Verification work No. 2 (self control)
Determination of geographical latitude
on astronomical observations
Option 1
1. At what altitude occurs in Leningrad, the geographical latitude of which is 60 °, the upper culmination of the star Altair?
2. The luminary rises at the point east. Where will it be in 12 hours?
Option 2
1. What is the declination of a star if it culminates in Moscow, whose latitude is 56 °, at an altitude of 63 °?
2. How are the diurnal paths of the stars relative to the celestial equator?
Option 3
1. What is the latitude of the place of observation, if the star Regulus was observed in the upper culmination at an altitude of 57 °?
2. Where on Earth are no stars in the southern hemisphere of the sky visible?
Option 4
1. At what altitude does the upper climax of the Spica star occur in a city whose latitude is 50 °?
2. How are the diurnal paths of the stars relative to the horizon for an observer at the Earth's pole?
Option 5
1. What is the declination of a star if its upper culmination in Yerevan, whose latitude is 40 °, occurs at an altitude of 37 °?
2. What circle of the celestial sphere do all the stars cross twice a day, if observations are carried out in middle latitudes. "
Option b
1. What is the latitude of the place of observation if the star Betelgeuse was observed in the upper culmination at an altitude of 48 °?
2. How is the axis of the world relative to the earth's axis? relative to the plane of the horizon?
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1. How many times is a star of magnitude 3.4 fainter than Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of -1.6?
2. What is the absolute magnitude of Sirius, if the distance to it is 2.7 ps?
3. What is the luminosity of Begi? Take the absolute stellar magnitude of the Sun to be 4.8.
1. How many times is a star with an apparent magnitude of 3 brighter than a star of the second magnitude?
2. Calculate the absolute magnitude of Begi if the distance to it is 8.1 ps?
3. What is the luminosity of Sirius? Take the absolute stellar magnitude of the Sun to be 4.8.
| Grade |
II The structure of the solar system
(celestial mechanics)
Verification work No. 3 (self control)
Kepler's Laws Option 1
1. What) is the major half of the orbital axis of Uranus, if the stellar period of this planet's revolution around the Sun is 84 years?
2. How does the value of the planet's velocity change when it moves from aphelion to perihelion?
Option 2
1. The semi-major axis of Saturn's orbit is 9.5 AU. e. What is the stellar period of its revolution around the Sun?
2. At what point of the elliptical orbit is the kinetic energy of an artificial Earth satellite (AES) maximum and at what point - minimum?
Option 3
1. The semi-major axis of the orbit of Jupiter 5 a. e. What is the stellar period of its revolution around the Sun?
2. At what point of the elliptical orbit is the potential energy of an artificial Earth satellite (AES) minimal and at what point is it maximal?
Option 4
1.The stellar period of Jupiter's revolution around the Sun is 12 years. What is the average distance of Jupiter to the Sun?
2. At what point of the planet's orbit is its kinetic energy maximal, at what point is it minimal?
Option 5
1. The semi-major axis of the Mars orbit is 1.5 AU. e. What) is the stellar period of its revolution around the Sun?
2. How does the value of the speed of the planet's movement change when it moves from perihelion to aphelion?
Option 6
1. The semi-major axis of the orbit of Venus is 0.7 AU. e. What) is the stellar period of its revolution around the Sun?
2. How does the apparent motion of the planets take place?
Creative task:
Determine your age on the planet
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Verification work No. 6 (self control)
"Determination of distances to stars"
1. The distance to the star Betelgeuse is 652 s.years. What is its parallax?
2. Parallax of Procyon 0.28 ". How long does the light travel from this star to the Earth?
3. The parallax of a star is 0.5 "Determine how many times this star is farther from us than the Sun.
4. Altair's parallax is 0.20 ". The distance to Vega is 29 light years. Which of these stars is farther from us and how many times?
2) Name the color of the following stars by their spectral
3) What stars belong to the following classes of luminosity of stars
| Grade |
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Verification work No. 4 (self control)
Configurations and visibility conditions of planets
Option 1
(1) Over what time interval are the moments of the maximum distance of Venus from the Earth repeated if its stellar period is 225 days?
2. What planets can be observed in opposition? Which ones can't?
Option 2
1. Over what period of time are the oppositions of Mars repeated if the stellar period of its revolution around the Sun is 1.9 years?
2. What planets cannot be in the lower conjunction?
Option 3
1. What is the stellar period of Venus's revolution around the Sun if its upper conjunctions with the Sun are repeated in 1.6 years?
2. In what configuration and why is it most convenient to observe Mars?
Option 4
1. What is the stellar period of Jupiter's revolution if its synodic period is 400 days?
2. What planets can be in the upper conjunction?
Option 5
1. Determine the synodic orbital period of Mercury, knowing that its stellar orbital period around the Sun is 0.24 years.
2. In which of the configurations can there be both inner and outer planets?
Option 6
1. What will be the stellar period of the outer planet's revolution around the Sun, if its oppositions will be repeated in 1.5 years?
2.What planets can be seen near the moon during a full moon?
| Output: | |||
| Grade | |||
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Date the page was created: 2016-08-20
The amount of daily allowance for business trips is important for calculating income tax, as well as for the purposes of calculating and paying personal income tax.
Recall that the employer sets the amount of daily allowance independently, securing the amounts in a collective agreement or in a local regulatory act (Article 168 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation).
Some companies set different daily subsistence allowances for business trips, depending on which country the employee is sent to to carry out a job assignment.
By the way, the Government of the Russian Federation sets the amount of per diem for budgetary organizations for business trips abroad. And commercial organizations, if desired, can focus on these daily allowances.
Daily allowance for business trips in 2018-2019: table
For understanding, here are some of the daily allowances for business trips established by the Government of the Russian Federation for state employees (Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 26, 2005 No. 812):
Daily allowance for business trips: in what currency to issue
The employer himself determines in what currency to establish and pay per diems for business trips abroad. For example, the amount of such daily allowance can be set in foreign currency, but the employee will receive an amount in rubles, equivalent to these foreign currency daily allowances.
Business trip: how to count daily allowances
Calculation of daily allowance for business trips in 2018-2019 depends on the number of days spent by the employee outside the Russian Federation.
