The metabolism in the human body depends on its physiological state, type of activity, age, nutritional characteristics and other factors. Under the influence of environmental conditions and depending on the tasks that the body is called upon to solve, there is a change in metabolic processes in the human body, which primarily concerns their intensity. Such changes in metabolism play an adaptive role, allowing the body to adapt to changing external conditions. In general, metabolic reactions are aimed at maintaining the constancy of the composition of the internal environment, homeostasis .

A young growing organism is characterized by a predominance anabolic processes over catabolic... This circumstance is explained by the fact that anabolic processes ensure the growth of the body, an increase in the volume of tissues and organs. The predominance of the rate of synthesis of substances over decay processes is especially great immediately after birth. By the age of 17-19, a dynamic balance of these processes is established in the human body. At this age, the growth of the body actually stops. In old age, catabolic processes begin to predominate, which can often lead to a decrease in the content of a number of important substances in the body. The consequence of this process is a decrease in muscle mass and strength, as well as the functional capabilities of internal organs. However, at any age period, biosynthesis processes take place in the human body, which ensure the restoration of biomolecules, cells, organs and tissues that undergo constant destruction at any age.

Rice. 2. Stages of nutrient catabolism and energy recovery in cells

Dissimilation and assimilation

Dissimilation and assimilation (from Latin dissimilis - dissimilar, Latin dissimilatio dissimilarity and assimilis - similar, from Latin assimilatio reproduction) are mutually opposite processes that ensure a continuous process vital functions of living organisms; proceed in the body continuously, simultaneously, in close interconnection and constitute two sides of a single metabolic process. Possessing biological. by nature, dissimilation and assimilation form a complex system consisting of a chain of interconnected biochemicals. reactions, each of which individually is only chemical. The contradiction between dissimilation and assimilation determines the dynamic balance of a living body.

D and with s and m and l I ts and I ( Catabolism)- the process of splitting in a living organism is organic. substances into simpler compounds - leads to the release of energy necessary for all vital processes of the body. The end products of catabolism are carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia.

Catabolism in the human body and most living things is characterized by the following features.

In the process of catabolism, oxidation reactions predominate.

Catabolism occurs with oxygen consumption.

In the process of catabolism, energy is released, about half of which is accumulated in the form of molecules adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A significant part of the energy is given off in the form of heat.

And with s and m and l I ts and I ( Anabolism)- the process of assimilating organic. substances entering organism, and their transformation into organic substances characteristic of a given organism, using the energy released during the processes of dissimilation. In this case, compounds with high energy (high-energy) are formed (synthesized), to-rye become a source of energy released during dissimilation.

Thus, anabolism -these are fusion reactions. These processes are characterized by the following features.

Anabolism is mainly a recovery reaction.

In the process of anabolism, hydrogen is consumed.

The source of energy for the reactions of anabolism is ATP.

Dissimilation of nutrients entering the body, mainly proteins, fats and carbohydrates, begins with their enzymatic breakdown into simpler compounds - intermediate metabolic products (peptides, amino acids, glycerin, fatty acids, monosaccharides), from which the body synthesizes (assimilates ) organic compounds necessary for its life. All processes of dissimilation and assimilation in the body proceed as single whole.

Assimilation and dissimilation are characterized by appropriate criteria.

Let's consider them using the example of assimilation:

1) By linear distance distinguish remote and contact so, for example, between interacting sounds, organic compounds, etc. (lemon is saliva, music promotes the formation of a neurotransmitter - serotonin).

2) By the totality of synthesis processes in a living organism - regressive and progressive.

3) By the degree of synthesis from simple substances more complex (polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins, etc.) - full or partial.

CRITERIA(Greek criterion) - a sign on the basis of which an assessment of the quality of an object, a process is formed, a measure of such an assessment. For example, K. efficiency characterizes the level of effectiveness of the training system, the level of physical preparation, etc.

