Speech means of language. Means of language expressiveness. Specialized means of expression

Our language is an integral and logically correct system. Its smallest unit is sound, and the smallest significant unit is morpheme. Words are composed of morphemes, which are considered the main linguistic unit. They can be viewed from the point of view of their sound, as well as from the point of view of structure, as or as members of a sentence.

Each of the named linguistic units corresponds to a certain linguistic layer, tier. Sound is a unit of phonetics, a morpheme is a morphemic unit, a word is a unit of vocabulary, parts of speech are units of morphology, and sentences are syntax. Morphology and syntax together make up a grammar.

At the level of vocabulary, tropes are distinguished - special turns of speech, which give it special expressiveness. Similar means at the level of syntax are figures of speech. As you can see, everything in the language system is interconnected and interdependent.

Lexical means

Let us dwell on the most striking language means. Let's start with the lexical level of the language, which - recall - is based on words and their lexical meanings.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words of one part of speech that are close in their lexical meanings. For example, beautiful - beautiful.

Some words or word combinations acquire a similar meaning only in a certain context, in a certain linguistic environment. it contextual synonyms.

Consider the sentence: " Day was august, sultry, agonizingly boring " ... The words august , sultry, languid boring are not synonymous. However, in this context, when characterizing a summer day, they acquire a similar meaning, acting as contextual synonyms.

Antonyms

Antonyms are words of one part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning: high - low, high - low, giant - dwarf.

Like synonyms, antonyms can be contextual, that is, acquire the opposite meaning in a certain context. The words Wolf and sheep, for example, out of context are not antonyms. However, in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Wolves and Sheep" two types of people are depicted - people-"predators" ("wolves") and their victims ("sheep"). It turns out that in the title of the work of the word wolves and sheeps acquiring the opposite meaning, they become contextual antonyms.

Dialectisms

Dialectisms are words used only in certain areas. For example, in the southern regions of Russia beet has a different name - beetroot... In some areas, the wolf is called a privet. Veksha(squirrel), hut(House), towel(towel) - these are all dialectisms. In literary works, dialectisms are most often used to create local flavor.

Neologisms

New words that have recently come into the language are called neologisms: smartphone, browser, multimedia etc.

Obsolete words

Obsolete in linguistics are words that have gone out of active use. Obsolete words are divided into two groups - archaisms and historicisms.

Archaisms- these are outdated names of objects that exist to this day. Other names, for example, used to have eyes and mouth. They were named accordingly eyes and mouth.

Histories- words that have fallen out of use due to the withdrawal from use of the concepts and phenomena designated by them. Oprichnina, corvee, boyar, chain mail- there are no objects and phenomena called such words in modern life, which means that these are historicism words.

Phraseologisms

Phraseological units are adjacent to lexical linguistic means - stable combinations of words reproduced equally by all native speakers. As snow fell on his head, play with spillikins, neither fish nor meat, work carelessly, turn up your nose, turn your head ... What phraseological units are not in the Russian language and what aspects of life they do not characterize!

Trails

Paths are called turns of speech based on playing with the meaning of a word and giving speech a special expressiveness. Consider the most popular trails.

Metaphor

Metaphor - the transfer of properties from one object to another based on any similarity, the use of a word in a figurative sense. Metaphor is sometimes called covert comparison - and for good reason. Let's look at some examples.

Cheeks are burning. The word is used figuratively burn... The cheeks seem to be on fire - this is how a hidden comparison can be.

Sunset bonfire. The word is used figuratively bonfire... The sunset is compared to a bonfire, but the comparison is hidden. This is a metaphor.

Expanded metaphor

With the help of a metaphor, an expanded image is often created - in this case, not one word, but several, appears in a figurative meaning. This metaphor is called expanded.

Here is an example, the lines of Vladimir Soloukhin:

"The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe."

The first metaphor is Earth is a cosmic body- gives birth to the second - we, people are astronauts.

As a result, a whole expanded image is created - human astronauts make a long flight around the sun on a ship-Earth.

