For the overwhelming mass of words in the language, polysemy, or polysemy, is typical. In most cases, one word has several stable meanings that form the semantic variants of this word. And potentially, any or almost any word is capable of acquiring new meanings when people using the language have a need to name with its help a phenomenon that is new to them, which does not yet have a designation in the corresponding language.
Studying figurative meanings in the common language and figurative use of words in works of fiction, philologists have identified a number of types of transfer of names. The most important of these types can be considered two - metaphor and metonymy.
WITH metaphor(from other Greek. "transfer") we are dealing where the transfer of a name from one object to another is carried out on the basis of the similarity of certain features - the symbols of the metaphor. The similarity underlying the metaphorical transference can be "internal", that is, the similarity is not external signs, but sensations, impressions or assessments. So they say about a warm meeting, about hot love, or, on the contrary, about a cold reception, about a dry answer, about a sour mine and a bitter reproach. This is a syncretic metaphor. With a metaphorical transfer of meaning, a thing changes, but the concept does not change entirely: with all metaphorical changes, some sign of the original concept remains. Metaphors can be derived from different cases of similarity. These are, for example, metaphorical terms, where the transfer proceeds according to the similarity of form with the names of animals: bulls at a bridge, a frog (a gas pump in a car), a front sight on the barrel of a gun, a winch in a port, a duck (a medical vessel), a tractor caterpillar, a dog at a gun; or from the names of body parts: neck, neck, handle, leg, shoulder, cam, head, back.
Metonymy- such a transfer of the name, which is carried out not on the basis of the similarity of the external or internal signs of the old thing and the new, but on the basis of contiguity, that is, the contact of things in space or in time. Typical cases of metonymy are associated with such relationships:
a) One in the other: the words class, audience as the names of the premises and as a designation of the students sitting in these rooms.
b) One on top of the other: table - "furniture" and table - "food".
c) One below the other: the table - "furniture" gets its name from the table - "something laid down."
d) One through the other: French jalousie - blinds - "window shades made of wooden plates" from jalousie - "jealousy" (the one who peeped through the window through the folding curtain).
e) One after the other or as a result of the other, the process is the result; such are all verbal nouns of the type: "the admission of students is continued", "the set of the book took three months."
f) Material-product: copper, silver, gold as names of metals and as names of coins from them.
g) Place - product: sherry, madeira, bordeaux, abrau-durso, curazo - as names of wines and as geographical points
h) Name - product: Colt, Mauser, Browning, Nagant, Winchester - as the names of weapons and the names of their manufacturers.
A kind of metonymy is synecdoche(from other Greek. "co-understanding, hint expression") - transfer of the name from a part to a whole, for example, from a piece of clothing to a person (he ran after each skirt), or from a whole class of objects or phenomena to one of the subclasses (the so-called "narrowing the meaning", for example a car in the meaning "car"). As in the case of metonymy, the synecdoche is based on contiguity, but a significant difference is the quantitative indicator of the ratio of what the name is transferred from and what the name is transferred to; one term of such a ratio will always be more, wider, more general, the other less, narrower, more particular.
Most words in the language have not one, but several meanings that have appeared in the process of a long historical development. So, noun pear means:
1) "fruit tree";
2) "the fruit of this tree";
3) "an object that has the shape of this fruit".
Often, words have up to 10-20 meanings. Four-volume academic "Dictionary of the Russian language" in the word go marks 27 meanings in a word a business- 15 meanings, burn in words, give - 10 meanings, etc. Polysemy is characteristic of other languages of the world as well. For example, English do"to do, to do" has 16 meanings, French aller"to go somewhere, to move in one way or another" has 15 meanings, German kommen"come, come" - 6, Czech povoleni, Polish nastawiac"set, set" - at least 5 values each, etc. The ability of a word to have multiple meanings is called ambiguity , or polysemy ... Words with at least two meanings are called ambiguous or polysemantic ... Several lexical meanings of a word form its semantic variants. Some well-known scientists, for example, A.A. Potebnya, L.V. Shcherba, denied the ambiguity of the word, believing that the word can have only one meaning. A.A. Potebnya argued that each meaning forms a separate word, therefore, "where there are two meanings, there are two words." In reality, however, the lexical meaning of a word is a historical phenomenon, constantly evolving and changing, therefore, the new content forms semantic variants of the same word within the old form. The polysemy of a word in one language often has much in common with the polysemy of the same word in other languages, which indicates the patterns of development of meanings. For example, in the word table in many languages there are two main common meanings - "furniture" and "food", although in other meanings this word may diverge. So, English table also has the meaning of "board", not characteristic of the Russian word table... In German, the word Fuchs"fox" means not only an animal, its fur, and not only a sly one, as in Russian, but also a man with red hair, a red horse, a gold coin, and for some reason a first-year student. The actualization of one or another meaning of a polysemous word is carried out in its combination with other words, as well as in a broader context - verbal environment, communication situations that eliminate polysemy. So, the following lines from Pushkin quite obviously manifest the meaning of the word salt not as a seasoning for food, but as something witty:
Here is the coarse salt of secular anger
The conversation began to liven up.
New meanings usually arise when a word that already exists in the language is used to name an object or phenomenon that was not previously indicated by this word. Between the meanings of a polysemantic word, there are certain semantic connections that preserve in a figurative meaning one or another sign of direct meaning. The nature of the relationship between the meanings of a polysemantic word, the peculiarities of semantic subordination within its semantic structure give grounds to single out three main ways of semantic transformation and development of meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name from one object to another according to the similarity of certain features: in shape, size, quantity, color, function, location in space, impression and sensation. The main mechanism for the formation of a metaphor is comparison, therefore it is no coincidence that the metaphor is called a hidden, abbreviated comparison. For example, at the heart of the metaphorical connection of the meanings of a noun nose lies the similarity in shape and location in space:
1) part of a person's face, an animal's muzzle;
2) the beak of a bird;
3) a part of a teapot, a jug protruding in the form of a tube;
4) the front part of a ship, aircraft, etc .;
The similarity underlying the metaphorical transfer can arise on the basis of impressions, complex associations generated by internal sensations from an object, phenomenon, event. This is how the name came about warm welcome, hot love, bitter reproach, bright thought, cold reception, sour mine etc. With metaphorical changes, some sign of the direct meaning of a word is always preserved in its figurative meaning.
According to the degree of expressiveness, the nature of the stylistic use of metaphors, they are sometimes divided into two main groups: linguistic metaphors and figurative metaphors. Linguistic metaphors have lost their original imagery due to their frequent use and consolidation in explanatory dictionaries. Such metaphors are also called dry , erased , dead ... They are perceived now as direct meanings of words, understood without correlation and comparison with other designations: chair leg, table, mushroom and under., tooth root, nail, downspout elbow, rivers etc. Figurative metaphors are based on some kind of figurative, unusual transference that is clearly felt by native speakers.
Metonymy- transfer of names from one subject to another by contiguity. Unlike metaphor, metonymy does not provide for any similarity between the designated objects or phenomena. It is based on close and easily understood contiguity, contiguity in space or in time, involvement in one situation of designated realities, persons, actions, processes, etc. For example: porcelain"mineral mass from high-grade clay with various impurities" and porcelain"dishes, various products from such a mass"; audience"a room intended for reading lectures, reports" and audience"listeners of a lecture, report"; evening"time of day" and evening"meeting, concert", etc.
