation, loan”, and the verb imagine has the meaning "to transfer, give, present something, to someone - a report, certificate, facts."
Words are different in meaning college(secondary or higher educational institution in England, USA) and college(secondary educational institution in France, Belgium, Sweden); effective(valid) and spectacular(making a strong impression); offensive(offending) and touchy(easily offended). To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to use special reference literature: explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of paronyms, foreign words. As well as adverbs, prone (face down), supine (face up). Promised land, inhabited island. The merging of paronyms is a very typical mistake for the writings of schoolchildren and applicants (unbearable - intolerable situation, rainy weather - rain cloud, predatory extermination - predatory extermination, effective measures - spectacular measures. The originality of the meanings of such words is considered in special reference books:
- Yu.A. Belchikov, M.S. Panyusheva Difficult cases of using single-root words of the Russian language. M., 1968 (dictionary reference)
- Vishnyakova O.V. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language. M., 1984.
Another type of lexical error is pleonasm. Pleonasm is the creation of redundant combinations, where one of the words is redundant, since its inherent meaning is already expressed by another word. An example of pleonasm can be such turns as patriot of the motherland(a patriot is a person who loves his homeland), crowd(who else can the crowd consist of?); jan-var month(January is the name of the month itself) come back, main point, valuable treasures.
Extreme case of pleonasm - tautology, i.e. literally - repeating the same thing: own autobiography, all kinds of possibilities, significant message, support by the largest majority, vacancy, this phenomenon is, resume again. Tautology is one of the most gross errors of word usage and indicates a lack of due attention to one's own speech.
A common mistake is violation of the norms of lexical combination of words. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. The fact is that each word (lexeme) has a limited valence, i.e. the ability to attach other words and join them: it can be combined with one word, but not enter into combinations with others, even if they are close to the first one in meaning. Can't say : plays a role, has a role. One can say all year round (days) but they don't speak round hour (week, month). There is the Velvet season, but not period, time, month. Some words are truly unlucky, they are often used in the wrong combinations. They say cold boiling water, increase horizons, increase attention.
Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the association (contamination) of similar phrases. For example, they say meet modern requirements, mixing combinations meet the requirements and meet the needs", complete the obligations (complete the plan, fulfill the obligations); give importance (attach value, pay attention) "^ improve the level (improve the quality, increase the level).
Only an attentive attitude to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical compatibility in Russian helps to avoid such mistakes.
Thus, following the norms of word usage is the most important component of the culture of speech. Although errors in the use of vocabulary and phraseology do not always lead to misunderstanding or misunderstanding, they are always directed against the speaker, making contact with the audience difficult and reducing his oratorical and personal image in the eyes of those listening.
Causes of violation of semantic compatibility
Mixing paronyms. Some paronyms differ in meaning (shades of meanings), some only in lexical compatibility. When mixing paronyms that have different semantic shades, semantic errors arise. For example, This is the critical moment of the game.(full of criticism - critical, turning point - critical).
False associations arising under the influence of paronomasia (sound similarity of words with different roots). For example, Motorcycle shows are always a real celebration of stuntmen and spectators, here you can see such mirages (right - turns).
The use of a polysemantic word without taking into account semantic compatibility ( low health in meaning poor health, low knowledge etc.).
Convergence of words by adjacency (metonymic replacement of the desired word): prices are expensive.
Careless use of antonyms. Because of their weakness the decision was postponed for a week.
Lexical errors can lead to a violation of the brevity of speech. Verbosity is the use of words and phrases that carry optional, unnecessary information. For example: Still not doing well enough to meet commitments(instead of Commitments are still not being fulfilled well enough; Passion for computer games is one of the most important signs of the times, a modern phenomenon.(instead of Passion for computer games is one of the most important signs of the times(or modern phenomenon)).
Typical lexical errors that violate the brevity of speech are pleonasm and tautology.
Pleonasm is the use of words that are close in meaning and therefore superfluous. For example: The expression on her face is very expressive.(facial expressions- that's the facial expression ; Loud applause and ovations erupted(applause And ovation- synonyms).
Tautology is the repetition of the same or the same root words in one sentence. For example: heavy rain, ask a question. The tautology can be hidden, it is found in sentences in which a Russian and a foreign word with the same meaning is used. Their similarity is found when translating a foreign word into Russian. For example: memorial monument (memorial- serving to perpetuate the memory of someone) , souvenir(souvenir- a keepsake).
Intentional repetition of words and forms is a means of semantic and emotionally expressive expressiveness: bitter grief, vanity of vanities, live and live. In a number of cases, tautological expressions have become fixed in speech due to changes in the meaning of a particular word and the absence of the necessary equivalent in the language. Yes, the expression patriot of his country became permissible because the word patriot in addition to the meaning “loving the homeland”, it acquired an additional meaning - “loving something, devoted to something”: patriot of his land, patriot of his school. entrenched in speech and expression used book And reality.
Thus, knowledge of lexical norms is one of the conditions for good speech, since lexical norms contribute to the accurate expression of thoughts without verbosity, idle talk, provide clarity and consistency of the statement.
Lexical errors can be avoided by using dictionaries.
Explanatory dictionaries fix the lexical meaning of the word. In dictionaries of foreign words the source language is indicated, the meaning of the word and examples of its use are given.
In phraseological dictionaries the meanings of phraseological units are presented, i.e. set expressions, the value of which is not derived from their constituent components.
You can also use dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, dictionaries of lexical compatibility. In the dictionaries of synonyms, synonymous rows are given, the general meaning of each row is indicated, the difference between synonyms from each other is noted, examples of the use of synonyms are given, sometimes the origin of the word.
These dictionaries reflect the richness of the Russian language and are the most important means of raising the level of human speech culture: enriching speech, forming the accuracy and clarity of speech.
Literature
Reference books
1. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook for universities. 14th ed. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2005. - 544 p.
2. Ippolitova N.A., Knyazeva O.Yu., Savova M.R. Russian language and culture of speech: a course of lectures / Ed. ON THE. Ippolitova. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2007. - 344 p.
3 Culture of Russian speech: Textbook for universities / Ed. ed. d.ph.s., prof. OK. Graudina and Doctor of Philological Sciences, prof. E.N. Shiryaev. – M.: Norma, 2006. – 560 p.
4 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook for universities / A.I. Dunev, M.Ya. Dymarsky, A.Yu. Kozhevnikov and others; Ed. V.D. Chernyak. - M .: Higher school; S.-Pb.: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University im. A.I. Herzen, 2002.
1. Belchikov Yu.A., Panyusheva M.S. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language. M., 1994.
2. Krysin A.P. Explanatory dictionary of foreign words. M., 1998.
3. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. M., 1984.
4. Dictionary of new words of the Russian language. Ed. N.Z. Kotelova. St. Petersburg, 1995.
5. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language. M., 1974.
6. Dictionary of compatibility of words of the Russian language. M., 1983.
7. Modern dictionary of foreign words. M., 2000.
8. Thematic dictionary of the Russian language. Ed. V.V. Morkovkin. M., 2000.
9. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the late XX century. /
Ch. ed. Sklyarevskaya G.N. - St. Petersburg, 2000.
10. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian literary language: In 2 volumes / Compiled by A.I. Fedorov. – M.: Citadel, 1997.