Assimilation (lat.assimilatio; from assimilare - to liken):

• Assimilation (biology) is a set of synthesis processes in a living organism.
• Assimilation (linguistics) is the assimilation of the articulation of one sound to the articulation of another.
• Assimilation (sociology) is a process as a result of which one ethnic group is deprived of its distinctive features and is replaced by features of another society; mixing of tribes.
• Linguistic assimilation is the loss by the linguistic community of its native language and the transition to another, usually more prestigious language.

Assimilation in biology

This is the same as anabolism, in a narrower sense - the assimilation of nutrients by living cells (photosynthesis, root absorption). The term comes from the Latin word assimilatio - assimilation. Assimilation is a process inherent in all living things, one of the sides of metabolism, consists in the formation of complex substances that make up the body from simpler elements of the external environment.

• The assimilation process ensures the growth, development, renewal of the organism and the accumulation of reserves used as a source of energy. Organisms from the point of view of thermodynamics are open systems, they can exist only with a continuous influx of energy from the outside. The primary source of energy for wildlife is solar radiation. Organisms living on Earth can be divided into two main groups, which differ in the use of different energy sources - autotrophic organisms and heterotrophic organisms. Only autotrophic organisms (green plants) are able to directly use the radiant energy of the Sun in the process of photosynthesis, creating organic compounds (carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins) from inorganic substances. The rest of living organisms (with the exception of some microorganisms capable of producing energy through chemical reactions) assimilate ready-made organic substances, using them as a source of energy or material to build their body. When food proteins are assimilated by heterotrophs, first the decomposition of proteins to amino acids occurs, and then again the synthesis of proteins inherent only in this organism. In living organisms, the process of renewal of its constituent parts is continuously taking place due to the destruction (dissimilation) and creation of organic substances - assimilation.
• The complete renewal of proteins in the adult human body takes about two and a half years. The intensity of assimilation and its relationship with the reverse process - dissimilation, or catabolism - differ significantly both in different organisms and during the life of one individual. The most intensive assimilation occurs during periods of growth: in animals - at a young age, in plants - during the growing season.

Both processes - assimilation and dissimilation - are interconnected with each other. To synthesize complex organic substances, ATP energy is needed. To perform any kind of movement of the body, it is necessary to convert the energy of ATP into mechanical energy. In order for the ATP molecules to form in the cell, organic molecules are needed, which come from the body's habitat as a result of nutrition. The source of energy can be the body's own reserve substances or used up and requiring replacement of any cellular structures.

Assimilation in linguistics

It is mainly a phonological term for the assimilation of one sound to another. Assimilation occurs between sounds of the same type (vowels or consonants). Assimilation can be complete(in this case, the assimilated sound completely coincides with the one to which it is likened) and incomplete(accordingly, only a few signs of the assimilated sound change). In its direction, assimilation can be progressive(the previous sound affects the next one) and regressive(the subsequent sound affects the previous one). Assimilation can be contact(the sounds involved in the process are adjacent) and distant(a typical example is vowel harmony). Assimilation is opposed dissimilation, the process of matching two sounds.

Examples of

The assimilation is complete. Assimilation, as a result of which one sound is identified with another and two different sounds become the same. Rest [breath> od: s]. Compressed [compressed> compressed].

Assimilation is incomplete. Assimilation, as a result of which one sound is partially assimilated to another (in voicing-deafness, hardness-softness, etc.). Vodka [votk] - deafened by a sonorous consonant. Request [prozb] - the sound of a voiceless consonant. Demolished - softening the consonant sound of the prefix. Locksmith [p] - locksmith [p] - hardening of a soft consonant.