Metonymic hyphenations are very diverse in the nature of semantic rethinking, in the scope of lexical material, in productivity and the degree of stability in the language. The directions of semantic transfer, the nature of the semantic relations between the designated realities make it possible to distinguish several varieties of metonymy:
1) storage and storage (one in one): Cup("capacity") - Cup("the amount of liquid in it" - drank a whole glass), Class("room") - Class("students sitting in this room");
2) one on top of the other: table("furniture") - table("food"), paper("material on which they write") - paper("document");
3) place - a historical event associated with this place: Borodino, Fili, Waterloo etc.;
4) material - a product made of it: silver– silver plate, bronze– bronze of the 18th century etc.;
6) science, branch of knowledge - textbook: mathematics, physics, Russian etc.
Synecdoche- this is such a transfer of meaning, when the name of a part is used in the meaning of the whole, the smaller - in the meaning of the larger, and vice versa. Synecdoche is often considered a kind of metonymy. However, its significant difference from metonymy lies in the fact that synecdoche is based on a quantitative indicator of the ratio of direct and figurative meanings. The synecdoche is based on the interconnection of objects and phenomena that are characterized by unity, integrity, but differ in quantitative terms: one is part of the other, that is, one term of the ratio will always be general, wider, and the other private, narrower.
Synecdoche covers a significant amount of vocabulary and is characterized by fairly stable relationships. The transfer of value can be carried out according to the following criteria:
1) a part of the human body - a person: beard, long-haired, head("a man of great mind"), muzzle- "a man with an ugly, rude face";
2) a piece of clothing - a person: ran after every skirt, Little Red Riding Hood, pea coat("spik of the tsarist secret police");
3) tree or plant - their fruits: plum, cherry, pear;
4) plant, cereals - their seeds: wheat, oats, barley, millet;
5) the animal is its fur: beaver, fox, sable, nutria etc.
Etymology
Etymology- a section of linguistics that studies the origin of words. Also the term etymology name the very origin of the word. The main purpose of etymology is to identify the etymon - the original meaning or form of a word. For example, the etymone of the word village is a verb to tear(to tear→ wood→ village), i.e. village- this is "a place cleared of forest".
Different meanings can develop on the basis of one etymone. For example, from the Indo-European word * bherĝos("elevation") the words occurred Coast(Russian) and Berg(German) - "mountain".
In addition to the above, etymology also solves other problems: when, in what language and by what derivational model the word arose, what changes occurred in the primary meaning and form of the word. Restoring the primary meaning of the word, etymology studies fragments of extra-linguistic reality, including the spiritual culture of a person.
Scientific etymology is based on the comparative-historical method, which makes it possible, relying on regular sound correspondences, the ratio of the meanings of words and other criteria, to establish the actual etymology of a word. There are six main scientific criteria for etymological research: phonetic, semantic, derivational, genetic, cultural-historical and linguo-geographical.
Phonetic the criterion takes into account regular sound matches in related languages. For example, the relationship of words in different languages (rus. run away, white runners, Serb. run) is evidenced by the alternation [g] - [g] typical for these languages. If the sound coincidence does not correspond to real sound patterns, such words cannot be considered related in origin, and the coincidence must be considered accidental. For example, the words Chief In russian language, chief in Belarusian, naczelnik in Polish and náčelnik in Czech they are identical in meaning and coincide in spelling. However, their etymology is different: Russian and Belarusian words come from the verb start, and Polish and Czech from the noun brow("forehead").
Semantic the criterion is based on taking into account the common meaning of words, including those that have undergone de-etymologization, as well as regular semantic transfers. For example, the words burn and sorrow, in addition to sound conformity, have a common theme "burning".
Word-formation the criterion makes it possible to establish the morphemic structure of an etymologically opaque word by comparing it with words built according to a typical derivational model. For example, the origin of the word gift from date confirmed by the same type of formations: feast from piti, fat from live.
Genetic the criterion provides for the comparison of related languages. For example, when setting this word cow scientists turned to the ancient Indian language, where the form is present cárvati- "chews".
Cultural-historical the criterion is based on information from ethnography, history, mythology. For example, when establishing the origin of the Belarusian word Kalyady it is necessary to refer to ethnographic data on holidays among ancient peoples.
Linguo-geographical the criterion takes into account the spatial distribution of a certain word. This often makes it possible to more accurately determine the etymology of a word, especially if it is borrowed or has undergone de-etymologization, as a result of which it has lost its connection with other words. For example, the linguo-geographical criterion helped clarify the etymology of the word road which associates with Akkadian daragu and Aramaic darga.
Establishing etymological connections between words is based on knowledge of the facts of the history of the language, the use of these related languages and written records.
In some cases, the etymology of the word is controversial and can have different interpretations. For example, the origin of the name table some scholars associate with the verb lay: table - an object covered with something, others - with a verb stand: a table is an object on which you can put something. When etymologizing, it is necessary to take into account all kinds of phonetic and morphemic changes in the word, which can lead to a modification of its sound composition. For example, in the word fortress(most likely derived from the adjective strong) the sound [п] fell out, the phrase save god transformed into a word thanks.
Etymology traces changes in the semantics of words. For example, in the word borrowed from French the Bureau the following semantic changes took place: the initial meaning is "coarse thick cloth", the next is "writing desk", at present it is "institution, office".
Etymological analysis also makes it possible to establish changes in the morphemic structure of the word. For example, in words window, finger, squirrel there was a simplification - the suffix became part of the root, as a result of which a new root arose, and in the words benefit, neighbor, fire the prefix is included in the root.
Folk etymology- erroneous rethinking of an incomprehensible (often borrowed) word by bringing it closer in meaning, sound, different associative connections with an unrelated word of the native language. In folk etymologization, the real facts of the origin of closely related words are not taken into account. For example, often the origin of the word Cossack spend from the word goat, although in fact this is a borrowing from the Turkic languages, where this word has long meant "free man"; word heaven is interpreted as the phrase "there is no demon", although in fact this form contains an archaic inflectional suffix -es.
As a result of this convergence, words are often used in a modified form. For example, the word cooperative turns into coperative, I get closer to the verb buy, and the plaque is transformed into a marble plaque under the influence of the noun marble.
Most often, this phenomenon occurs in the speech of children, for example, an incomprehensible internal form of the word excavator turns into a gritter, a jacket - into a spinzhak, and a mosquito - into a kusarik. Knowing the surrounding reality, the child thus displays a special child's vision and understanding of the objects of knowledge.
Occasionally, folk-etymologized forms become popular and are consolidated in the literary language. For example, the word witness comes from the Old Slavic verb vedeti - "to know", but under the influence of the verb to see, over time, it began to be written with the root and.
In the process of the historical development of the language, words can lose their connection with the words from which they were formed. The loss of semantic connections by the word with originally related and correlated words in word formation, as a result of which the word from the motivated name of reality becomes unmotivated, is calledde-etymologization ... It can be the result of various changes:
a) phonetic: sleep (ancient form * sъpnъ → snъ → sleep) and sleep;
b) violation of semantic and derivational links between the derivative and the productive words. For example, the words window and eye are historically related, but today they are not perceived as having the same root;
c) loss of productive words from the dictionary. For example, with the disappearance of the word finger, the word glove, thimble, ring from the active dictionary of the Russian language, they underwent de-etymologization and ceased to be perceived as related.
The transfer of the name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or the connection between these objects. There are the following types of transfer of the meaning of words: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche (as a special type of metonymic transfer), expansion or narrowing of the meaning. Metaphor- transfer based on similarity between objects: 1) in shape (neck of a bottle, eye of a needle, bow of a boat), 2) in size (horse dose, pole = lanky person), 3) in color (golden curls, earthy face), 4 ) by emotional impression (ram = stubborn, stupid person, bitter smile, pure thoughts), 5) by the function performed (feather - initially, from a bird, then - metal, wipers - in the car).