As a general rule, per diems are paid to the employee as follows (clauses 17, 18 of the Regulations, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 13.10.2008 No. 749):
- when departing on a foreign business trip for the day of crossing the border, the daily allowance is paid as for the time spent abroad;
- when returning from a foreign trip for the day of crossing the border, the daily allowance is paid as for a business trip within the country.
True, the company has the right to establish its own procedure for calculating the per diems paid.
Daily allowance on a business trip abroad in 2018-2019 for "profitable" purposes
The entire amount of daily subsistence allowance (without any restrictions) can be taken into account as part of expenses when determining the base for income tax (subparagraph 12 of paragraph 1 of article 264 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation).
If per diems are issued in rubles, then the accounting of such expenses will not cause any difficulties - it is just that the entire amount is written off to the “profitable” expenses.
If daily allowances were issued before a business trip in foreign currency, then this amount must be converted into rubles at the official exchange rate of the Central Bank on the date of issuance of daily allowances (clause 10 of article 272 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation):
The amount received is included in the expenses.
Daily allowance for business trips 2018-2019: what about personal income tax
For business trips abroad, personal income tax is not subject to the amount of per diem not exceeding 2500 rubles. per day (clause 3 of article 217 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation). Accordingly, from the amount in excess of this limit, it is necessary to withhold personal income tax and transfer it to the budget.
If the daily allowance was paid in rubles, then the taxable base for personal income tax will be calculated according to the following formula:
By the way, if per diems in the organization are set in foreign currency, but are paid to the employee in rubles, then no recalculations need to be made (Letters of the Ministry of Finance dated 04.22.2016 No. 03-04-06 / 23252, dated 09.02.2016 No. 03-04-06 / 6531).
If the daily allowance is paid in foreign currency, then in order to pay personal income tax, you need to keep in mind one important feature: you need to recalculate this amount in rubles at the official exchange rate of the Central Bank established on the last day of the month in which the travel advance report was approved (Letter of the Ministry of Finance dated 03.21. No. 03-04-06 / 15509). Therefore, the base for personal income tax in this case is considered as follows:
Calculation of daily subsistence allowance for business trips in 2018-2019: insurance premiums
As a general rule, per diems paid to employees in 2018-2019 are subject to insurance contributions according to the same principle as personal income tax. That is, contributions must be calculated from the daily allowance amount exceeding 2500 rubles (
Geographic coordinates — latitude and longitude — are the angles that define the position of a point on the surface of the globe. Something similar can be introduced in the sky.
To describe the relative positions and apparent movements of the luminaries, it is very convenient to place all the luminaries on the inner surface of an imaginary sphere of a sufficiently large radius, and the observer himself - in the center of this sphere. It was called the celestial sphere and systems of angular coordinates were introduced on it, similar to geographic ones.
ZENIT, NADIR, HORIZON
To count coordinates, you need to have some points and lines on the celestial sphere. Let's introduce them.
Take a thread and attach a weight to it. Grasping the free end of the thread and lifting the weight into the air, we get a segment of the plumb line. Let's continue it mentally until the intersection with the celestial sphere. The top point of intersection - the zenith - will be right above our head. The lowest point - nadir - is not available for observation.
If you cross the sphere with a plane, you will get a circle in the section. It will have its maximum size when the plane passes1 through the center of the sphere. This line is called the big circle. All other circles on the celestial sphere are small. A plane perpendicular to the plumb line and passing through the observer will cross the celestial sphere in a large circle called the horizon. Visually, this is the place where "the earth meets the sky"; we see only that half of the celestial sphere, which is located above the horizon. All points of the horizon are 90 ° from the zenith. "..
POLE OF THE WORLD, HEAVENLY EQUATOR,
HEAVENLY MERIDIAN
Let's trace how the stars move across the sky during the day. It is best to do this photographically, that is, point the camera with the shutter open at the night sky and leave it there for several hours. The photograph will clearly show that all the stars describe circles in the sky with the same center. The point corresponding to this center is called the pole of the world. In our latitudes, the north pole of the world is located above the horizon (next to the Pole Star), and in the southern hemisphere of the Earth, a similar movement takes place relative to the south pole of the world. The axis connecting the poles of the world is called the axis of the world. The daily movement of the luminaries occurs as if the entire celestial sphere rotated as a whole around the axis of the world in the direction from east to west. This movement, of course, is imaginary: it is a reflection of the true movement - the rotation of the Earth around its axis from west to east. Let's draw a plane through the observer perpendicular to the axis of the world. It will cross the celestial sphere in a large circle - the celestial equator, which divides it into two hemispheres - northern and southern. The celestial equator intersects the horizon at two points. These are the points of the east and west. And the great circle passing through both poles of the world, the zenith and nadir, is called the celestial meridian. It crosses the horizon at points north and south.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS IN THE HEAVENLY SPHERE
Let's draw a big circle through the zenith and the luminary, the coordinates of which we want to get. This is a section of the celestial sphere by a plane passing through the luminary, the zenith and the observer. Such a circle is called the vertical of the luminary. It naturally intersects with the horizon.
The angle between the directions to this intersection point and to the luminary shows the height (h) of the luminary above the horizon. It is positive for luminaries located above the horizon, and negative for those below the horizon (the height of the zenith point is always 90 "). Now we count along the horizon the angle between the directions to the point of the south and to the point of intersection of the horizon with the vertical of the luminary. The direction of reference is from south to west This angle is called the astronomical azimuth (A) and together with the height makes up the coordinates of the star in the horizontal coordinate system.
Sometimes, instead of height, the zenith distance (z) of the star is used - the angular distance from the star to the zenith. Zenith distance and altitude add up to 90 °.
Knowing the horizontal coordinates of a star allows you to find it in the sky. But the big inconvenience is that the daily rotation of the celestial sphere leads to a change in both coordinates over time - fast enough and, what is most unpleasant, uneven. Therefore, coordinate systems are often used that are not associated with the horizon, but with the equator.
Let's draw a big circle through our star again. This time, let him pass through the pole of the world. Such a circle is called a circle of declensions. Let's mark the point of its intersection with the celestial equator. Declination (6) - the angle between the directions to this point and to the star - positive for the northern hemisphere of the celestial sphere and negative for the southern one. All points on the equator have declination of 0 °. Now let's mark two points of the celestial equator: in the first it intersects with the celestial meridian, in the second - with the declination circle of the star. The angle between the directions to these points, measured from south to west, is called the hour angle (t) of the star. It can be measured as usual - in degrees, but more often it is expressed in hours: the whole circle is divided not by 360 °, but by 24 hours.Thus, 1 hour corresponds to 15 °, and 1 ° - 1/15 hour, or 4 minutes ...