Assimilation is progressive. Assimilation as a result of the influence of the previous sound on the subsequent one (a rare phenomenon in Russian). Vanka> Vanka [vank] - softening [k] under the influence of the previous soft [n]. Assimilation is regressive. Assimilation as a result of the influence of the subsequent sound on the previous one. Pass [zdat] - voicing [s] under the influence of the subsequent [d]. Boat [tray] - stunning [d] under the influence of the subsequent [k]. Assimilation should be distinguished on the diachronic and synchronic plane. Diachronic assimilation is a process (taking place within a certain time frame) of assimilating sounds of one type to sounds of another type. For example, after the fall of the reduced [b] and [b] in the Old Russian language (XII – XIII centuries), the process of gradual stunning of voiced consonants that fell in the vicinity of the deaf took place: doro [zh] ka> doro [zh] ka> dor [zhsh ] ka> expensive [w] ka. Assimilation in the synchronic sense is a strictly regular alternation of sounds due to position. For example, the exchange [w] and [w] in the words road, road, track.

Assimilation in sociology

Assimilation - assimilation, merging, assimilation. In sociology and ethnography - the loss of one part of society (or a whole ethnic group) of its distinctive features and the replacement borrowed from another part (another ethnic group). In general, this is an ethnocultural shift in the self-awareness of a certain social group, which previously represented a different community in terms of language, religion or culture.

The term "assimilation" can be perceived simultaneously as a process or as a state. First, it refers to the process of incorporating immigrants into the host society. Secondly, assimilation is understood as a state of similarity in behavior patterns, attitudes, values ​​among immigrants and representatives of the host society, nation. A common term used in Europe.

There are several types of assimilation:

• Natural assimilation occurs through a natural, voluntary merger of peoples as part of a multinational state, or when a national region becomes part of a large state.
• Forced assimilation, carried out with the aim of suppressing small nations and eradicating their culture.
  Also, assimilation can be forced when various peoples move to large industrial cities in order to improve their living conditions.

Main indicators of assimilation of immigrants

The researchers determine that the assimilation that exists among immigrants can be measured by four main criteria. These basic aspects, formulated in the United States for the study of European immigration, are still the starting points for understanding the assimilation of immigrants. These aspects are: socioeconomic status, geographic concentration of the population, second language proficiency and mixed marriages.

1. Socio-economic status determined by the level of education, profession and income. By monitoring changes in socio-economic status, the researchers want to find out if immigrants will eventually be able to catch up with the indigenous population in socio-economic indicators.
2. Population concentration determined by geography. This indicator asserts that an increase in socio-economic achievements, long-term residence, as well as a higher status of generations will lead to a decrease in residential concentration for a particular ethnic group.
3. Language skills another state is defined as the possible loss of an individual's native language. The three-generation model of linguistic assimilation states that the first generation makes little progress in linguistic assimilation, but still dominates their mother tongue, the second generation is bilingual, and the third generation speaks only the state language.
4. Mixed marriages determined by race or ethnicity, and sometimes by generation. The high number of mixed marriages is an indicator of social integration, because it reveals intimate and deep relationships between people of different groups; mixed marriage reduces the ability of families to pass on a consistent national culture to their children and is thus one of the factors of assimilation. While mixed marriages are usually seen as a solid foundation that can lead to assimilation, it is also seen as a way to gradually facilitate the transition to a new culture. There is an opinion that as long as one group adheres to their certain views and does not marry people of the opposite sex of the indigenous population, assimilation will proceed rather slowly.

Language assimilation

Linguistic assimilation is the process of stopping the use of one or another linguistic community of its native language and the transition to another, as a rule, more prestigious language. Most often, linguistic assimilation occurs when a linguistic community is in a minority in a different ethnic environment.

The assimilation of another language can be caused by the conquest of another people by one people, the colonization of lands, emigration and in other situations and conditions. When the autochthonous population was conquered after a sufficiently long period of bilingualism, the language of the conquerors becomes universal and unique, although it undergoes more or less changes under the influence of the defeated and disappeared national language in the given territory. Linguistic assimilation is largely associated with linguistic chauvinism, and is one of the effective means of cultural and ethnic assimilation of another people. The language of aliens or the language of spiritual and cultural expansion penetrates into the communication of the assimilated people through trade, administrative communication, documentation, education and other channels; also, the assimilation of the language can take place by force, through the demand for a certain language in a given region or under pressure from political elites.