Metonymy is the renaming of objects based on their relationship in space or time. Types of metonymic transfer: a) container (drink a whole glass = liquid in it; attentive audience = listeners), b) material / product (exhibition of bronze = items made from it; buy wool for a dress = wool fabric), v) process - result (jam = sweet jam made from fruits or berries; submit a translation), G) outward expression (jaundice, blush, ashamed, trembling = afraid), e) author - invention (cambric, guillotine, raglan, roentgen, revolver, olivier), f) locality - product (boston = fabric, panama, tokay = wine variety named after a province in Hungary).
Synecdoche- transfer based on communication: part - whole (a lone sail whitens, a detachment of one hundred sabers).
Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche are called tropes - a stylistic device based on
the use of the word in a figurative sense to achieve greater artistic expression.
The consequence of the figurative use of the word is the expansion of its meaning (paint -1) to make it beautiful, to decorate - to make it red - to change color, dye) or its narrowing (beer - a drink in general - a drink of barley malt with a small alcohol content), as well as the development of an abstract , abstract meaning (to understand - meant to take, to catch).
32) Connections of words by meaning (semantic fields, synonymous series, antonymic pairs).
Words in the language are not in a disorderly, chaotic state, they can be grouped based on different principles. The largest groupings of words according to the semantic principle are lexical-semantic fields... They are structured in a certain way: they have a center, a nucleus, near and far periphery. They consist of lexical units related to different parts of speech (verbs, nouns, adjectives), phrase combinations. But they all have a certain common semantic component, on the basis of which they are included in this lexico-semantic field. For example, LSP "Emotions", "Space", "Color", etc. Smaller unions - lexico-semantic groups- include lexical units related to one part of speech, but also having a certain common component in their composition (for example, LSG "verbs of motion", etc.). If a functional principle is taken into account (i.e., by role in a combination or a sentence), then the field can be lexical-functional. Grouping words by similarity of meaning gives us synonymous series. Synonyms are words that are different in sound, but close in meaning, which can be used one instead of the other. There are three main types of synonyms.
1) Logical, or absolute synonyms - express the same concept (airplane - airplane, crocodile - alligator, linguistics - linguistics). There are not very many of them, otherwise the language would be too overloaded with excessive vocabulary.
2) Semantic synonyms - similar in meaning, but different in sound (blizzard - blizzard - blizzard - blizzard, elderly - old).
3) Contextual, or speech - words and expressions that can be used one instead of the other only in a certain context (rotozei - hat - crow, coward - hare). Synonyms allow us to convey the subtlest shades of our thoughts and feelings. As a rule, they are used in different styles of speech: look (neutral), contemplate (poetic), hatch (colloquial). Some of them are more common in use, others less. Sources of synonymy can be: 1) dialectal, professional and slang words (house - hut (sev.) - khata (south), speed - tempo (music), fake - linden (thieves' jargon), 2) borrowings and tracing papers ( alphabet - alphabet, abstract - abstract), 3) taboo - a ban on the use of certain words associated with religious or mystical ideas (brownie is the owner, they did not use the names "devil" and "devil", so as not to call, instead of a name they gave a nickname or two godparents' names - secret and explicit), 4) euphemisms, - words associated with the ban on the use of rude and obscene words adopted in society (a pregnant woman is in a position, a crazy person is not herself).
The grouping of lexical units based on the opposition of their meanings gives us antonymous pairs. Antonyms are words that sound different, but express opposite meanings. They form pairs of words that are polar in meaning, which coincide in terms of use and are used in opposition within the same utterance (Komissarov). Available only for words in the content of which there are qualitative signs. For example, adjectives: old - young, healthy - sick, nouns: friend - enemy, night - day, truth is a lie. They can be formed from single-root words with the help of prefixes opposite in meaning or a negative particle-prefix not-: enter - exit, surface-underwater, deep - shallow (shallow), friend-foe.
Polysemantic words have several synonyms: quiet voice - loud voice, quiet sadness - deep sadness, quiet driving - fast driving, quiet street - noisy street, quiet person - violent person.
Linguistic antonyms are opposed by speech, contextual ones (human blood is not water).
33) The connection of words by sound. Homonyms. Paronyms.
The problem of homonymy is closely related to the problem of polysemy, but sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish one from the other. Prof. Akhmanova suggested taking into account the relationship between the word and objective reality. If each of the meanings exists by itself, independently of each other, then they are independent names for different objects of the surrounding world and belong to homonymous words. If one of the meanings appears as a derivative in relation to the other, the identity of the word is not violated, then we are dealing with different meanings of the same polysemantic word.
The semantic independence of homonyms is supported morphologically and syntactically. So, many homonyms belong to different word-formative nests (marriage - marriage - marriage - illegitimate ...; marriage - defective - bungler - reject). They also differ in syntactic properties (leaving / leaving home - caring for the patient. "To bathe" - to buy from "buy"); 3) a historical change in the sound of different words (lynx (beast) from "lynx" = red, red and lynx (horse run) from "rist"); 5) borrowing (club (smoke) and English club). There are several types of homonyms:
a) lexical or proper homonyms- different in meaning, but the same in spelling and pronunciation in all forms (key - from the door, spring, violin, answer);
b) homophones, or phonetic homonyms- different in meaning, spelling but coinciding in
sound (ball - point, burn - burn, English / Iower (flower) - flour (flour);
| on |
v) homographs, or spelling homonyms- different in meaning, sound, but the same
writing (atlas - atlas, expensive - expensive);
G) homoforms, or morphological homonyms- coinciding in sound, spelling in one
or several grammatical forms (mine (- will command the incl. to the verb "wash") - mine (= belonging to me).
Homonyms adjoin paronyms- words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, which are erroneously used one instead of the other (subscriber (- subscription owner) - subscription (= the right to use something for a period of time), parliamentarian (= member of parliament) - envoy (= negotiator), hidden (= secret) - secretive (= taciturn).
Q34. Phraseology.
Stable combinations of words that are close or equal in meaning to one word are called phrase combinations. Being ready-made stamps, they are not created anew, but only reproduced in speech situations. In a sentence, they act as one member (thrashing = messing around (predicate), carelessly = carelessly (circumstance), elephant in a china shop = clumsy person), (subject, addition), raven's wing = black (definition). Some of them turned into frozen sentences: Here is heaven, grandma, and St. George's Day! Hold your pocket wider!
According to the degree of cohesion of the components, there are three main types of phrase combinations (the classification was proposed by Academician V.V. Vinogradov):
1) phraseological combinations- semi-free combinations, in which only one word is limited in its use, to lower the gaze / gaze, eyes, bruise the nose / face);
2) phraseological unity- stable combinations, in which the meaning of the whole can be derived from the values of its constituent members (kill without a knife, take the bull by the horns, blood and milk, wash your hands);
3) phraseological splices, or idioms- the most lexicalized turns of speech, in the meanings of which there is no connection with the meanings of their members (upside down, give a snatch, get into a mess. The boundaries between the types of phraseological combinations are mobile: with an increase in lexicalization, the combination turns more and more into an idiom.
Phraseology - 1) a section of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development, 2) a set of phraseological units of a given language. The phraseology of any language is distinguished by a pronounced national specificity. Sometimes you can find similar phraseological units (There is smoke without fire. - There is no smoke without fire.). But more often a literal translation is impossible (You can "t make an omelet without breaking eggs. -You can't pull a fish out of a pond without difficulty).
35) Borrowing.
Borrowings are an important source of vocabulary enrichment. There is no language in the world that does not have borrowings. Sometimes there are more borrowings than the original words (for example, in English, up to 75% of borrowings are from Romance languages, which is due to the peculiarities of the historical development of Great Britain). Borrowing is a consequence of economic, political, cultural and 1 scientific ties and contacts between peoples. Foreign words usually come along with borrowed objects and concepts.