Epithet

Epithet- colorful artistic definition. Of course, epithets are most often adjectives. Moreover, adjectives are colorful, emotional and evaluative. For example, in the phrase golden ring word golden It is not an epithet, this is a common definition that characterizes the material from which the ring is made. But in the phrase gold hair, gold soul - gold, gold- epithets.

However, other cases are also possible. A noun sometimes acts as an epithet. For example, frost-voivode. Voivode in this case, the application is a kind of definition, which means it may well be an epithet.

Often, epithets are emotional, colorful adverbs, for example, funny in the phrase walks merrily.

Permanent epithets

Permanent epithets are found in folklore, oral folk art. Remember: in folk songs, fairy tales, epics, a good fellow is always kind, a red girl, a gray wolf, and the earth is damp. All these are permanent epithets.

Comparison

Assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another. Most often it is expressed in comparative turnovers with unions as if, as if, as if or relative clauses. But there are other forms of comparison as well. For example, the comparative degree of an adjective and an adverb or the so-called instrumental comparison. Let's look at some examples.

Time flies, like a bird(comparative turnover).

Brother is older than me(comparative turnover).

I AM younger brother(comparative adjective young).

Wriggles snake... (instrumental comparison).

Impersonation

Endowing inanimate objects or phenomena with the properties and qualities of living things: the sun is laughing, spring has come.

Metonymy

Metonymy is the replacement of one concept with another based on contiguity. What does it mean? Surely in geometry lessons you studied adjacent corners - angles that have one side in common. Concepts may also be related - for example, school and students.

Let's consider some examples:

School went out to the clean-up day.

Kisses a plate ate.

The essence of the metonymy in the first example is that instead of the word pupils the word is used school la. In the second example, we use the word plate instead of the name of what is on the plate ( soup, porridge or something similar), that is, we use metonymy.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is similar to metonymy and is considered a variation of it. This trope also consists of substitution - but necessarily quantitative substitution. Most often, the plural is replaced by a single and vice versa.

Consider examples of synecdoches.

"From here we will threaten Swede… "- thinks Tsar Peter in the poem" The Bronze Horseman "by Alexander Pushkin. Of course, this did not mean one Swede, a Swedes- that is, the singular is used instead of the plural.

And here is a line from Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin": "We all look at Napoleons"... It is known that the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was alone. The poet uses synecdoche - uses the plural instead of the singular.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is over-exaggeration. "At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset blazed"- writes V. Mayakovsky. And Gogolevsky had trousers "As wide as the Black Sea."

Litotes

Litota is a trope opposite to hyperbole, an overstatement: a boy with a finger, a little man with a fingernail.

Irony

Latent ridicule is called irony. At the same time, we put into our words a meaning that is exactly the opposite of the true one. "Split, smart, you are raving head", - such a question in Krylov's fable is addressed to Donkey, who is considered the embodiment of stupidity.

Periphrase

We have already looked at paths based on concept substitution. At metonymy one word is replaced by another according to the contiguity of concepts, when synecdoche the singular is replaced by the plural, or vice versa.

The periphery is also a substitution - a word is replaced by a few words, a whole descriptive turn. For example, instead of the word "animals" we say or write "our little brothers." Instead of the word "lion" - the king of beasts.

Syntactic tools

Syntax means are those linguistic means that are associated with a sentence or phrase. Syntactic means are sometimes called grammatical, since syntax, along with morphology, is part of the grammar. Let's dwell on some syntactic tools.

Homogeneous Sentence Members

These are the members of the sentence that answer the same question, relate to one word, are one member of the sentence and, moreover, are pronounced with a special intonation of the enumeration.

Grew in the garden roses, chamomile,bells . - This sentence is complicated by homogeneous subjects.

Introductory words

These are words that more often express an attitude to the communicated, indicate the source of the message or the way the thought is formed. Let's analyze examples.

Fortunately, snow.

Unfortunately, snow.

Probably, snow.

According to a friend, snow.

so, snow.