The daily rotation of the celestial sphere no longer catastrophically affects the coordinates of the star. The luminary moves in a small circle parallel to the celestial equator and called the diurnal parallel. In this case, the angular distance to the equator does not change, which means that the declination remains constant. The hour angle increases, but evenly: knowing its value at any moment in time, it is not difficult to calculate it for any other moment.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to compile lists of the positions of the stars in a given coordinate system, because one coordinate still changes over time. To obtain unchanged coordinates, the reference system must move along with all objects. This is possible, since the celestial sphere in its daily rotation moves as a whole.
Let us choose a point on the celestial equator that participates in the general rotation. There is no luminary at this point; the Sun is in it once a year (about March 21), when in its annual (not daily!) movement among the stars it moves from the southern celestial hemisphere to the northern one (see the article "The path of the Sun among the stars"). The angular distance from this point, called the vernal equinox point CY1) D ° of the steep declination of the star, measured along the equator in the direction opposite to the daily rotation, that is, from west to east, is called right ascension (a) of the star. It does not change with diurnal rotation and, together with declination, forms a pair of equatorial coordinates, which are given in various catalogs describing the positions of the stars in the sky.
Thus, in order to construct a celestial coordinate system, one should choose a certain basic plane passing through the observer and crossing the celestial sphere in a large circle. Then, through the pole of this circle and the luminary, another large circle is drawn, intersecting the first, and the angular distance from the point of intersection to the luminary and the angular distance from a point on the main circle to the same point of intersection are taken as coordinates. In the horizontal coordinate system, the main plane is the horizon plane, in the equatorial one - the plane of the celestial equator.
There are also other systems of celestial coordinates. So, to study the motions of bodies in the solar system, an ecliptic coordinate system is used, in which the main plane is the ecliptic plane (coinciding with the plane of the earth's orbit), and the coordinates are ecliptic latitude and ecliptic longitude. There is also a galactic coordinate system, in which the median plane of the galactic disk is taken as the main plane.
Traveling across the heavenly expanses among countless stars and nebulae, it is no wonder to get lost if you do not have a reliable map at hand. To compose it, you need to know exactly the positions of thousands of stars in the sky. And now some astronomers (they are called astrometrists) are doing the same thing that the stargazers of antiquity worked on: they patiently measure the coordinates of the stars in the sky, mostly the same ones, as if not trusting their predecessors and themselves
.
And they are absolutely right! "Fixed" stars in fact continuously change their positions - both due to their own motions (after all, the stars participate in the rotation of the Galaxy and move relative to the Sun), and due to changes in the coordinate system itself. The precession of the earth's axis leads to a slow movement of the pole of the world and the vernal equinox point among the stars (see the article "Playing with a spinning top, or a Long story with polar stars"). That is why in the star catalogs containing the equatorial coordinates of the stars, the equinox date on which they are oriented is necessarily reported.
STARRY SKY OF VARIOUS LATITUDES
Daily allowance parallels of the luminaries in the middle latitudes.
Under good conditions of observation with the naked eye, about 3 thousand stars are visible in the sky at the same time, regardless of where we are, in India or in Lapland. But the picture of the starry sky depends both on the latitude of the place and on the time of observation.
Now suppose we decided to find out how many stars can be seen, say, without leaving Moscow. Having counted those 3 thousand luminaries that are currently above the horizon, we will take a break and return to the observation platform in an hour. We will see that the picture of the sky has changed! Some of the stars that were at the western edge of the horizon have sunk under the horizon, and now they are not visible. On the other hand, new stars rose from the eastern side. They will add to our list. During the day, the stars describe circles in the sky with the center at the pole of the world (see the article "Addresses of the luminaries on the celestial sphere"). The closer the star is to the pole, the less steep it is. It may turn out that the whole circle lies above the horizon: the star never sets. Such non-setting stars in our latitudes include, for example, the Big Dipper Bucket. As soon as it gets dark, we will immediately find it in the sky - at any time of the year.
Other luminaries, more distant from the pole, as we have seen, rise in the eastern side of the horizon and set in the western one. Those located near the celestial equator rise near the east point and set near the west point. The rise of some luminaries of the southern hemisphere of the celestial sphere is observed in our southeast, and set - in the southwest. They describe low arcs above the southern horizon.
The farther south a star is on the celestial sphere, the shorter its path above our horizon. Consequently, even further to the south, there are non-ascending luminaries whose diurnal paths lie completely below the horizon. What do you need to do to see them? Move south!
In Moscow, for example, you can observe Antares - a bright star in the constellation Scorpio. The "tail" of the Scorpion, dipping steeply to the south, is never seen in Moscow. However, as soon as we move to the Crimea - a dozen degrees of latitude to the south - and in the summer, above the southern horizon, it will be possible to see the whole figure of the heavenly Scorpio. The North Star in Crimea is located much lower than in Moscow.
On the contrary, if you move north from Moscow, the Polar Star, around which the rest of the stars lead their round dance, will rise higher and higher. There is a theorem that accurately describes this pattern: the height of the pole of the world above the horizon is equal to the latitude of the place of observation. Let us dwell on some corollaries that follow from this theorem.
Let's imagine that we got to the North Pole and from there we observe the stars. Our latitude is 90 "; this means that the pole of the world has a height of 90 °, that is, it is located at the zenith, right above our head. The luminaries describe diurnal circles around this point and move parallel to the horizon, which coincided with the celestial equator. None of them does not rise and does not set.Only the stars of the northern hemisphere of the celestial sphere are accessible to observation, that is, approximately half of all the luminaries of the firmament.
Let's go back to Moscow. The latitude is now about 56 °. "About" - because Moscow is stretched from north to south for almost 50 km, which is almost half a degree. The height of the pole of the world is 5b °, it is located in the northern part of the sky. In Moscow, you can already see some stars of the southern hemisphere, namely those with declination (b) exceeding -34 °. There are many bright ones among them: Sirius (5 = -17 °), Rigel (6 - -8 e), Spica (5 = -1 I e ), Antares (6 = -26 °), Fomal-gout (6 = -30 °). Stars with declination greater than + 34 ° never set in Moscow. The stars of the southern hemisphere with declination below -34 "are not ascending; they cannot be observed in Moscow.