The sources of borrowings are due to the historical fate of the speakers of this language. So, in the vocabulary of the Russian language, there are: 1) Old Slavicisms (leader, head, citizen), 2) Greekisms (alphabet, letter, history), 3) Latinisms literature, republic, notary), 4) Turkisms (chest, bazaar, treasury) , 5) anglicisms (station, leader, football), 6) Germanisms (sandwich, paragraph, watch), 7) gallicisms (luggage, jacket, compote), 8) italisms (opera, tenor, mandolin), 9) polonisms (bun , flask, harness), etc.
The degree of assimilation of borrowed words largely depends on the method of borrowing. In this regard, distinguish between: 1) oral and written, 2) direct and indirect borrowing. Oral borrowings in the process of direct contacts between peoples, as a rule, take root more easily and bastras adapt to the peculiarities of the phonetic system and grammatical structure of the language. Alien sounds are often replaced by their own. For example, the Greek words pharos and seuk-la in Russian began to sound like a sail and a light. Words borrowed from books are usually learned slowly and for a long time make up various kinds of exceptions to pronunciation, grammatical and spelling norms and rules. For example, coat, coffee (do not bend), parachute, jury (written in violation of spelling norms).
Words can be borrowed directly or through an intermediary language. In the Russian language there are many borrowings directly from the Turkic (Tatar), Finnish and other languages of neighboring peoples. Greekisms and Latinisms were borrowed through Old Church Slavonic, Germanisms and Gallicisms - through Polish.
The question of the use of foreign language vocabulary has always been the subject of lively controversy. During the period of rapid growth of national self-awareness, the desire to expel all foreign words from the native language (purism) sharply intensified. Acad. Shishkov, a contemporary of Pushkin, who in his struggle against borrowing reached the point of absurdity (instead of the word horizon - okoy, instead of galoshes - wet shoes). But outstanding representatives of Russian culture have never thoughtlessly rejected foreign words, primarily scientific and socio-political terms. The necessary borrowings only enrich the language, bring new knowledge. Currently, many scientists advocate for the ecology of the Russian language, against the importunate introduction of the English language (its American version) everywhere - signs, curses. France even passed a special law to protect the French language from the aggression of American English.
36) Internationalisms, barbarisms, tracing papers.
Internationalisms - words of the international lexical fund, functioning in many languages, coinciding or similar in their phonetic appearance and meaning. They are borrowed by several languages from any one as a result of the growing role of cultural and economic ties between peoples. Usually they denote concepts from the spheres of science and technology, culture and politics, philosophy and economics. Many of them are terms. So, international words include: from the Dutch language - most nautical terms (skipper, yacht), from Italian - musical (soprano, solo, sonata, aria, opera, cello), from English sports (football, boxing, match, game) , from Russian - Sovietisms (satellite, five-year plan, district committee, Komsomol).
A special way to enrich the dictionary is tracing, i.e. literal translation of foreign words and expressions. Distinguish between lexical and phraseological tracing papers. Lexical, in turn, are divided into word-formation and semantic. Derivational tracing paper is a pomorphic translation of a foreign word. It is not the word itself that is borrowed, but its structure and meaning (French impression - Russian impression, Latin interjectio - Russian interjection). Semantic tracing paper is the original word of a given language, which borrowed a figurative meaning from a foreign synonym. In the Russian language, most of the semantic cripples appeared under the influence of the French language. For example, the word "influence", by analogy with the French "influence", consolidated the meaning of "impact" and gradually lost the meaning of "infusion". Phraseological tracing paper is a word-by-word translation of a foreign-language stable turnover (Russian cold war - English cold war, Latin pater familias - Russian father of the family).
Barbarisms- foreign language words or turns of speech, built on the model of another language and perceived as alien to the native speech. They can function in the language along with their equivalents: ciao (= bye), merci (= thanks), pardon (= sorry), o "key (= okay, okay).
37) Active and passive vocabulary of the language.
Speaking about the active and passive vocabulary of the language, you need to pay attention to: 1) the differentiation of vocabulary according to the stylistic feature, 2) the historical changes in the composition of the language during its development.
Stylistic stratification of vocabulary is the opposition of words according to the scope of their use. All words are divided into book and colloquial. Bookstore vocabulary is used in literary and written and in upbeat colloquial speech - scientific, journalistic, in business and official documents, in the language of works of art. Among the book vocabulary, three semantic and stylistic categories are distinguished: 1) terminology, 2) historicisms (words denoting the realities of past eras) and exoticisms (words describing the life of other peoples), 3) poetic vocabulary. Conversation vocabulary is used in casual conversation, usually on everyday topics. It can be conditionally divided into the following categories: 1 ) is simple vernacular (potato, brainy - the most extensive category of colloquial vocabulary), 2) in ulgar isms, jargon (outside the literary vocabulary), 3) slang, 4) dialectisms (to create a local flavor in a literary work).
Chronological stratification of the vocabulary involves the allocation of archaic words and neologisms against the background of common vocabulary. (Further see question no. 38). Thus, active vocabulary includes stylistically neutral, commonly used words, Passive - various stylistic marked lexical units, as well as obsolete (archaisms) or words that have not yet become the property of the general population (neologisms - names of technical inventions, scientific discoveries, socio-political and economic realities, etc.).
38) Archaisms and neologisms.
The language is not in a frozen state: some words go out of use, some new ones appear. Obsolescence and withering away of some words is a natural tendency of every language to get rid of redundant lexical units. Obsolete words differ in 1) the degree of obsolescence (the time they fell out of the active stock) and 2) the reasons for their obsolescence. Historicisms and archaisms stand out among them.
Histories- words that have gone out of active use due to the fact that the objects they call have disappeared (altyn, visor, boyar, chain mail, quiver). Historicisms have no realities, so their meaning is incomprehensible to modern native speakers.
Archaisms- old-fashioned designations of existing objects and concepts. Distinguish between lexical and semantic archaisms. Lexical archaisms, in turn, are subdivided into: proper lexical, lexical-word-formation, lexical-phonetic. Actually lexical archaisms are words supplanted by synonyms of another root (the actor is the actor, the neck is the neck, the interpreter is the translator). Lexico-word-educational archaisms. - words supplanted by words of the same root, but with different affixes (disaster - disaster, diversity - difference, feeling - feeling). Lexico-phonetic differ from the words that supplanted them only by individual sounds (heroism - heroism, clothes - clothes, full - captivity).
Semantic archaisms are outdated meanings in the system of lexical meanings of modern words (belly - life, vegetate - grow, grow).
To designate new objects and express new concepts in the language, new words are also needed. Such words are called neologisms. The main reason for the appearance of neologisms is the change in socio-economic relations, the development of the material and spiritual culture of society, as well as the desire of people to most clearly express the shades of thoughts and feelings. New words are created daily and hourly. However, only some of them become the property of the common language, the rest are content with the position of occasionalisms, i.e. are used only in a specific context: Mayakovsky's - sickle, moldy (about the passport), deoxidized, comso-boy, color. Others entered not only the use of their native language, but also went beyond it: midget (Swift), utopia (Thomas More), robot (Chapek), bungling (Saltykov-Shchedrin), industry, future (Karamzin).
New words can be created: 1) in various derivational ways (see question No. 45), 2) by rethinking words, 3) borrowing from other languages (see question No. 35), 4) tracing foreign words (see question No. 36 ).
Rethinking is a semantic way of enriching vocabulary. There are two types - expansion (full - take prisoner + enchant) and narrowing of meaning (beer - any drink, now - only "low-alcohol drink made from barley malt). With the expansion of the meaning, the word becomes more common, with the narrowing, it becomes specialized, becomes less common.