The listed offers convey the same information (snow) but it is expressed with different feelings (fortunately, unfortunately) uncertainly (probably), indicating the source of the message (according to a friend) and the way thoughts are formed (so).

Dialogue

Conversation of two or more persons. Let us recall, as an example, a dialogue from a poem by Korney Chukovsky:

- Who's talking?
- Elephant.
- Where?
- From a camel ...

Question-answer form of presentation

This is the name of the construction of the text in the form of questions and answers to them. "What's wrong with a piercing gaze?" - the author asks the question. And he answers to himself: "But everything is bad!"

Standalone members of the proposal

Secondary members of the sentence, which are separated by commas (or dashes) in writing, and pauses in speech.

The pilot talks about his adventures, smiling at the listeners (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by an adverbial turnover).

The children went out into the clearing illuminated by the sun (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by the participial phrase).

No brother his first listener and fan, he would hardly have achieved such results.(a proposal with a stand-alone common application).

No one, except her own sister, did not know about it(a proposal with a stand-alone addition).

I'll come early at six in the morning (a sentence with a separate clarifying circumstance of time).

Figures of speech

At the level of syntax, special constructions are highlighted that give expressiveness to speech. They are called figures of speech, as well as stylistic figures. These are antithesis, gradation, inversion, parcellation, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, etc. Let's take a look at some of the stylistic figures.

Antithesis

In Russian, antithesis is called opposition. As an example of it, we can cite the proverb: "Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness."

Inversion

Inversion is the reverse of the word order. As you know, each of the members of the proposal has its own "rightful" place, its position. So, the subject should come before the predicate, and the definition should come before the word being defined. Certain positions are assigned to circumstance and addition. When the word order in a sentence is out of order, we can talk about inversion.

By using inversion, writers and poets achieve the desired sounding of the phrase. Remember the poem "Sail". Without inversion, its first lines would sound like this: "A lonely sail turns white in the blue mist of the sea"... The poet used inversion and the lines sounded amazing:

The sail of the lonely gleams

In the mist of the blue sea ...

Gradation

Gradation - the arrangement of words (as a rule, which are homogeneous members, in increasing or decreasing their meanings). Let's consider some examples: "It optical illusion, hallucination, mirage« (a hallucination is more than an optical illusion, and a mirage is more than an optical illusion). The gradation is both ascending and descending.

Parcelling

Sometimes, to enhance expressiveness, the boundaries of the sentence are deliberately violated, that is, parceling is used. It consists in splitting a phrase, in which incomplete sentences are formed (that is, such constructions, the meaning of which is unclear outside the context). An example of parceling is a newspaper headline: “The process has started. Reverse "(" The process has gone backwards "- this is how the phrase looked before crushing).