Examples of language assimilation

Speak Mandarin Campaign

The Singapore government launched the Speak Mandarin Campaign in 1979 to promote what the name implies is a Mandarin dialect among Singaporean Chinese. The policy pursued was the subject of sharp criticism, especially since the majority of Chinese Singaporeans came from southern China, where they did not speak the Mandarin dialect. As part of the campaign, the government banned local media outlets from using any other dialect of Chinese and severely restricted foreign media access to the country. The campaign did manage to achieve some success, however, as Mandarin became very common as a result, and other varieties of Chinese became less and less common. Currently, because of this, there are problems in communication between the older and younger generations.

Korean

Korea was occupied by Japan between 1910 and 1945, during which time the country suffered from cultural genocide, which manifested itself primarily in the suppression of the Korean language. In schools, the main language of instruction was Japanese, while Korean was only an optional subject, however, a complete ban on the use of Korean was subsequently introduced. Moreover, the language was banned from use in the workplace. As part of its cultural assimilation policy, Japan introduced a system whereby Koreans could “voluntarily” give up their Korean names and take Japanese names instead, but many of the people were often forced to change their names to Japanese. Colonization ended with the surrender of Japan in World War II, however, this fact still casts a shadow on relations between the countries.

Russification

Russification applies both to the policies of tsarist Russia and to the actions of the Soviet Union. Often the Russian government has thus attempted to impose its power on the minorities under their control in order to suppress separatism and the possibility of rebellion. In particular, in Ukraine and Finland, Russification was used as a means of establishing political domination.

One of the most striking examples of the use of Russification is the suppression of the Ukrainian, Polish, Lithuanian, and Belarusian languages ​​in the 19th century. The use of native languages ​​in local schools and in public places was prohibited, and, after a series of uprisings, the rules only became stricter.

In the Soviet Union, the Arabic alphabet was eliminated, and most languages ​​were adapted to the Cyrillic alphabet. In the first years of the existence of the USSR, minority languages, on the contrary, developed, and their use was encouraged, however, very soon the attitude towards local languages ​​changed dramatically. As a result, many people preferred Russian to their native language, and today Russian is still widely used in the former Soviet republics.

British Isles

With England's domination over Wales, Scotland and Ireland, English was introduced in these regions, but with devastating consequences for the local languages. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Scottish and Irish (among others) were banned from educational use, which proved fatal to the survival of these languages. In Wales, children and students were initially punished for speaking in Welsh: in the 1800s, a large wooden block with two letters "WN" ("no Welsh") was hung around their necks, later they were beaten for speaking in a language other than English. ... Thus, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish ranked lower than English, not to mention that Scottish was not even recognized as a separate language. This continued until the early 20th century, when the British government, with varying degrees of success, began to take measures to protect these languages. In all countries of the United Kingdom, local languages ​​are spoken by a minority, and they remain second only to English.

Kurdish

Kurds were often discriminated against in different countries, while if the Kurdish people themselves were not the target of genocide, then their language is still it. Iraq is perhaps the most "benevolent country" that accepts the Kurdish population with its official language, moreover, it is allowed to use the language in education, in the administration and in the media. Unfortunately, not all countries have such an attitude.

Turkey has tried to assimilate non-Turkish speakers since the 1930s, when the Kurdish language and culture was banned. Kurds were considered uncivilized and ignorant people, and any attempt by these people to identify themselves was perceived as a crime. This changed when Turkey legalized the partial use of the Kurdish language in 1991. Since then, the restrictions have become weaker and weaker: the Kurdish language in the educational system is no longer considered illegal, the number of restrictions on the media has decreased. However, linguistic discrimination in the country continues to be felt despite progressive improvements.