39) Lexicography.
Lexicography is an applied linguistic discipline that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. All dictionaries can be divided into concept dictionaries (encyclopedias) and lexicons (linguistic).
Encyclopedic dictionaries explain not words, but the content of the concepts they express. Encyclopedias are universal (which provide a systematized body of knowledge from various areas of society and science - for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia) and special (from any one branch of knowledge, for example, medical, mathematical, literary). The task of anyone lexicon- explanation and interpretation of words, and not of the concepts denoted by them. There are monolingual (Russian-Russian), bilingual (Russian-English) and multilingual dictionaries. Monolingual dictionaries, depending on the purpose, are explanatory and specialized (literary and dialectal, phraseological and terminological, spelling and orthoepic, grammatical and frequency, synonyms and antonyms, etc.), complete and short. The explanatory dictionaries contain information about the meanings of words in a given era, their use in speech, connections with language styles, along the way - spelling and pronunciation (dictionary of Ushakov, Dahl, Ozhegov and Shvedova, Evgenieva, BAS-17-volume dictionary of modern Russian literary language etc.). Historical dictionaries contain information about the development of a particular language (3-volume Sreznevsky dictionary), about the origin of words - Vasmer's Etymological Dictionary, about the phraseological fund of the language - Molotkov's Phraseological Dictionary. There are very exotic dictionaries - for example, the dictionary "Russian mat", dictionaries of jargons and slangs, an associative dictionary. Inversion dictionaries, or reverse dictionaries, also began to be published (useful in the study of word formation). Dictionaries dedicated to the language of writers are being created (dictionaries of Shakespeare, Pushkin, Goethe).
Lexicography is in constant development, looking for new methods for a more complete description of the language of the people.
40) Grammar, its sections.
Grammar - 1) the science of the grammatical structure of the language, 2) the grammatical structure of the language itself. These concepts should not be confused.
As a science, grammar deals not with words, but only with their forms. It groups words not by their lexical meanings, but by grammatical forms and categories. Acad. Shcherba proposed the following, artificially drawn up by him, a sentence: "The glocky kuzdra shteko butted the sides and curls the little side." This sentence is built according to the laws of the Russian language and from the point of view of grammar is quite understandable: you can make out the members of the sentence, determine which parts of speech they belong to, you can reveal the morphological structure of all words. But in the true sense of the word, this phrase cannot be called a sentence, since it does not fulfill its
communicative function - is not a unit of communication and message.
The grammar consists of two interrelated sections: morphology and syntax.
Morphology is the study of a word, its structure and forms, lexical and grammatical classes of words.
She studies the ways of forming different forms of the same word (shaping). By
tradition, word formation is also included in morphology.
Syntax - the doctrine of the structure of the sentence, the compatibility and functions of word forms in speech.
These sections are explained by the fact that morphological and syntactic categories are closely intertwined. So, with the morphological characteristics of a word, it is determined that it belongs to that
or another part of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.), to one or another morphological category (gender, animateness - inanimate, transitivity-intransition, etc.),
in the syntactic characteristic, its syntactic function is indicated (which member
sentence is - subject, predicate, definition, circumstance, etc.) and the way
connections with other words (control, adjoining, coordination).
Thus, both morphology and syntax study the forms of words, but in different aspects: morphology - from the point of view of their formation, meaning and ratio within a particular paradigm, and syntax - from the point of view of their functions as part of a phrase and a sentence.
Question 41. Morpheme, its types.
Words of many languages of the world can be divided into separate elements that are carriers of lexical and grammatical meanings. The minimum significant part of the word is called morpheme... Morphemes are not equivalent in their role in the word and are divided into two large classes: roots and affixes.
The root is the main morpheme of a word, expressing its real (lexical) meaning. Words of the same root are related, because they all have a common semantic element - the core of their lexical meaning: water, water, water, underwater, submariner, splash down. The root cannot be considered an unchangeable part of the word, because alternations can be observed in it: swim - swimmer, sit - sit - sit - sit.
Affixes are service morphemes used to form relatives, words or grammatical forms of the same word. Express derivational and relational values.
By position relative to the root, they are divided into prefixes (prefixes) and postfixes (suffixes
and inflection). A suffix is an unchangeable postfix used to form new words.
Inflection (= ending) - a variable postfix that serves to form grammatical forms
the same word. In some languages there are infixes - affixes that stand inside
root.
By meaning, affixes are divided into derivational and inflectional. Derivative - express a derivational meaning and are used in the formation of related words from the same roots. Inflectional - express relational meaning and serve to form grammatical forms of the same word. Suffixes, as a rule, are derivational affixes, but they can also play the role of inflectional ones (for example, the past tense suffix -l - var-l-a, bi-l; infinitive suffix -ty / type-ty, ras-ti). The set of the root and derivational affixes is called the basis of the word. Thus, to get the base, the ending has to be dropped. The stem of a word, consisting of only one root, is called a non-derivative (run, water-a, good), consisting of a root and affixes, is called a derivative. The base, consisting of one root, is called simple, from two or more roots - complex (meat-packing plant, diver). The producing base is also distinguished, i.e. the basis from which the single-root word was directly formed (water water, water underwater).
42) Wordform as a unit of morphology. Parts of speech.
Wordform- in the narrow sense - this is a word in a certain grammatical form, i.e. with a certain set of grammatical meanings inherent in this part of speech. In a broader interpretation, a word form is an expression by one or another formal indicator of the belonging of a given word in a given form to a certain grammatical category (= category) (for example, the category of a verb in Russian is represented by the grammatical categories of number, person, gender, tense, mood, transitivity - intransition, collateral and type).
Suppletivism- this is the formation of word forms from different roots: a person - people, I go - I walked. Some forms are supportive: 1) the genus of nouns - ram - sheep, bull - ko - 2) the number of nouns - child - children, 3) the tense of the verb - go - walk. 4) the kind of verb to speak - to say.
No language uses only one way, but usually one way prevails. It depends on the structure of the language - synthetic or analytical.
46) Affixation and internal inflection.
The most common grammatical method is affixation - the articulation of roots or stems of words with affixes (derivational or formative morphemes). If affixes are attached to the root from the outside, they speak of external inflection, if the affixes change or break the root, then o internal.
Speaking of external inflection, they distinguish confusion and circumfixation. Confixation is when the affixes are located in a continuous chain before the root (prefix - run, run, run, run, run in, etc.) or after it (postfix -year-a-j -th). In Indo-European languages, both are used, in Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Mongolian - only potfixation. Circumfixation - when the affixes cover the root. In Russian, this corresponds to the suffix-prefix method: sub-okannik, boss-trump-to-a.
Internal inflection is associated with breaking the root with affixes and is divided into transfixation and infixation. Infixation - when affixes are inserted inside the root. In the Indo-European languages in ancient times there was an infix -п-: lat. vi-n-cio, but: vic-i. Transfixation - when affixes join the root, break it and break themselves (typical for Semitic languages). Usually Semitic roots are composed of three consonants. The new grammatical meaning is conveyed using different vowel sounds inserted inside the root.
Apophonia- the historically arising alternation of sounds, used as a means of expressing grammatical meanings (both word forms and new words are formed): eng. sing - sang - sung, song; Russian call - call - call.
Question 47. Reduplication, addition, service words, suppletivism.
The number of grammatical meanings available in the languages of the world is enormous and cannot be accurately calculated, but the means of their expression are rather limited.
Some languages use full or partial repetition of a word or part of it to denote new words or grammatical forms of the same word. This method is called reduplication (doubling)(in Russian - white-white, barely, slightly).