Expressive means phonetics

Expressive derivational funds

Expressive means vocabulary andphraseology

Metaphor	The use of a word or expression in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena. In a broad sense, any kind of use of words in an indirect sense.	I will bequeath to you fruit garden Of my great soul. V. Mayakovsky Somewhere far beyond Moscow lightning ripped the sky. (M. Bulgakov)
Impersonation	A kind of metaphor in which inanimate objects, natural phenomena, concepts are endowed with signs, properties of a person or some other living being	You are again, again with me, insomnia! Fixed your face find out. What, gorgeous, what, lawless woman Am I bad at singing to you? A. Akhmatova In a deathly swoon, the pale river Wiggles her dry lips a little. N. Zabolotsky
Oxymoron	The combination of opposite in meaning and even mutually exclusive definitions and concepts in order to obtain a new unexpected semantic effect, a new meaning.	Frivolity! - Sweet sin, Sweet companion and enemy my dear! M. Tsvetaeva
Comparison	Direct comparison of two objects or phenomena by similarity, used to explain one to the other	Funny life, funny discord. So it was and so it will be after. Like a graveyard dotted with garden Eaten bones in birches. S. Yesenin The wind outside the walls of the house was raging, like an old frozen naked devil. (A. Kuprin)
Metonymy	Replacing one word with another, contiguous in meaning	He is not that on silver, on gold ate (A. Griboyedov) Black tailcoats worn apart and in heaps here and there ... (N. Gogol)
Epithet	A figurative definition that gives an additional artistic characterization of someone or something	AND raspberry Sun Above shaggy gray smoke ... As a silent master It's clear looks at me! A. Akhmatova AND yellow silk carpets, and rude e traces, And the lies understood the last goodbye, And parks black, bottomless ponds, Long time ready for ripe suffering ... I. Annensky
Hyperbola	Deliberate exaggeration	V one hundred forty suns the sunset was blazing. V. Mayakovsky
Litotes	Deliberate understatement	Your spitz, adorable spitz, No more than a thimble. A. Griboyedov In big boots, in a sheepskin sheepskin coat, In big mittens ... ah himself with a fingernail! N. Nekrasov
Periphrase	Replacing one word with a descriptive expression that conveys the same meaning	It's a sad time! enchantment of the eyes! Your farewell beauty is pleasant to me ... A. Pushkin
Synonym	Words that are spelled and sound differently, but coincide in meaning or are very close	He did not go, a dragged, without raising your feet off the ground. A. Kuprin
Contextual synonyms	Words or phrases that mean the same thing, but are in different sentences, being their means of communication.	Once a photo was placed in the newspaper boy who won the bike. I still remember this lucky man.
Antonym	Words that are opposite in their lexical meaning	In the chaise sat a gentleman, not handsome, but not bad-looking, nor too fat nor too thin; cannot be said to old, however, and not so that young... (N. Gogol)
Homonym	Words that have the same spelling or pronunciation, but different in lexical meaning	You finished the channel! Now such a longing What would only run to to the canal And stick your head in the water with a grin. V. Mayakovsky
Emotionally evaluative and expressive vocabulary	Words, the lexical meaning of which includes a stable emotional coloring or assessment	It's over with Russia ... Her we lost, blabbed, Crawled, drank, spat, Zamyzgali in dirty squares ... M. Voloshin
Stylistically limited vocabulary	Includes reduced vocabulary (colloquial and colloquial words), as well as book	Like an amphibian virgin, Doesn't cross two arms - Daughter worn out in the womb Not maternal, but sea! M. Tsvetaeva
Phraseologisms, winged words, proverbs, sayings	F. - stable apt expressions that have a holistic meaning. Cr. sl. - the expressions included in the speech, which are short quotes from lit. works, as well as famous sayings.	One god is it could tell what was the character of Manilov. There is a kind of people known by the name : people are so-so, neither this nor that; neither in the city of Bogdan, nor in the village of Selifan, according to the proverb. (N. Gogol)

Expressive means syntax

Anaphora	Repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning proposals	I will win you back from all lands, from all heavens, Because of the forest is my cradle, and the grave is the forest, Because of I stand on the ground - with only one foot, Because of I will sing about you - like no one else. M. Tsvetaeva
Epiphora	Repetition of words or expressions in the end neighboring or related offers	His friends - don't disturb him! His servants - don't disturb him! It was so clear on his face: My kingdom is not of this world. M. Tsvetaeva
Antithesis	A turnover in which opposing concepts are sharply opposed	They got along. Wave and stone. Poems and prose, ice and fire Not so different among themselves. A. Pushkin
Inversion	Breaking the usual order of words to make them more meaningful	Do you know, mediocre, many, Thinking get drunk better like, - Maybe now bomb feet Tore the lieutenant from Petrov? .. V. Mayakovsky
Ellipsis	Skipping a word easily recoverable from context	I love you in your space And in every sticky track. Let Europe have a history - But Russia has a life. S. Parnok
Gradation	Such an arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains an intensifying meaning, thereby increasing the overall impression produced by the text	I AM see, I am feel, –smell you are everywhere! What ribbons from your wreaths! - I have not forgotten you and I will not forget you Till the end of time. M. Tsvetaeva
Parallelism	The same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences (or parts of it)	I am a sudden break I am the playing thunder I am a transparent stream I am for everyone and no one. K. Balmont
Parcelling	Dividing the proposal into parts to highlight its semantic accents.	To the village! To your aunt! Off the beaten path! To Saratov!
A rhetorical question	A question that does not require an answer, but draws attention to the problem.	How many times have I told you the same thing ?!
Rhetorical appeal	Addressing something (someone) not for the purpose of conversation, but to enhance the expressiveness of speech	O sky, sky, you will dream me!
Rhetorical exclamation	An emotionally colored sentence	My God! What a luxury Fathers and Sons! Just shout the guard at least! (A. Chekhov)
Multi-Union (polysindeon)	The proliferation of poetic speech, in which the number of unions between words is increased	AND heart beats in rapture, AND resurrected for him AND deity, and inspiration, AND life, and tears, and love.
Asyndeton (asyndeton)	Constructing a speech in which the conjunctions connecting words are omitted	Passages, corridors, restrooms, The staircase is twisted, semi-dark; Conversations, persistent disputes, There are immodest curtains on the doors. M. Kuzmin