VISIBLE MOTION OF CO L H C A, LUNES AND PLANETS
THE PATH OF THE CO LUNT AMONG THE STARS
DAILY WAY CO LNTS
Every day, rising from the horizon in the eastern side of the sky, the Sun passes across the sky and hides again in the west. For residents of the Northern Hemisphere, this movement occurs from left to right, for southerners - from right to left. On midday
The sun reaches its greatest height, or, as astronomers say, climaxes. Noon is the upper culmination, and there is also the lower one - at midnight. In our mid-latitudes, the sun's lower culmination is not visible, as it occurs below the horizon. But beyond the Polar Steep, where the Sun sometimes does not set in summer, one can observe both the upper and lower climaxes.
At the geographic pole, the diurnal path of the Sun is practically parallel to the horizon. Appearing on the day of the vernal equinox, the Sun rises higher and higher for a quarter of a year, making circles above the horizon. On the day of the summer solstice, it reaches its maximum height (23.5 e) -The next quarter of the year, before the autumn equinox, the Sun descends. This is a polar day. Then the polar night sets in for six months.
In mid-latitudes, the apparent diurnal path throughout the year
The sun is shrinking and then increasing. It turns out to be smallest on the day of the winter solstice, and the largest on the day of the summer solstice. On the days of the equinoxes, the sun is at the celestial equator. These days it rises at the point to the east and sets at the point to the west.
In the period from the vernal equinox to the summer solstice, the place of sunrise shifts from the point east to the left, to the north. And the place of entry moves away from the west point to the right, also to the north. On the day of the summer solstice, the Sun appears in the northeast. At noon, it culminates at its highest altitude in a year. The sun sets in the northwest.
Then the places of sunrise and sunset are shifted back to the south. On the winter solstice, the Sun rises in the southeast, crosses the celestial meridian at its minimum height, and sets in the southwest.
It should be borne in mind that due to refraction (i.e., refraction of light rays in the earth's atmosphere), the apparent height of the star is always greater than the true one. Therefore, the sun rises earlier and sets later than it would have been in the absence of the atmosphere.
So, the diurnal path of the Sun is a small circle of the celestial sphere, parallel to the celestial equator. At the same time, during the year, the Sun moves relative to the celestial equator to the north, then to the south. The day and night parts of his journey are not the same. They are equal only on the days of the equinox, when the Sun is at the celestial equator.
The sun went over the horizon. It got dark. Stars appeared in the sky. However, the day does not turn into night immediately. With the setting of the Sun, the Earth receives a weak diffused illumination for a long time, which fades out gradually, giving way to the darkness of the night. This period is called twilight.
Civil twilight.
Nautical twilight.
Astronomical twilight
.
Twilight helps the vision to readjust from very high light conditions to low light conditions and vice versa (during morning twilight). Measurements have shown that at mid-latitudes during twilight, the illumination decreases by half in about 5 minutes. This is enough for smooth vision adaptation. The gradual change in natural light strikingly distinguishes it from artificial. Electric lamps turn on and off instantly, forcing us to squint from the bright light or "go blind" for a while in the seeming pitch darkness.
There is no sharp boundary between twilight and darkness of the night. However, in practice, such a boundary has to be drawn: you need to know when to turn on street lights or beacon lights at airports and on rivers. That is why twilight has long been divided into three periods, depending on the depth of the sun's immersion under the horizon.
The earliest period - from the moment the Sun sets and until it sinks 6 ° below the horizon - is called civil twilight. At this time, a person sees in the same way as during the day, and there is no need for artificial lighting.
With the sinking of the Sun below the horizon from 6 to 12 ° navigational twilight sets in. During this period, natural illumination drops so much that it is no longer possible to read, and the visibility of surrounding objects greatly deteriorates. But the ship's navigator can still navigate by the silhouettes of unlit shores. After the sun plunges 12 °, it becomes completely dark, but the dim light of dawn still interferes with seeing faint stars. This is astronomical twilight. And only when the Sun goes down 1 7-18 ° below the horizon, the faintest stars visible to the naked eye light up in the sky.
COAHUA ANNUAL WAY
The expression "the path of the Sun among the stars" will seem strange to some. After all, the stars are not visible during the day. Therefore, it is not easy to notice that the Sun is slowly, about 1 "per day, moving among the stars from right to left. But you can trace how the appearance of the starry sky changes during the year. All this is a consequence of the Earth's revolution around the Sun.
The path of the apparent annual movement of the Sun against the background of the stars is called the ecliptic (from the Greek "eclipse" - "eclipse"), and the period of revolution along the ecliptic is called a sidereal year. It is equal to 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes 10 s, or 365.2564 average solar days.
Eclipticand the celestial equator intersect at an angle of 23 ° 26 "at the points of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. In the first of these points the Sun usually occurs on March 21, when it passes from the southern hemisphere of the sky to the northern. In the second, on September 23, when passing from the northern hemisphere to At the point farthest to the north of the ecliptic, the Sun occurs on June 22 (summer solstice), and to the south on December 22 (winter solstice) .In a leap year, these dates are shifted by one day.
Of the four points of the ecliptic, the main point is the vernal equinox. It is from it that "one of the celestial coordinates, right ascension, is counted. It also serves to count the sidereal time and the tropical year - the time interval between two successive passages of the Sun's center through the vernal equinox. The tropical year determines the change of seasons on our planet.
Since the vernal equinox is slowly moving among the stars due to the precession of the earth's axis (see the article "Playing with a spinning top, or a long story with polar stars"), the duration of a tropical year is shorter than the duration of a stellar year. It is 365.2422 solar average days.
About 2 thousand years ago, when Hipparchus compiled his star catalog (the first one that has come down to us in its entirety), the vernal equinox was in the constellation Aries. By our time, it has moved almost 30 °, to the constellation Pisces. and the point of the autumnal equinox is from the constellation Libra to the constellation Virgo. But according to tradition, the points of equinox are designated by the signs of the former "equinox" constellations - Aries and Demons. The same happened with the points of the solstices: summer in the constellation Taurus is marked by the sign of Cancer 23, and winter in the constellation Sagittarius is marked by the sign of Capricorn.