A widespread remedy is also service words(prepositions, postpositions, conjunctions, articles, particles, bundles). They cannot be members of a sentence and only fulfill a grammatical role. Prepositions, for example, by themselves or together with the ending, serve as an indicator of the case form (especially important in languages where words are not inflected). In English, for example, the preposition to is an indicator of D.p., for / of - R.p., with / by - T.p., on / in / about - P.p. Postpositions appear after significant words, for example, in the Finno-Ugric, Turkic languages there are no prefixes and prepositions at all, but there are only suffixes and postpositions. Conjunctions express a compositional relationship between members of a simple sentence and, a, but, yes, etc.), and between parts of a complex sentence, they can express subordinate relations (when, if, though, so that, etc.). Articles are found in many languages, they express the category of certainty / uncertainty, and sometimes - gender and number. Particles are used to express different shades of meaning. For example, in Russian, the particle -sya / -s serves as the main means of expressing mortgage relations. Bundles possessing forms of inflection connect the predicate, expressed in a name or infinitive, with the subject (He will call me tomorrow. They were worried about his absence). In Russian, the link is usually used in the future and past tense.
Addition as a grammatical way it is used to form new words by connecting two or more roots. Distinguish between imaginary composites - they are formed by a simple juxtaposition of words (grain procurement, sofa bed, purchase and sale). Genuine compound words - those in which there is a change in meaning - wolfhound (large hunting dog), thug (desperate man). In the Russian language, the most common words are complex words with connecting vowels o / e - interfixes. But there can be words without a connecting vowel - two years. Complicated words stand out among the complex words - salary, university, RF. Such words are called abbreviations. In other languages, this method is also used, for example, in Chinese, it is the main one in the formation of derivatives.
Suppletivism- this is the formation of word forms from different roots: a person is a people, I walk - I walked. Some forms are supportive: 1) the genus of nouns - ram - sheep, bull - cow, 2) the number of nouns - child - children, 3) the tense of the verb - I go - walk, 4) the type of verb - speak - say.
No language uses only one way, but usually one way prevails. It depends on the structure of the language - synthetic or analytical.
48) Word order, intonation, stress as a means of expressing gram, meaning.
The number of grammatical meanings available in the languages of the world is enormous and cannot be accurately calculated, but the means of their expression are rather limited.
The simplest, most economical and most ancient means is word order... In languages where significant words do not change (do not bend or conjugate), for example, English, French, partly German, the word order is extremely important. The meanings and function of the members of a syntactic construct are determined by their position. A change of position entails a transformation of the meaning in the whole structure. In synthetic languages (the so-called inflectional), the relations between words in a sentence are expressed by changing the grammatical forms of words, and changing the order of words plays rather a stylistic role. This word order is called free.
Stress acts as an additional means of differentiating grammatical forms and syntactic functions of words. In languages with a single and fixed stress, it cannot be a grammatical way. In the Russian language, where the stress is different and flexible, it serves: 1) to distinguish between the lexical meanings of the words - castle and castle, soar and soar, ugly and ugly; 2) the type of verb - pour out - pour out, cut - cut, 3) the type and time - I recognize - I recognize, 4) the genus of nouns - peasants - peasants, 5) the gender and case of nouns - sides - sides, 6) case and numbers - mountains - mountains, hands - hands. An important role can be played by intonation... Not only sentences, but also their parts, and individual words differ in tone, melody. For example, in Serbian, raising and lowering pitch is a means of distinguishing between words and their forms. And in the language of the Indians living in Alaska, the tone of the root vowel differs in the tenses of the verbs.
49) Analytical and synthetic languages.
In languages of the analytical structure, syntactic relations are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by the order of words, service words and intonation. The separation of functions is observed: the lexical meaning is expressed by unchangeable significant words, and the grammatical - by purely external means (analytical, compound constructions). All languages of the isolating type are analytical. Prof. Polivanov referred to them as agglutinative languages. Of the inflectional Indo-European languages, analytical are English, French, Danish, Bulgarian and some others.
In languages of a synthetic structure, syntactic relations are expressed through changes in the significant words themselves, in the structure of which both lexical and grammatical meanings merge. The main grammatical methods are: affixation (including internal inflection), apophony and suppletivism. Typical synthetic languages were Greek, Gothic, Latin, Sanskrit, Old Church Slavonic, from modern - German, Lithuanian and most Slavic languages.
Polysemy (polysemy) - the property of a word to express several meanings. The essence of polysemy - the name is transferred to other denotations.
Polysemy- semantic variation of the word. Each value is an LSV. Word boundaries are not violated, and each LSV is linked to another LSV by common semes. At the same time, there may not be a common seme for all drugs.
The word acquires ambiguity as a result of the historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, their knowledge by man. As a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the vocabulary of any language is limited, therefore the development of vocabulary occurs not only due to the appearance of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known... This also leads to qualitative changes in vocabulary.
The ambiguity is also due to purely linguistic: words can be used in figurative meanings.
Polysemy is realized, usually in speech: the context clarifies one of the specific meanings of a polysemantic word.
Different meanings of a word, as a rule, are interconnected and form a complex semantic unity, which is called semantic structure the words.
METHODS OF TRANSFER OF MEANINGS OF THE WORD.
2 types of transfer of values:
1. Metaphor - transfer of a name by similarity: shape, function, color ( wheat hair), in location, in views ( whisper of foliage).
Metaphorization often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron lady, empty head, gentle rays, the talk of the brook.
3 types of metaphors according to the degree of imagery:
1. erased- eyeball, boat nose, train tail. Are ugly.
2.shaped - iron word, steel water... The imagery is preserved.
2. Metonymy - transfer of a name by contiguity.
For example I liked her knitting(= result of the process). Metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individual ( Porcelain and bronze on the table).
The meaning of ambiguous can be limited in different ways: lead (1. substance, 2. bullets, 3. severity)
The semantic unity of a word is consolidated not in the presence of a certain common part of the meaning in LSV, but in a certain connection between these separate meanings. Polysemy can cause speech errors and communication difficulties. But on the other hand, the combination of direct and figurative meanings of the word can become a vivid stylistic tool.
Like a metaphor, metonymy can be both general linguistic and individual author's.
Synecdoche- a subspecies of metonymy. Sinekdokha - transfer of the name of the whole to its part or vice versa.
For example: the cherry is ripe (cherries, berries), we are simple people (about ourselves alone).
Depending on which sign the value is transferred from one object to another, the following are distinguished portable value types the words.
1) Transferring values by some similarities between objects, phenomena. Such figurative values are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek. Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on similarities their signs (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) head onion, ophthalmic Apple - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) nose boats, tail trains, hat nail - transfer on the base
similarities in the location of objects;
v) Street cleaner (in the meaning of "cleaning device on the glass of the car"), electric position, watchman (meaning "a device on a container for holding boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.
Many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word are characterized by anthropomorphism, that is, the assimilation of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare these examples: evil wind, indifferent nature, breath spring, "The River Plays"(title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), flow running, volcano woke up and etc.
On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: cold sight, iron will, stone heart, gold character, shock hair, tangle of thoughts and etc.
Metaphors are general language, when a particular metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of the given language (hat nail, sleeve rivers, black envy, iron will and Ap-), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming widespread. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S. A. Yesenin: the fire of the red mountain ash, the birch tongue of the grove, chintz sky, grains eye and etc.;
B. L. Pasternak: maze lyre, bloody tears September, rolls lanterns and crumpets rooftops and etc.
2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacencies these items. This transfer of values is called metonymy(from the Greek. Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal may indicate products made from these materials (in her ears gold; solid crystal on the shelves);
b) vessel - content vessels (ate two plates, drank a cup);
G) action - an object actions (actions aimed at edition books«-> illustrated edition books as an object);
e) action - result actions (construction monument- monumental structure);
e) action - means or tool actions (putty cracks - fresh putty, fastening with Anastasia- ski mount, transfer movement- bicycle transmission);
g) action - a place actions (output from home - to stand by exit, remain-
new traffic - bus stop);
h) animal - fur or meat animal(hunter caught fox- this is
what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).