Linguistic means of expressiveness: phraseological units and aphorisms.

Those properties and features of the speaker's speech that support the attention and interest of listeners, activate the process of perception, are called expressive means... Their goal is not to decorate the speech, but to control the process of active thinking of the listeners. Expressiveness can be informational,structural and emotional... The figurative and emotional expressiveness of speech is determined by linguistic and extralinguistic (behavior, facial expressions, gestures, contact with the audience, etc.) factors, features of the speaker's speech technique. Depending on the type of speech and individual oratorical characteristics, the speaker chooses one or another means of expression.

Linguistic means of imagery, emotionality and expressiveness are: pronunciation, accentological, intonational, phonetic(sounds do not carry a conceptual content, but can cause a certain mood and emotions in listeners, for example: sounds V, L, N, I, E "gentle, light", G, X, F, Y - "melancholy, sad, dark "), derivational(nouns with the suffixes - thinking, - thinking. - being - heavy and cumbersome, they complicate the perception of speech), morphological(verbs contribute to emotional expressiveness, and a large number of adjectives, participles, participles make speech heavier), lexical, syntactic, stylistic.

Special means of figurative and emotional expressiveness - phraseological units and aphorisms (winged words and expressions, proverbs, sayings), which are used in oral speech, firstly, for a more accurate and emotional expression of their own thoughts, and secondly, to reinforce their own words, their more convincing. "Brief sayings cut into the minds of people, put down roots, give flowers, bear fruit and do not cease to have an effect."

It is known that not a single European lexicon can be compared with juiciness: this opinion is expressed by many literary scholars who have studied its expressiveness. It has Spanish expansion, Italian emotionality, French tenderness. Language tools, used by Russian writers, resemble the brush strokes of the artist.

When experts talk about the expressiveness of a language, they mean not only the figurative means that are studied in school, but also an inexhaustible arsenal of literary techniques. There is no single classification of pictorial and expressive means, however, conventionally, linguistic means are divided into groups.

In contact with

Lexical means

Expressive means working at the lexical linguistic level are an integral part of a literary work: poetic or written in prose. These are words or phrases used by the author in a figurative or allegorical meaning. The largest group of lexical means for creating imagery in the Russian language is literary tropes.

Varieties of trails

There are more than two dozen tropes used in works. Table with examples combined the most used:

№	Trails	Explanation of the term	Examples of
1	Allegory	Replacement of an abstract concept in a concrete way.	"In the hands of Themis", which means: at justice
2		These are paths based on a figurative comparison, but without the use of conjunctions (as if). Metaphor involves the transfer of the qualities of one object or phenomenon to another.	Murmuring voice (voice seems to murmur).
3	Metonymy	Substitution of one word for another based on the contiguity of concepts.	The class is noisy
4	Comparison	What is comparison in literature? Comparison of items on a similar basis. Comparisons are artistic means, with increased imagery.	Comparison: hot as fire (other examples: as white as chalk).
5	Impersonation	Transfer of human properties to inanimate objects or phenomena.	Whispered the leaves of the trees
6	Hyperbola	These are tropes, which are based on literary exaggeration, contributing to the strengthening of a particular characteristic or quality on which the author focuses the reader's attention.	Lots of work.
7	Litotes	Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon.	Little man with a marigold.
8	Synecdoche	Replacing some words with others regarding quantitative relations.	Invite for pike perch.
9	Occasionalisms	Artistic tools formed by the author.	The fruits of education.
10	Irony	A subtle ridicule based on an outwardly positive assessment or a serious form of expression.	What do you say, smart guy?
11	Sarcasm	A stinging, subtle mockery, the highest form of irony.	The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm.
12	Periphrase	Substitution of a word with an expression similar in lexical meaning.	King of beasts
13	Lexical repetition	In order to strengthen the meaning of a particular word, the author repeats it several times.	Lakes are all around, lakes are deep.

The article contains main trails, known in the literature, which is illustrated by the table with examples.

Sometimes archaisms, dialectisms, professionalisms are referred to as paths, but this is not true. These are means of expressiveness, the scope of which is limited to the depicted era or area of ​​application. They are used to create the flavor of the era, the described place or the working atmosphere.

Specialized means of expression

- words that were once called objects familiar to us (eyes - eyes). Historicisms mean objects or phenomena (actions) that have come out of everyday life (caftan, ball).

Both archaisms and historicisms - means of expression, which are eagerly used by writers and screenwriters who create works on historical themes (examples are "Peter the First" and "Prince Silver" by A. Tolstoy). Poets often use archaisms to create a sublime style (bosom, right hand, finger).

Neologisms are figurative means of language that have entered our life relatively recently (gadget). They are often used in literary text to create a youthful atmosphere and the image of advanced users.

Dialectisms - words or grammatical forms, used in the colloquial speech of residents of one area (kochet - rooster).

Professionalisms are words and expressions that are typical for representatives of a certain profession. For example, a pen for a printer is, first of all, a spare material that is not included in the number, and only then the place of stay of animals. Naturally, a writer telling about the life of a typographer hero will not bypass the term.

Jargon is the vocabulary of informal communication used in the colloquial speech of people belonging to a certain social circle. For example, language features of the text about the life of students will be allowed to use the word "tails" in the meaning of "exam arrears", and not part of the body of animals. This word often appears in works about students.

Phraseological turns

Phraseological expressions are lexical linguistic means, whose expressiveness is determined by:

1. Figurative meaning, sometimes with a mythological background (Achilles' heel).
2. Belonging to everyone in the category of high stable expressions (sink into oblivion), or conversational turns (hang up your ears). These can be linguistic means that have a positive emotional connotation (golden hands - a load of approving meaning), or with a negative expressive assessment (small fry - a shade of disdain for a person).

Phraseologisms are used, to:

• to emphasize the clarity and imagery of the text;
• build the necessary stylistic tonality (vernacular or sublimity), having previously estimated the linguistic features of the text;
• express the author's attitude to the information provided.

The figurative expressiveness of phraseological phrases is enhanced due to their transformation from well-known to individual-author's: to shine throughout Ivanovskaya.

A special group is aphorisms ( idioms). For example, happy hours are not observed.

Works of folk art can also be attributed to aphorisms: proverbs, sayings.

These artistic means are used quite often in literature.

Attention! Phraseologisms as pictorial and expressive literary means cannot be used in an official business style.