Something similar happened in Iran when the government in the early 20th century pursued a policy of consolidating the Persian language. Kurdish was completely banned in schools and public institutions, later a law was passed on a total ban on the use of this language. In Syria, to this day, the use of the Kurdish language is prohibited in most areas.

The concept of living matter was introduced by V.I. Vernadsky. He called the living substance the aggregate of the masses of all organisms. The living world is extremely diverse. To date, biologists have described more than a million species of living organisms. The mass of living matter on the planet is estimated at 10 13 ... 10 14 tons. Each organism is a set of orderly interacting structures that form a single whole, called system. In living systems, processes proceed continuously in complex sequential and parallel chemical reactions, as a result of which there is growth, division, nutrition, isolation of cells, as well as their movement and interaction with each other.

In biochemistry, the entire set of chemical transformations in a living organism is united by the concept metabolism (metabolism). Non-living organic substances are called abiogenic substances, and metabolic products are called biogenic substances.

The hallmarks of a living object are as follows.

• 1. High organization with a complex internal structure. Any component of the body has a special purpose and performs certain functions (cellular structure and specificity of body cells).
• 2. The ability to reproduce itself (growth, reproduction).
• 3. Ability to extract, transform and use energy from the environment.
• 4. Ability to "learn" (a term that means both the ability to respond to the impact of the environment, change, adapting to its conditions, and the acquisition of new skills and properties under the influence of these conditions - adaptation, development).
• 5. The ability of a living organism to maintain a constant composition of the internal environment despite abrupt changes in external conditions.

Biochemical transformations perform the following main functions:

• 1) the supply of chemical energy through the breakdown of energy-rich nutrients;
• 2) the transformation of nutrient molecules into building blocks used in subsequent metabolic processes to build cellular components (macromolecules);
• 3) assembly of cellular components (proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, polysaccharides, etc.);
• 4) synthesis and destruction of biomolecules that perform specific functions of the cell.

Living cells maintain their internal orderliness in a dynamic stationary state due to substances and free energy coming from the external environment and converted in the process of metabolism.

For the synthesis of organic substances, living organisms use inorganic substances: water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, salts. The difference between plants and animals lies in the fact that in animals such synthesis occurs in much smaller volumes, since a number of substances enter their body already in a "ready-made" form.

Living organisms are capable of synthesizing a large number of fatty and aromatic compounds. In the synthesis of carbohydrates in the body, organic molecules are involved, which contain three carbon atoms: molecules of lactic acid, pyruvic acid, glycerin, etc. These substances are called glycogen formers, since with their participation in the liver, glycogen is synthesized.

Fats are formed from the conversion products of carbohydrates in the body. Some a-keto acids are synthesized from the intermediate products of the conversion of carbohydrates and fats: oxaloacetic, a-ketoglutaric, pyruvic, and other a-keto acids, adding ammonia, are converted into the corresponding amino acids. However, not all amino acids necessary for vital activity are synthesized in animal organisms. The complete set of amino acids required for the formation of proteins is synthesized only in green plants. Animal organisms are capable of synthesizing only certain cyclic compounds, for example, cholesterol, the main building material of which is acetic acid. The human body cannot synthesize a "simple" molecule with a benzene ring, but it easily synthesizes heterocyclic compounds - derivatives of purine, pyrimidine and pyrrole. The starting materials for the synthesis of purine are molecules of glycine, carbon dioxide, formic acid and glutamine. Carbamic and succinic acids are involved in the synthesis of pyrimidine.

All living organisms are divided into two groups depending on the way of assimilation of carbon coming from the environment.

Autotrophic cells use carbon dioxide (CO2) as the only source of carbon, from which they build carbon-containing biomolecules. Photosynthetic bacteria and cells of green plants belong to this group.

Heterotrophic cells receive carbon in the form of fairly complex organic compounds, such as glucose. These include animal cells and most microorganisms.

