Pros and cons of hydrogen release on the Russian platform
V. Larin, N. Larin
Compact hydrogen gas analyzers were invented in Russia several years ago. These devices make it possible to determine the concentration of hydrogen (in a mixture of other gases) in the field. As a result of the work carried out (2005-2009), we found anomalously high hydrogen contents in the subsoil air in the central regions of the European part of Russia.
“Microseismic sounding”(Russian“ know how ”, author A.V. Gorbatikov) revealed in the“ hydrogen anomalies ”supply channels going deep into the earth's crust and into the mantle horizons of the planet. Thus, it has been established that areal subsoil hydrogen anomalies feed from vertical pipe-like zones located at a depth - a kind of “ hydrogen wires”. And it is very likely that from these zones it will be possible to select hydrogen by boreholes, the depth of which will be 1-1.5 km.
We know where and how to look for these "hydrogen wires"... We are ready to acquaint all interested parties with our equipment, measurement methodology and the results of our research. We can also show at specific objects the outputs of hydrogen flows, and the negative impact of this phenomenon on nature: various funnels, vast zones of subsidence of the earth, destruction of the humus component of chernozem, destruction of forests in areas of hydrogen outflows, etc.
Currently, many countries dream of converting transport and energy to hydrogen. However, there is a problem associated with the production of hydrogen. It is supposed to be produced mainly by electrolysis of water. But the combustion of such hydrogen gives much less energy compared to that spent on electrolysis. Experts see this as an insurmountable impasse. At the same time, the “ hydrogen wires”Remove this problem, and open up real prospects for the development of hydrogen energy.
Research "on hydrogen" was carried out by us privately and at our own (personal) funds. We did what we could. We have identified a previously unknown phenomenon - outflows of hydrogen fluxes from deep bowels of the planet at the present stage of its development, and now we can say that this phenomenon has a grandiose scale of manifestation. But for the further development of this promising area, financial support is needed.
New perspectives
Hydrogen energy
Jets and streams of deep hydrogen create very characteristic structural forms on the surface of the day, which are well read on space images of the Earth. This made it possible to determine the territorial distribution of hydrogen outlets. Deciphering space images and our expeditions have shown that practically the entire European part of Russia can be equipped with wells producing hydrogen. It can be used locally to generate electricity and distribute it to adjacent areas. Such a decentralized energy supply is immune to natural disasters and terrorist attacks. At the same time, for the implementation of this innovation, it is not necessary to invent anything fundamentally new. Therefore, the implementation can be carried out quickly, and accordingly the investment will pay off quickly.
Replenishment of oil and gas fields
The chemical composition of oil and gas contains from 2.5 to 4 hydrogen atoms per carbon atom, while the composition of organic residues of sedimentary rocks (oil source) contains no more than one hydrogen per carbon. In this regard, it is quite obvious that the problem of the origin of hydrocarbon raw materials is, first of all, the problem of the source of hydrogen.
In the light of hydrogen degassing, it becomes clear why oil does not run out in some fields, from which several times more than what has been explored has already been selected. Or why depleted deposits are replenished 10-15 years after they have been completely depleted. And where do the giant oil fields come from in ancient granite-gneisses of originally magmatic genesis, in which there have never been oil source strata, but there are carbon-bearing minerals.
In all likelihood, the degassing of deep hydrogen discovered by us will force us to revise upward the forecast estimates of oil and gas reserves on the planet.
Negative consequences
Karst on Hydrogen Outlets
According to geoecologists, 15% of Moscow's territory is at risk for karst, and sinkholes in these areas can occur at any time. Experts know about this, speak and warn, but do not show much activity in forcing the authorities to take appropriate measures. Apparently, the prevailing opinion about the “unhurried” formation of karst cavities is a calming factor, but it is true only when the voids are formed due to the seepage of rain and snow waters. These waters are cold and essentially distilled. Therefore, they have very little ability to dissolve carbonates.
However, in the light of the existence of hydrogen streams, the dynamics of the formation of karst cavities can be completely different. The zones of the outflow of hydrogen must certainly be watered. Buried oxygen is present in the upper horizons of the sedimentary cover in pores and cracks, as well as a lot of oxygen weakly bound chemically (in hydroxides of iron, manganese, etc.). Hydrogen (literally “ giving birth to water”) Will certainly produce juvenile water, which should be warm (due to the geothermal gradient) and acidified with various acids. But such water very willingly "eats" carbonates, and thus karst can be fast phenomenon ( "Fast" within the scope of the duration of human life, not geological time).