Syntactic tricks

Syntactic figures of speech are phrases used by the author in order to better convey the necessary information or the general meaning of the text, sometimes to give a passage an emotional color. These are what are syntactic means expressiveness:

1. Antithesis is a syntactic means of expressiveness based on opposition. "Crime and Punishment". Allows you to emphasize the meaning of one word with the help of another, opposite in meaning.
2. Gradations are means of expressiveness that use synonymous words, arranged according to the principle of increase and decrease of a sign or quality in Russian. For example, the stars were shining, burning, shining. Such a lexical chain highlights the main conceptual meaning of each word - "to shine".
3. Oxymoron - straight opposite words located nearby. For example, the expression "fiery ice" figuratively and vividly creates a contradictory character of the hero.
4. Inversions are syntactic means of expressiveness based on an unusual sentence structure. For example, instead of "he sang" it says "he sang." The word that the author wants to highlight is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
5. Parceling is the deliberate division of one proposal into several parts. For example, Near Ivan. Stands, looks. The second sentence usually contains an action, quality, or feature that takes on the author's emphasis.

Important! These figurative means representatives of a number of scientific schools are classified as stylistic. The reason for the replacement of the term lies in the influence exerted by the expressive means of this group on the style of the text, albeit through syntactic constructions.

Phonetic means

Sound devices in Russian are the smallest group of literary figures of speech. This is a special use of words with the repetition of certain sounds or phonetic groups for the purpose of depicting artistic images.

Usually such figurative language used by poets in poetry, or writers in lyrical digressions, when describing landscapes. The authors use repetitive sounds to convey thunderous rolls or rustling of leaves.

Alliteration is the repetition of a series of consonants that create sound effects that enhance the imagery of the described phenomenon. For example: "In the silky rustle of snow noise." The injection of sounds С, Ш and Щ creates the effect of imitating the whistle of the wind.

Assonance - repetition of vowel sounds in order to create an expressive artistic image: "March, march - wave the flag // Marching to the parade." The vowel "a" is repeated to create emotional fullness of feelings, a unique feeling of universal joy and openness.

Onomatopoeia is the selection of words that combine a certain set of sounds, which creates a phonetic effect: howling wind, rustling grass and other characteristic natural sounds.

Means of expressiveness in Russian, paths

Use of words for speech expressiveness

Output

It is the abundance of figurative means expressiveness in Russian makes it truly beautiful, juicy and unique. Therefore, foreign literary critics prefer to study the works of Russian poets and writers in the original.

You have probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Expressive means make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without the use of special lexical figures, because speech will sound poor and ugly.

Let's figure out what means of expressiveness of the Russian language are and where to find them.

Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t go”, the words were selected with a scratch, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a intelligible thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are laid in the head with the reading of books. However, they alone are not enough to write interesting, colorful and easy. You need to develop your skill in practice.

Just compare the next two columns. On the left - text without expressive means or with their minimum amount. On the right is a text full of expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.

It would seem that there are three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! The expressive means of language help the viewer to see the picture you are trying to describe. Using them is a whole art, but it is not difficult to master it. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.

For example, in the paragraph of the text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the object instantly appears bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat cat-commander? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. Yes, and there will not be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly turn white, but the reader has long imagined him gray!

So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, substantiate, draw information and use the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for writing, but also for speaking. Especially if the speech or text is compiled in. However, both there and there the means of expressiveness in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of wading through such a "jungle".

Existing expressive means

There are a lot of such special techniques, and you hardly know everything about them. To begin with, you don't need to use all means of expression right away - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.

Traditionally, they are divided into several groups:

• phonetic - most often found in poems;
• lexical (paths);
• stylistic figures.

Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print and hang on the wall to re-read from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.

Phonetic techniques

Among phonetic devices, two are most often encountered - alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case consonants are repeated, in the second - vowels.

This technique is very convenient to use in poems when words are few and you need to convey the atmosphere. And poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to "see" the picture.

Suppose we want to describe a swamp. There are reeds that rustle in the swamp. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but this is not enough for a complete picture.

Do you hear the reeds rustling and hissing silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonants are repeated.

Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. In this way, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. The table will help in explaining what assonance is.

Lexical devices (paths)

Lexical techniques are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that often people use them unconsciously. For example, we might say that our heart is lonely. But the heart actually cannot be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help to emphasize the deep meaning of what was said.