In the biosphere, autotrophs and heterotrophs coexist as participants in a single cycle in which there is a continuous cycle of carbon and oxygen between the animal and plant worlds (Fig. 1.1). The source of energy for this process is the Sun.

Rice. 1.1.

In addition to carbon, oxygen and energy, all living organisms need nitrogen. Nitrogen is required for the synthesis of amino acids, purine and pyrimidine bases. Of the 20 necessary amino acids, a person receives "ready-made" from food only 10, which the body is not able to synthesize itself. Plants can synthesize all amino acids from nitrogen and its compounds. Since the main amount of nitrogen (80%) is contained in gaseous form (N2), all living things ultimately depend on organisms that can fix it. Nitrogen is fixed, for example, by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). They lead an independent existence, since they are completely autotrophic, that is, they assimilate nitrogen, carbon dioxide and are capable of photosynthesis. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria usually live in the soil. Some of them exist in the form of symbionts on the root nodules of plants. Nitrifying bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitrites and nitrates, and denitrifying bacteria again convert nitrates to ammonia. Thus, nitrogen, like carbon and oxygen, makes a continuous cycle (Fig. 1.2).

Rice.

All metabolic processes - chain, and they can be subdivided into biosynthetic chains ( anabolism) and chain of degradation (catabolism).

Chain processes (reactions) can be represented as follows:

Chain reactions form networks consisting of both assimilation (synthesis) and dissimilation (decay) processes.

Assimilation - anabolism- accumulation, consumption, synthesis - is associated with growth and development. Dissimilation - catabolism- excretion, decay, destruction (chemical degradation) - associated, in particular, with the aging of the body and the death of any organs in the process of vital activity, resorption.

The assimilation and dissimilation processes are interconnected in such a way that the constancy of the internal environment in the body is maintained in all respects to ensure normal life in the environment.

The dynamic constancy of the internal environment (blood, lymph, tissue fluid) and the stability of the basic physiological functions (blood circulation, respiration, thermoregulation, metabolism, etc.) of the human body and animals are called homeostasis.

The minimum volume of substances required to maintain the life of a person at rest is called basic exchange. For example, in order to ensure the basal metabolism, it is required to enter 100 g of protein per day into the human body.

Cellular metabolism - it is a system of enzymatic transformations of both substances and energy, starting from the initial substances and ending with the biosynthesis of living matter. The simplest units of metabolic activity are enzymes, each of which, as a rule, catalyzes any one chemical reaction. Since metabolic processes are sequential transformations, we can talk about multi-enzyme systems acting together in a certain sequence.

Most enzymes are water soluble globular proteins, structural proteins of the cell may also have catalytic properties.

During which various substances are included in its composition. Synthesis of high molecular weight compounds (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, lipids). Impossible without energy

In the course of assimilation, simple substances (complex ones are initially broken down into simple ones), nonspecific for any organism, are converted into complex, characteristic for a given type of compound (assimilated).

Assimilation is balanced by the sum of dissimilation (decay) processes.

see also

Links

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

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See what "Assimilation (biology)" is in other dictionaries:

The term assimilation (lat. Assimilatio assimilation) is used in several areas of knowledge: Assimilation (biology) is a set of synthesis processes in a living organism. Assimilation (linguistics) assimilation of the articulation of one ... Wikipedia

The term assimilation (lat. Assimilatio assimilation) is used in several areas of knowledge: Assimilation (biology) is a set of synthesis processes in a living organism. Assimilation (linguistics) assimilation of articulation of one sound of articulation ... ... Wikipedia

The same as anabolism. . (Source: "Biology. Modern illustrated encyclopedia." Biological encyclopedic dictionary

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Anabolism (from the Greek. Ἀναβολή, "rise") is a set of chemical processes that make up one of the sides of metabolism in the body, aimed at the formation of constituent parts of cells and tissues. Anabolism is interconnected with the opposite process ... ... Wikipedia

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