And finally, the last thing that is associated with the apparent annual motion of the Sun. Half of the ecliptic from the vernal equinox to the autumn (from March 21 to September 23), the Sun passes in 186 days. The second half, from the autumnal equinox to the springtime, takes 179-180 days. But the halves of the ecliptic are equal: each 180 °. Consequently, the Sun moves unevenly along the ecliptic. This irregularity reflects changes in the speed of the Earth in an elliptical orbit around the Sun.
The uneven movement of the Sun along the ecliptic leads to different lengths of the seasons. For residents of the Northern Hemisphere, spring and summer are six days longer than autumn and winter. The Earth on July 2-4 is located 5 million kilometers further from the Sun than January 2-3, and moves in its orbit more slowly in accordance with Kepler's second law. In summer, the Earth receives less heat from the Sun, but summer in the Northern Hemisphere is longer than winter. Therefore, the Northern Hemisphere is warmer than the Southern Hemisphere.
MOTION AND PHASES OF THE MOON
The moon is known to change its appearance. It itself does not emit light, therefore only its surface illuminated by the Sun is visible in the sky - the daytime side. Moving across the sky from west to east, the Moon overtakes and surpasses the Sun in a month. In this case, the lunar phases change: new moon, first quarter, full moon and last quarter.
On a new moon, the moon cannot be seen even through a telescope. It is located in the same direction as the Sun (only above or below it), and is turned towards the Earth by an unlit hemisphere. In one or two days, when the Moon moves away from the Sun, a narrow crescent can be observed a few minutes before its setting in the western side of the sky against the background of the evening dawn. The Greeks called the first appearance of the crescent moon after the new moon "neomenia" ("new moon *). This moment was considered by the ancient peoples to be the beginning of the lunar month.
Sometimes, for several days before and after the new moon, it is possible to notice the ash light of the moon. This faint glow from the nighttime part of the lunar disk is nothing more than sunlight reflected by the Earth onto the Moon. As the crescent grows larger, the ash light is paler! 4 and becomes invisible.
Farther and farther to the left of the Sun the Moon is moving away. Its sickle grows every day, remaining convex to the right, towards the Sun. After 7 days 10 hours after the new moon, a phase begins, called the first quarter. During this time, the Moon moved away from the Sun by 90 °. Now the sun's rays illuminate only the right half of the lunar disk. After sunset, the moon is on the southern side of the sky and sets around midnight. Continuing to move from the Sun further and further to the east. The moon appears in the evening on the eastern side of the sky. She comes in after midnight, and every day later and later.
When our satellite is on the side opposite to the Sun (at an angular distance of 180 ° from it), the full moon comes. The full moon shines all night. It rises in the evening and sets in the morning. After 14 days 18 hours from the moment of the new moon, the Moon begins to approach the Sun from the right. The illuminated portion of the lunar disk decreases. Later, the moon rises above the horizon and by morning
The stars show the way
Even Odysseus kept the direction of the ship in accordance with the position of the Big Dipper in the sky. He was a skilled navigator who knew the starry sky well. He checked the course of his ship with the constellation, which sets exactly in the north-west. Odysseus knew how the Pleiades cluster moves during the night and, being guided by it, led the ship in the right direction.
But, of course, the North Star has always served as the main stellar compass. If you stand facing it, then it is easy to determine the sides of the horizon: in front there will be north, behind - south, on the right - east, left - west. Even in ancient times, this simple method allowed those who set off on a long journey to choose the right direction on land and at sea.
Astronavigation - orienteering by the stars - has retained its significance to this day. In aviation, navigation, land expeditions and space flights, one cannot do without it.
Although airplanes and ships are equipped with the latest radio navigation and radar technology, there are situations when the devices cannot be used: suppose they are out of order or a storm has broken out in the Earth's magnetic field. In such cases, the navigator of an airplane or ship must be able to determine its position and direction of movement along the Moon, stars or the Sun. And the astronaut cannot do without astronavigation. Sometimes he needs to turn the station in a certain way: for example, so that the telescope looks at the object under study, or to dock with an arriving transport ship.
Pilot-cosmonaut Valentin Vitalievich Lebedev recalls astronavigation training: “We are faced with a practical problem - to study the starry sky as best as possible, to learn and study well the constellations, reference stars ... After all, our field of view is limited - we are looking through the window. We needed to confidently determine the routes of transitions from one constellation to another, in order to come to a given area of the sky in the shortest possible way and find the stars along which it was necessary to orient and stabilize the ship, providing a certain direction of the telescopes in space ... A significant part of our astronomical training took place at the Moscow Planetarium. ... From star to star, from constellation to constellation, we unraveled the labyrinths of star patterns, learned to find in them the semantic and necessary lines of direction ”.
NAVIGATION STARS
Navigation stars - the stars with the help of which in aviation, navigation and astronautics determine the location and course of the ship. Of the 6 thousand stars visible to the naked eye, 26 are considered navigational. These are the brightest stars, up to about 2 magnitude. For all these stars, tables of heights and azimuths have been compiled to facilitate the solution of navigation problems.
For orientation in the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth, 18 navigation stars are used. In the northern heavenly hemisphere, these are Polar, Arcturus, Vega, Capella, Aliot, Pollux, Alta-ir, Regulus, Aldebaran, Deneb, Betel-geyse, Procyon and Alferatz (Andromeda's star has three names: Alferatz, Alpharet and Sirrah; navigators the name Alferatz was adopted). To these stars are added 5 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky; Sirius, Rigel, Spica, Antares and Fomalhaut.
Imagine a map of the stars in the northern celestial hemisphere. In its center is the North Star, and below the Big Dipper with neighboring constellations. We do not need a coordinate grid or constellation boundaries - after all, they are also absent in the real sky. We will learn to navigate only by the characteristic outlines of constellations and the positions of bright stars.
To make it easier to find the navigation stars visible in the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth, the starry sky is divided into three sections (sectors): lower, right and left.
In the lower sector are the constellations Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Bootes, Virgo, Scorpio and Leo. The conditional boundaries of the sector go from Polar to the right down and to the left down. The brightest star here is Arcturus (bottom left). It is indicated by the continuation of the "handle" of the Big Dipper Bucket. The bright star at the bottom right is Regulus (a Leo).
In the right sector are the constellations of Orion, Taurus, Auriga, Gemini, Canis Major and Canis Minor. The brightest stars are Sirius (it does not fall on the map, since it is in the southern celestial hemisphere) and Capella, then Rigel (it also does not fall on the map) and Betelgeuse from Orion (on the right at the edge of the map), Chug above is Aldebaran from Taurus, and below at the edge is Procyon of the Lesser Dog.