One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Sinekdokha (from the Greek. Sinekdoche - ratio) is the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand indicate the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: outsiders liam no entry; in family five mouths; Kolya- lighthead.
Some of the characteristic features of a person - a beard, glasses, clothing, and others - are often used to refer to a person. For example:
- Hey beard, where are you going?
- I'm standing here behind a blue cloak ...
- It is true that it is expensive, - sigh the red pantaloons.(Ch.)
"Obsolete words and neologisms"
Changes in the lexical composition of the language occur constantly: some words become obsolete and leave the language, others appear - are borrowed or formed according to existing models. Those words that have fallen out of active use are called obsolete; new words that have just appeared in the language are called neologisms.
Outdated vocabulary
Obsolete vocabulary includes words that have become obsolete, among them historicisms and archaisms are distinguished.
Historicisms are words that have ceased to be used in connection with the disappearance of the objects and phenomena designated by them: bursa, caftan, posadnik. Historicisms are found in the main texts about the past (both scientific and artistic).
Archaisms are words that have passed into a passive stock due to the fact that other names have appeared for the objects, phenomena, concepts designated by them - and existing to this day. Depending on which aspect of the word is outdated, different types of archaisms are distinguished:
lexical - the word itself is outdated, its sound-letter complex is no longer used, and the meaning is expressed by another lexical unit:
semantic - the word exists in the modern Russian language, but has lost one or several meanings: And so that he does not dare to wonder in the future, / Having caught it truly, / And very deprived of his belly (Pushk.). Have you read the article in Petersburg Vedomosti? (S.-Sch.) Arkady noticed all this, but kept his remarks to himself (Turg.).
phonetic - the sound appearance of the word has changed, which is reflected in its writing: He sang the faded color of life / Nearly eighteen years old (Pushk.).
word-formative - the word-formative structure of the word is outdated: Poison drops through its bark, / By noon melted from the heat, / And freezes in the evening / Thick cool resin (Pushk.); A mad man cries only from misfortune, / A clever one is looking for funds, / How to help grief with deeds (Wing.). And our forester was Fedos Ivanov, a great literate and knew how to sort things out well (Lesk.).
grammatical - certain grammatical forms of the word are outdated: Farming breathes with merriment / With full granaries rejoices (Zhuk.)
Obsolescence of words is a process, and different words may be at different stages. Those of them that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete.
Obsolete words are used in various functions. For example, when used to name objects and phenomena, they perform a nominative function (in scientific and historical works, etc.). In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary already fulfills a nominative-stylistic function - not only denotes realities, but also creates a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in fictional text to indicate the time at which an action takes place. Obsolete words (mostly archaisms) can also fulfill stylistic functions proper, be expressive means, giving the text a special solemnity.
New words (neologisms)
Outdated words are opposed by neologisms (from the Greek neos ‘new’ and logos ‘word’) - new words, meanings and stable combinations of words, the novelty of which is felt by the speakers.
Every year, tens of thousands of new words are recorded in the media, but not all of them are included in the language. Some of them are used once in any text or in oral speech, others, being used many times by different people, are included in the vocabulary of the language and gradually lose the quality of novelty. Some neologisms, not having time to enter the main vocabulary fund, go out of use and become obsolete words (for example, this fate befell many neologisms of the first post-revolutionary years: female delegate, universal education, kerenka, business man).
25. enrichment of vocabulary
One of the laws of the historical development of language as a social phenomenon. There are three main ways to enrich the vocabulary of a language:
1) morphological way of enrichment [base composition, morphological (affix) word formation];
2) semantic way [expansion of the meaning of a word, narrowing of the meaning of a word, transfer of meanings (metaphorical, metonymic, functional); lexico-semantic method based on the disintegration of polysemy (the formation of homonyms, the distribution of the meanings of words over different periods: belly - part of the body, belly (obsolete) - animal world; the emergence of common nouns based on proper and vice versa: Love - love), conversion] ;
3) borrowing (necessary borrowings, assimilated by language at all levels; tracing)
The internal form of a word is the morphonological composition of the stem, indicating a motivated connection between its sound and a given meaning. A phonetic word is an independent word together with adjoining unstressed service words and particles.
Etymology (from the Greek ετυμος - "the real meaning of the word" and λόγος - "science") is a section of linguistics (more specifically, comparative historical linguistics) that studies the origin of words. Initially, the ancients - the doctrine of the "true" ("original") meaning of the word.
The very origin of the word is also called “etymology” (for example, “the word has a notebook with a Greek etymology”, “to propose a new etymology,” that is, a version of the origin).
De-etymologization (from de ... and etymology), simplification, change in the morphological (word-formation) structure of a word, when the etymological connection of this word with one or another non-derivative basis is lost for the consciousness of native speakers. Dialectic can be caused either by the fact that words with an original non-derivative stem cease to exist in the language ("important" - compare the Old Russian "vaga"), or by the fact that this word has gone too far in its semantic development from a word with a corresponding non-derivative stem ( "large" - compare "groats").
FOLK ETHYMOLOGY- full or partial rethinking of the word as a result of its arbitrary convergence with other words similar in sound. So, "jacket" (English - peajacket - "jacket made of rough cloth") turns in Russian dialects into "spinzhak" (in connection with "back"), "boulevard" (French from German "Bollwerk" - "earthen shaft") - in "gulvar" (in connection with "to walk"), "cooperative" in "kupirativ" (in connection with "buy"). The phenomenon of N. e. Observed, of course, not only in "popular" dialects: it played a very significant role in the constructions of the so-called. scientific etymology (a section of linguistics about the origin of words of any language). So ex. Tredyakovsky interpreted the name of the ancient people "Etruscans" as "cunning", "for these people practiced in the sciences in the way of that time." However, the comparativists also devote a considerable place in their constructions to the N. e., Especially where under the influence of great-power tendencies and nationalist purism (see). tend to downplay the influence of other languages on their language. or exaggerate the influence of your language. to others; in the first direction, the attitude of Russian bourgeois etymologists to the Turkic-Mongolian fund of the Russian language is characteristic, in the second, the attitude of German bourgeois etymologists (Geert) to the Romanesque and Eastern fund of international technical terminology. So. arr. the term "N. NS." is quite unfortunate, having only a historical basis; however, attempts to replace it with another term ("lexical assimilation", at the suggestion of Krushevsky) have not yet been crowned with success.
The phenomenon of N. e. has been studied until now almost exclusively from the point of view of subjective-psychological linguistics, and few of its existing classifications are abstract, schematic. character. Meanwhile, in the phenomena of the N. e., In its direction, class ideology finds a very clear expression, and the N. e. Itself. easily becomes a weapon of the class struggle. Wed ex. such N. e. in the speech of a serf peasant, as the transformation of the landlord estate "Bellevue" into a "thorn" or the surname "Tiesenhausen" into "Sineguzen". N.'s study. from this point of view, it will make it possible to more accurately determine its significance in plot formation (N. e. in sayings, omens, myths) and style (N. e. in the artistic method of realism, symbolism, imagism and futurism), both oral and written artistic literature.