The main lexical techniques include the following paths:

• epithet;
• comparison as a means of expressiveness of speech;
• metaphor;
• metonymy;
• irony;
• hyperbole and litota.

Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips into everyone's speech - this means of expressiveness has become firmly established in everyday life, so you need to use it wisely.

The metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes using the word "as if." We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression "dry clouds". Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. The epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text, it is important not to confuse them.

Hyperbole and litota are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred bonfires” is a clear hyperbole. And "quietly, quieter than a brook" - litota. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.

Metonymy and paraphrase are interesting phenomena. Metonymy is an abbreviation for what is said. For example, there is no need to speak of Chekhov's books as "books written by Chekhov." You can use the expression "Chekhov's books", and this will be a metonymy.

And paraphrase is a deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.

Although, with the proper skill, tautology can also be a means of expressiveness!

Also, lexical means of expressiveness in speech include:

• archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
• historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
• neologisms (new vocabulary);
• phraseological units;
• dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.

Expression tool	Definition	Example and explanation
Epithet	A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively.	Bloody sky. (It is said about the sunrise).
Comparison as a means of expressiveness of speech	Matching objects to each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa.	Expressive means, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech.
Metaphor	"Hidden comparison" or figurative. More complex than simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used.	Boiling anger. (The man is angry.) Sleepy city. (Morning city that has not yet woken up).
Metonymy	Replacing words in order to shorten a clear sentence or avoid tautology.	I read Chekhov's books (not “I read books by Chekhov's authorship”).
Irony	An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery.	You are a genius, of course! (Ironically, "genius" is used to mean "stupid").
Hyperbola	Deliberate exaggeration of what was said.	Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning. (Dazzling, bright show).
Litotes	Deliberate reduction of what was said.	Weak as a mosquito.
Periphrase	Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word.	The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of beasts, etc.
Allegory	An abstract concept that helps to reveal the image. Most often it is a well-established designation.	Fox in the meaning of cunning, wolf in the meaning of strength and rudeness, turtle in the meaning of slowness or wisdom.
Impersonation	Transferring the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one.	The lantern seemed to swing on a long, thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack.

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures often contain specific grammatical constructions. The most commonly used are:

• anaphora and epiphora;
• compositional joint;
• antithesis;
• oxymoron or paradox;
• inversion;
• parceling;
• ellipsis;
• rhetorical questions, exclamations, addresses;
• asyndeton.

Anaphora and epiphora are often referred to as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora - the same beginning of several lines, epiphora - the same endings. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize the drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.

The compositional joint is a deliberate "escalation" of the conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The word helped me become who I am. Such a technique is called a compositional joint.

Antithesis is the opposition of two concepts-antipodes: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Of the interesting techniques, one can note parceling, which is used to build up conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - skipping a sentence member. It is often used in exclamations, calls.

Expression tool	Definition	Example and explanation
Anaphora	Same beginning of multiple lines.	Let's join hands, brothers. Let's join hands and unite our hearts. Let's take up the swords to end the war.
Epiphora	The same endings for multiple lines.	I erase it wrong! Ironing not so! All wrong!
Composite joint	One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it.	I didn't know what to do. To do in order to survive this storm.
Antithesis	Contrast	I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama).
Oxymoron	Using concepts that contradict each other.	Hot ice, peace war.
Paradox	An expression that has no direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning.	The dead man's hot hands were livelier than all others. Hurry up as slowly as possible.
Inversion	Deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence.	I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in the world.
Parcelling	Breakdown of words into separate sentences.	He waited. Again. Stooping, crying.
Ellipsis	Deliberate omission of a word.	Go ahead, get down to business! (the word "let's take it" is missing).
Gradation	Increasing expression, the use of synonyms by the degree of increase.	His eyes, cold, unfeeling, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama).

Features of the use of expressive means

It should not be forgotten that gestures are also used in oral Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than the usual means of expression, but in a skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and vibrant.

Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many jewelry, which makes you uninteresting. Means of expressiveness are like a skillfully chosen accessory. It happens that you don't even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.