In the left sector - the constellations of Lyra, Cygnus, Eagle, Pegasus, Andromeda, Aries and Southern Pisces. The brightest star here is Vega, which, together with Altair and Deyeb, forms a characteristic triangle.
For navigation in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth, 24 navigation stars are used, of which 16 are the same as in the Northern Hemisphere (excluding Polar and Betelgeuse). 8 more stars are added to them. One of them - Hamal - is from the northern constellation of Aries. The other seven are from the southern constellations: Canopus (a Carina), Achernar (a Eridani), Peacock (a Peacock), Mimosa (fj Southern Cross), Toliman (a Centauri), Atria (a Southern Triangle) and Kaus Australis (e Sagittarius) ).
The most famous navigational constellation is the Southern Cross. Its longer "bar" almost accurately points to the south pole of the world, which lies in the constellation Octantus, where there are no visible stars.
In order to accurately find a navigation star, it is not enough to know which constellation it is in. In cloudy weather, for example, only a fraction of the stars are observed. There is another limitation in space travel; only a small portion of the sky is visible through the porthole. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to quickly recognize the desired navigation star by color and brightness.
On a clear evening, try to make out the navigation stars in the sky, which every navigator knows by heart.
Transcript
1 Answers and evaluation criteria Part I 1. Choose the correct statement about the size of the Earth. a) The diameter of the Earth is greater than that of Mars and Venus. b) The diameter of the Earth is smaller than that of Mars and Venus. c) The diameter of the Earth is greater than that of Mars, but less than that of Venus. d) The diameter of the Earth is smaller than that of Mars, but larger than that of Venus. 2. Which of the geographical events of the twentieth century happened later than the rest? a) The conquest of the South Pole b) The conquest of the North Pole c) The conquest of Everest d) Descent to the bottom of the Mariana Trench 3. Which direction corresponds to the azimuth of 135? a) North-East b) South-East c) South-West d) North-West 4. Which of the inner shells of the Earth is translated from Latin as "veil"? a) Earth's crust b) Asthenosphere c) Mantle d) Core 5. Which of the rocks owes its "origin" to living organisms? a) Gypsum b) Coal c) Rock salt d) Basalt 6. What form of relief is most susceptible to modern volcanism and earthquakes? a) East African plateau b) Scandinavian mountains c) Brazilian plateau d) Ural mountains 7. Which of the volcanoes is located south of the others? a) Hekla b) Vesuvius c) Orizaba d) Erebus 8. Choose a statement that refers to the ocean that washes the shores of two continents. 1
2 a) It is crossed by all the meridians of the Earth. b) It is crossed by the equator in the northern part. c) The saltiest ocean. d) The largest ocean in area. 9. Choose the correct statement. a) The salinity of tropical waters is lower than the salinity of equatorial ones. b) The water temperature in the temperate latitudes (40-60⁰) of the North Atlantic is much higher than at the same latitudes in the southern hemisphere. c) All cold currents have a temperature of about 0⁰С. d) Ebb and flow occurs due to volcanic eruptions on the ocean floor. 10. Select the option where the islands located within the "ring of fire" are indicated. a) North Land, New Land, Greenland, Iceland, Baffin Land b) Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Tasmania, Kerguelen c) Aleutian, Kuril, Japanese, Philippine, New Guinea d) Azores, Canary, Bermuda, Greater Antilles, Newfoundland 11. Which of the unique objects of the hydrosphere (world record holders) is located in the West Siberian Plain? a) the largest swamp b) the deepest lake c) the deepest river d) the longest glacier 12. Choose the correct statement. a) Salt lakes are always wastewater. b) The maximum area of ice sheets is observed in the Himalayas. c) Artesian wells are "fed" by interstratal waters. d) The floodplain is the part of the river bed that is flooded with water for most of the year. 13. Select the option that lists the rivers belonging to the same ocean basin. a) Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, Ganges b) Nile, Congo, Limpopo, Danube c) Volga, Yenisei, Ob, Lena d) Amur, Yellow River, Yangtze, Colorado 2
3 14. Which of the gases is responsible for the "greenhouse effect"? a) Oxygen b) nitrogen c) carbon dioxide d) ozone 15. Choose the correct statement: a) The lowest air temperature during the day is observed at midnight. b) Monsoon is a wind that changes its direction twice a day. c) Absolute air humidity is measured in percent (%). d) In Moscow, normal atmospheric pressure is lower than in St. Petersburg. 16. Which of the following is not a weather element? a) cloudiness b) average annual temperature c) atmospheric pressure d) wind direction and speed 17. Choose the right combination: climate record, its location. a) The driest place on Earth is the Atacama Desert. b) The lowest temperature on Earth is Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon. c) The hottest place on Earth in the center of the Sahara. d) The largest amount of atmospheric precipitation on earth is the slopes of the Andes. 18. Select the wrong statement. a) Fertility is the main property of soils. b) Chernozems are the most fertile soils. c) Humus and humus are mineral (inorganic) soil components. d) Soil is a habitat for living organisms. 19. Select a man-made natural complex. a) wheat field b) feather grass steppe c) pine forest d) shrub tundra 20. Choose the correct statement about Moscow. a) Moscow is located in the internal drainage basin. b) Moscow is located on the Central Russian Upland. c) Moscow is the northernmost capital in the world. d) Moscow is the capital of the world's largest country in terms of population. Answers: a d b c b a d a b c a c d c d b a c a for each correct answer 1 point. Maximum 20 points. 3
4 Part II Task 1. Carefully study the schematic map, read the explanatory text and answer the questions. Write your answers on the form. The schematic map shows the frequency of repetition of a beautiful, but sometimes dangerous, atmospheric phenomenon in different regions of our planet. The annual number of this phenomenon on Earth is about 16 million. The frequency of occurrence of this atmospheric phenomenon over land is much higher than over water surface. World records of the frequency and strength of this atmospheric phenomenon (according to various estimates) are noted near Lake Maracaibo (at the mouth of the Katatumbo River), near the city of Kampala, as well as on the island. Java (near the city of Bogor). Questions 1. What atmospheric phenomenon does the schematic map represent, what phenomena in the atmosphere is it characterized by? 2. What natural phenomena, which are not its main components, usually accompany this atmospheric phenomenon? Give examples of four natural phenomena. 4