27.Synonyms
Systemic connections between meanings of words
§ 104. The conceptual meaning of a word does not exist in isolation, but in a certain correlation with the conceptual meanings of other words, first of all, words of the same "semantic field". The term semantic field denotes a larger or smaller set of words, more precisely, their meanings associated with the same fragment of reality. Words, the meanings of which are included in the field, form a "thematic group" of more or less broad coverage. Examples of such groups: words denoting time and its various segments (time, time, year, month, week, day, hour, etc., also spring, winter ... morning, evening, etc.); kinship terms (father, mother, son, brother, cousin, etc.); plant names (or narrower groups: names of trees, shrubs, mushrooms, etc.); names of temperature sensations (hot, warm, cool, cold, etc.); the names of sensory perception processes (see, hear, notice, feel, feel), thought processes (think, believe, count, guess, remember), etc. From the point of view of their internal semantic relations, words belonging to one thematic group should be considered to emerge as a kind of relatively independent lexical microsystem.
Within the framework of the thematic group, different types of semantic links are distinguished.
The most important of them is the hierarchical relationship along the genus line - the type between the designation of a wider set (more general, generic concept), the so-called hyperonym, and the designations of subordinate subsets included in this set, that is, the “names of species concepts” - hyponyms ... Thus, the hyperonym animal is subject to the hyponyms dog, wolf, hare, etc., which together constitute the "lexical paradigm" (§ 33). The given hyponyms, in turn, are hyperonyms for other, more private hyponyms. For example, a dog acts as a hyperonym in relation to such hyponyms as a bulldog, a dachshund, a mongrel, etc. The words bulldog, dog and animal can refer to the same denotation, but the substitution of these words is one-sided: a hyperonym can always be used instead of your hyponym, but not vice versa. Sometimes in such hierarchical systems, it is not a word, but a phrase that acts as a particular link, for example, in the Russian language, in the hierarchical row, tree - coniferous tree - spruce.
Synonyms are words that are different in sound and spelling, but close or identical in meaning.
Synonyms
The stylistic function of synonyms is to be a means of the most accurate expression of thought. The use of synonyms makes it possible to avoid the monotony of speech, the repetition of the same words, makes our speech more precise and expressive.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words with opposite lexical meanings, used to contrast phenomena, to create contrast.
The stylistic function of antonyms is to be a means of expressing the antithesis, to enhance the emotionality of speech.
Antithesis(from the Greek. antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - opposition. Proverbs, a paradox, an oxymoron are built on the antithesis.
Paradox- a judgment that sharply contradicts common sense, but deep in meaning; it can be a means of revealing, satirical depiction of reality, it can put a judgment on the brink of absurdity ("The worse, the better").
Oxymoron(from the Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a stylistic method of juxtaposing contrasting, mutually exclusive concepts ("Living corpse").
Homonyms
Homonyms(from the Greek homos - the same and onyma - a name) - words that are the same in spelling or sound, but different in meaning, for example: "head", "wing", "bow", "language" "key", etc. ... The word "key" can mean: a key from a lock, a wrench, a spring (spring water).
The stylistic function of homonyms is to give speech expression, vivid emotionality; to be a means of entertaining word games, playing with words. Homonyms can add comic and ambiguity to a statement.
Jokes and puns are built on ambiguous words and homonyms.
Pun (from French calembour) - stylistic turnover or miniature work based on the predominantly comic use of polysemous words or homophones. Puns can be constructed in different ways: matching homonyms, bringing homophones closer together, clashing homographs, rethinking stable turns. The pun as a form of transmission of thought gives it a special expressiveness, emotionality and amusement, enhancing the artistic effect.
In explanatory dictionaries, polysemantic words are given in one dictionary entry, and homonyms are given in different ones.
Paronyms
Paronyms- (from the Greek para - near, ohyma - name) cognate words, similar in sound, but different in meaning ( elite - qualifying; building - building - building).
(They refer to the same part of speech, differ either in prefixes or suffixes that give the word a new semantic shade; one of the paronyms may have a non-derivative and the other derivative basis).
Paronyms can differ in both stylistic coloring and sphere of use.
Taby means a prohibition that occurs in the sphere of public life at different stages of human development. The taboo (prohibition) among many peoples (including the Slavs) arose on the basis of mythological beliefs. For example, it was believed that one should not touch the body of a deceased leader, enter his house, touch his things ... You could not even talk to his widow. Moreover, the very name of the deceased leader could not be pronounced, as well as the name of the animal that served as the main object of the tribe's hunting. People believed that, having uttered certain words (usually these are words denoting death, the names of diseases, the names of gods, etc.), they would incriminate themselves with misfortune - the wrath of spirits with which one could not conflict (the very fact of death, for example, was considered by our ancestors as a manifestation of the activity of spirits). By the way, it is quite possible that impersonal verbs (chills, fever; dawn, dusk, etc.) are called so precisely because people were afraid to call the word the force that causes such phenomena, or simply could not explain many facts of the surrounding reality that led them to believe in a certain higher being who controls the affairs of people, their actions, feelings and stands above them.
"Taboo" is not only an ethnographic concept, it can also apply to the facts of language, because since ancient times a person believed that with the help of language (speech) one can directly influence the world around him, that is, he believed in the magical function of the word.
The taboo (or prohibition) also applies to the norms of the literary language. So, for example, a taboo is imposed on the use of obscene language, rude vernacular, etc.
To replace the names of things that were taboo (banned), other words became necessary, which received the name of a euphemism in linguistics. Euphemisms are emotionally neutral words or expressions used in place of synonymous words or expressions that appear indecent, rude or tactless to the speaker. The word euphemism goes back to the Greek word eufhemismos (eu - "good" and phemi - "I say"). Literally: "I speak well", "I speak politely."
To replace taboo words, other words are needed - euphemisms. Euphemisms are substitute, permitted words that are used instead of forbidden (taboo) words.
TERMINOLOGY, a set of terms of a certain branch of knowledge or production, as well as the doctrine of the formation, composition and functioning of terms.
The subject of the general theory of terminology is: the study of the formation and use of special words, with the help of which the knowledge accumulated by mankind is accumulated and transmitted; improvement of existing terminological systems; search for optimal ways to create new terms and their systems; search for universal features inherent in the terminology of different areas of knowledge.
A term (lat. Terminus "border, limit, end") is a special word or phrase adopted in a certain professional field and used in special conditions. The term is a verbal designation of a concept that is part of the concept system of a certain area of professional knowledge. Terminology (as a set of terms) constitutes an autonomous sector of any national language, closely related to professional activities. The terms of each branch of science, technology, production form their own systems, determined, first of all, by the conceptual connections of professional knowledge in an effort to express these connections by linguistic means.
Phraseologisms
Phraseologism is a stable (non-free) phrase. Phraseologism has a stable grammatical structure, constant lexical composition, requires accurate reproduction in speech. As part of a phraseological unit, not individual words have meaning, but only the entire expression as a whole.
Phraseologisms are different in origin (primordially Russian; borrowed; Old Slavonic origin).
Phraseologisms are used in various functional styles, have stylistic coloring. The stylistic role of phraseological units is the imagery and expressiveness of speech.
Phraseologisms with a pronounced stylistic coloring are used as a means of speech characteristics of characters; book phraseological units with a pathetic coloring are used to give the text a solemn tone; stylistically reduced colloquial phraseological units contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of ease, colloquiality in the text; phraseological units can also be used to create a pun of speech.
Linguistic aphorisms (proverbs, sayings, winged words) also belong to phraseological turns.
A proverb is a figurative saying that is usually instructive (edifying) in nature. (Live and learn).
A proverb is a figurative allegorical expression that aptly defines any life phenomenon. (My tongue is my enemy).
Winged expressions are literary quotes belonging to various authors and are widely known. (From the ship to the ball - from "Woe from Wit" A. Griboyedov).
The source of phraseological units can be literary works, sayings of great people