5 3. In what climatic zones can we most often observe the atmospheric phenomenon under consideration, and in what regions of the Earth they practically do not occur? What is the reason for this? 4. In what type of clouds does the considered atmospheric phenomenon occur most often? At what time of the year does this phenomenon occur most often in our area? 5. In which countries are Lake Maracaibo, Kampala City, Java Island? 6. Since the considered atmospheric phenomenon can be dangerous, what safety measures should a person take if he is on the street? Suggest 4 rules for observing safety measures during this atmospheric event. Question number 1 (4 points) 2 (4 points) 3 (5 points) Response elements Atmospheric phenomenon depicted on the schematic map Phenomena that make up the atmospheric phenomenon under consideration Natural phenomena accompanying the atmospheric phenomenon under consideration Climatic zones Areas of the Earth where this phenomenon is usually not observed What is the reason for this? Thunderstorm 2 points Lightning 1 point Thunder 1 point Answer 1 point for any correct answer, but not more than four points. Possible answers: Heavy rain, hail, snow / snow or ice pellets, squally wind / hurricane, tornado / tornado Equatorial 1 point Subequatorial 1 point Arctic 0.5 points Antarctica / Antarctica 0.5 points OR if “polar regions” is indicated, count the answer 1 point 2 points for the correct answer. Upward air currents in equatorial and subequatorial latitudes OR a connection with a low pressure belt in equatorial latitudes is indicated. Other formulations are also possible that do not contradict the logic of answer 5
6 4 (2 points) 5 (3 points) 6 (2 points) Cloud type Seasons In which country is Lake Maracaibo located? In which country is the city of Kampala located? In which country is Java located? Safety measures during the considered atmospheric phenomenon Cumulonimbus 1 point; if in the answer "cumulus" or "rainfall" is estimated at 0.5 points spring 0.5 points; summer 0.5 points Venezuela 1 point Uganda 1 point Indonesia 1 point 0.5 points each for any correct statement, but not more than 2 points in total. Possible answers (other formulations are allowed OR other correct answers): avoid open spaces where you will be the tallest object; hide inside a building, under a bridge or a car; do not hide under lonely trees; in the mountains or on hilly terrain, try to descend into the valley; if there is no shelter nearby, try to find the lowest places, but avoid wet or swampy areas of the earth's surface; do not lie on the ground, but sit down and clasp your shins with your hands and pressing your head to your knees; if hair begins to spontaneously rise up, immediately lower yourself to the ground (lie down or sit on the ground); while at sea or on a lake, try to get into the shelter as quickly as possible; on the boat, you can tie the end of the anchor chain (or cable) around the cables and throw it into the water; avoid touching this homemade lightning rod; 6
7 Maximum score 20. Be sure to turn off the electronic equipment that you have (mobile phone, tablet computer, etc.) Task 2. Russian geographers-travelers not only explored the territory of Russia, but also made a significant contribution to the discovery and knowledge of the globe ... Identify the gaps in the text about Russian researchers and their contribution to the history of geographical discoveries of the world. Back in the Middle Ages, Novgorodians sailed across the Arctic Ocean to the island of Grumant, which today is called (1) and belongs to the state (2). One of the first geographical descriptions, compiled by a Russian merchant (3), is the book "Voyage across the Three Seas", in which the author tells about his journey to (4) in the years. In the XVII century. Russian navigators F. Popov and (5) discovered the strait between Asia and America, which today is called (6) the strait, and the extreme eastern point of Eurasia, with geographical coordinates (7), bears the name of one of these researchers. The northernmost point of Eurasia (8) on the peninsula (9) is also named in honor of the Russian traveler. An officer of the Russian fleet Vitus Bering and his assistant (10) led the Great Northern Expedition, during which, in addition to modern Russian territories and water areas in (11) the ocean, the archipelago (12) of the islands, which today belong to the state, were explored (13). XIX century. the era of Russian travel around the world. The first Russian round-the-world voyage on boats "Nadezhda" and (14) was headed by (15) and Yu.F. Lisyansky. The name (15) is named (16) in (6) the strait, which today belongs to the state (13). Undoubtedly, the great achievement of Russian travelers was the discovery of the last continent (17) in 1820 during an expedition led by (18) and (19). They are named after (20) off the coast (17), and after (18) named (16) in the South Sandwich Islands. 7
8 passes Answer pass 1 Spitsbergen 11 Quiet 2 Norway 12 Aleutian 3 Afanasy Nikitin 13 USA 4 India 14 "Neva" 5 Semyon Dezhnev (SI Dezhnev) 6 Beringov 16 Island 15 Answer of I.F. Kruzenshtern 7 66 N. 169 h.d. + / 1 17 Antarctica 8 Cape Chelyuskin 18 F.F. Bellingshausen 9 Taimyr 19 M.P. Lazarev 10 A.I. Chirikov 20 seas For each correct answer 1 point, the maximum score is 20. Task 3. Carefully read the text and determine what form of relief we are talking about. Name it and answer additional questions. This landform is located on the oldest section of the earth's crust in the eastern part of one of the continents. It occupies 325 thousand km² and stretches for 1000 km along the coast of the seas of the warmest ocean on Earth. The fertile soils and favorable climate of this territory (change in the movement of air masses and the regime of atmospheric precipitation according to the seasons of the year) contribute to a high concentration of the population and active agricultural activity. Despite frequent catastrophic floods, it is home to about one billion people. In the northern and southern parts of this form of relief, the two largest rivers of the mainland flow from west to east. They are connected by one of the oldest hydraulic structures on the planet, which was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2014. Name: 1. Relief shape and its own name. 2. The name of the site of the earth's crust. eight
9 3. Two seas, along the coast of which it is located. 4. Name of climate types or climatic regions. 5. When dry and wet seasons come here. 6. What air temperature is observed in this territory in winter and summer. 7. How much precipitation falls on this territory. 8. What kind of people live in this territory. 9. What is the population density in this area. 10. The four main crops grown in this area. 11. Names of rivers flowing through this area. 12. The name of the hydraulic structure. question Answer 1 Great Plain of China (1 point) 2 Sino-Korean platform (1 point) 3 Yellow Sea and East China Sea (1 point +1 point) 4 Moderate monsoon and Subtropical monsoon (1 point +1 point) 5 Dry winter ( 1 point), humid in summer (1 point) 6 In winter 8 + 8 C (1 point), in summer +24 C (1 point) 7 From 500 to 2000 mm (1 point) 8 Chinese / Han people (1 point) 9 More than 100 people per km² (1 point) 10 Wheat (1 point), rice (1 point), peanuts (1 point), cotton (1 point) 11 Huang He (1 point), Yangtze (1 point) 12 Great Canal (1 point) Maximum 20 points. nine
10 Task 4. All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in geography uch. d. Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface. Distinguish between positive and negative forms of relief, which can be of different sizes: macroforms, mesoforms, microforms. Microforms have linear dimensions of tens of meters and relative heights of several meters. In mesoforms, the linear dimensions are already calculated in hundreds of meters and kilometers, and the relative heights differ by ten to twenty meters. Macroforms with linear dimensions of tens of kilometers and height differences of several hundred meters are the largest landforms. Based on an excerpt from the story about the territory, distribute all the mentioned landforms in the appropriate cells of the table. From the helicopter, the lowland was a vast sea of forest. Here and there, among the forests, swamps were visible, which were located in small, no more than a kilometer in diameter, hollows. Often from several sides these swamps were surrounded by ridges, which were overgrown with pine trees and rose above the hollows to a height of ten to fifteen meters. To the east, where the absolute heights were somewhat higher, the relief became flatter. It was dominated by low sandy hills with gentle slopes. Often, on the flat tops of the hills, there were rounded depressions with raised bogs with a diameter of just over ten meters. From the north, the lowland was bounded by a high moraine ridge, which stretched from west to east for tens of kilometers, in the south, the lowland was abruptly replaced by a hill, and our helicopter flew there. Forests quickly gave way to fields and hayfields, only here and there individual groves flickered. Numerous gullies were clearly visible in the freshly plowed fields. In just a few years, their length can increase several times, and the depth is not fifty centimeters, but ten meters. This is how the ravines and gullies were formed, which today drew the entire territory of the hill with narrow ribbons. Answer: Positive landforms Negative landforms Macroforms ridge, upland / lowland Mesoforms ridge, hill, hollow, ravine, gully Microform - depression, gully For the correct answer, the landform is inscribed in the required cell 2 points. For a partially correct answer, the column was correctly identified, but the student confused the rank of the relief form 1 point. ten
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Diversity of relief as a result of the interaction of internal and external forces of the Earth LESSON 5 Relief of the Earth
Demonstration version of the intermediate final certification of grade 8 in geography Part 1 When completing the tasks of this part, only one answer is correct. In answer form 1, under the number of the
Technological map of the lesson in geography DATE _____________________________
| Theme | The shape and size of the Earth |
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| Target | To form knowledge about the shape and size of the Earth and their impact on the life of the planet, spatial thinking about the sphericity of the planet. |
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| Tasks | - teaching: deepen knowledge about planet Earth; - developing: development of the cognitive interests of students, the ability to work in a group with a textbook, additional literature and ESM resources; - educational: the formation of a culture of communication when working in pairs. |
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| The maincontentthemes,termsandconcepts | ||
| Plannedresult | Subject | |
| know the shape and size of the Earth, evidence of its sphericity, the role of the shape and size of the Earth in the life of the planet. Know and explain the essential features of concepts: globe, earth axis, geographic pole, equator. | Personal: realize the need to study the world around us. Regulatory: accept and formulate an educational problem. Communicative: ability to communicate and interact with each other Cognitive: analyze, compare, classify and generalize facts and phenomena, identify the causes and consequences of simple phenomena General educational: highlighting and structuring the necessary information Brain teaser: allocation of methods (analysis), synthesis, summing up the concept, putting forward hypotheses and their justification Communicative: Ability to organize educational cooperation and joint activities with partners Ability to enter into dialogue and participate in a collective discussion of the problem, to argue their position |
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| Interdisciplinaryconnections |
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| Training item, well | Forms work | Resources |
| History, mathematics | collective, group, work in pairs | multimedia installation, personal computer, presentation |
Lesson structure and course
| Activity | ||
| teachers | pupil |
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| Stage 1. Updating basic knowledge on the topic "The shape and dimensions of the Earth" | Greeting students, checking the readiness of the student for the lesson. Remember: What cosmic bodies make up the solar system? What do we know about the Earth? Offers formulate the topic of the lesson and correct it | Greetings from the teacher, readiness for the lesson. Remember previously studied material ( NS). Define what knowledge they lack ( R) |
| Stage 2. Creating a problem situation | Encourages students to create a problem situation (Appendix) | Enter into dialogue, speak and realize ( K, R) Explain and formulate the topic is written in a notebook (NS) |
| Stage 3. Goal setting: | Announcement of the topic of the lesson. Provides "conflicting" material,creates readiness for upcoming activities. (Application) | The goal is written on the board and discussed(R). Learn, remember, compare, analyze, conclude (P, R, K) |
| Stage 4."Discovery" of new knowledge | Encourages students to a theoretical explanation of the facts. -find in the text of the tutorial and to know information about how in ancient times people imagined the shape of the Earth, evidence of the sphericity of the Earth, who first calculated the size of the Earth, Asks a question comparison Stimulates active participation of all children in the practical part to complete the task in Figure 32 on page 40. | Work with the textbook : find and learn information, convey in their own words content (NS) Compare, analyze, explain, discuss(PC). Workshop: group work (4) make calculations and write down the answers in a notebook, draw a drawing and formulate a conclusion about the differences in radii. (P, R, K.) |
| Stage 5. Learning activities to implement the plan. Decision expression. Application of new knowledge. | Offers assignments for "new" knowledge, urge t students to a theoretical explanation of the facts, contradictions between them. (Application) Encourages the active participation of all children in search activities during discussion on the question "What is the role of the shape and size of the Earth in the life of the planet?" Offers pupils tell on the results of the work. | Discuss in groups and individually, justify choosing one's own decision or disagreeing with the opinions of others. (R, K, P) Explain, analyze, formulate. (P, R, K) Give a detailed answer, summarize information... (K, R) |
| Stage 6. Reflection (lesson summary) | Forms conclusions, grades for work in the lesson | Write down conclusions. Determine the degree of progress towards the goal(R, L, R) |
| Stage 6. Homework |