The decisions to build skyscrapers in Moscow were made without taking into account the hydrogen factor. But if there are hydrogen jets within the city (and they are!) Capable of producing water (“warm” and chemically aggressive), then this water, first of all, will erode rocks that are in a stressed state, i.e. will erode rocks under the foundations of skyscrapers. And there is no need to refer to the high-rise buildings of Stalin's construction, which have stood for more than half a century. First, they were built differently; and secondly, the outflow of hydrogen appears to have intensified over time. In recent years, the media have increasingly reported on sinkholes in Moscow. Previously, this did not seem to have happened.
Destruction of underground metal structures
Now in many places the measured hydrogen concentration reaches 1.5-1.7%. However, when sampling subsoil gas, we cannot exclude an admixture of atmospheric air, where there is practically no hydrogen. Taking into account this dilution, the actual concentration of hydrogen in the subsoil air can reach 2.5-3%. Technologists are well aware of the phenomenon of catastrophic fragility of metals that occurs during their long (months) exposure to such a gas mixture. As a result, underground metal structures and communications can become so fragile that they will be destroyed by their own weight of engineering structures or with ground movements, even very insignificant. Until now, in the design and construction of NPP-type facilities, the destruction of which is fraught with catastrophic consequences, the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement of metals has not been taken into account in any way. However, a high content of hydrogen in the subsoil air was found, and this factor must be taken into account.
Explosions in mines
I would like to outline one direction in future research right now. We are talking about methane explosions in coal mines, which have recently become more and more frequent. In methane (CH4) - there are 4 hydrogen atoms per carbon atom, i.e. in terms of the number of atoms, natural gas is, first of all, hydrogen. And if streams of hydrogen come from the depths and fall into coal seams, then methane will certainly be formed. Thus, hydrogen jets right now can form hotbeds of methane accumulation in coal basins, and the methane in these hotbeds can be under sufficiently high pressure. The situation is aggravated by the fact that some time ago, when (as expected) advance drilling was carried out to determine the danger “by explosion”, these foci might not have existed, especially if this drilling was carried out several years ago. In short, if it turns out that the centers of methane accumulation in coal basins are produced by jets of hydrogen, then it will become much easier to build an effective system of preventive measures that will reduce possible risks and losses.
Volumetric vacuum explosions on the surface
An explosion occurred in the Ryazan region in April 1991, from which the city of Sasovo was severely damaged. According to experts, the power of the explosion was about 25-30 tons in TNT equivalent. However, the dimensions of the discovered crater (diameter - 28 meters and depth - 4 m) turned out to be incomparably small with the energy of the explosion. Such a funnel can be made with two tons of TNT. In addition, the grass and bushes in the immediate vicinity of the funnel were not affected by either the shock wave or the high temperature. By the nature of the damage caused to the city (torn out windows and doors were often found outside buildings), the explosion was “volumetric-vacuum”. Such explosions are possible only in the atmosphere.
We have identified very intense outflows of hydrogen in this area, and in this regard, we explain this phenomenon as follows. The funnel was formed as a result of the breakthrough of an endogenous stream of hydrogen onto the surface. In the atmosphere, due to mixing with oxygen, a cloud of detonating gas was formed, and a “volumetric-vacuum explosion” took place. In this regard, the funnel should be called “breakout”.
In June 1992, 5.5 km north-west of Sasovo, another breakthrough funnel (diameter - 12 m, depth - 4 m) was discovered in a sown corn field. At the same time, no one heard the explosion (but when they sowed, it was not there yet). The breakthrough (non-failure) character is established by the annular ejection framing the funnel in the form of a roller. In addition, according to eyewitnesses who observed the crater in a fresh state, there were pieces and blocks of soil scattered around. During our visit (autumn 2005), it was completely dry and the concentration of hydrogen in it was several times higher than in the adjacent territory.
At first it seemed to us that the Sasovo explosion was a rare (exceptional and unlikely) phenomenon. But now, when we see the scale of the outflow of hydrogen, when our instruments more and more often go off scale, we already estimate the likelihood of events of this kind in a completely different way. Now we are forced to admit that volume-vacuum explosions of this type can become an ordinary event in the near future. Moreover, these forthcoming explosions may have a much greater power, tens and hundreds of times, which is comparable to tactical nuclear weapons. Now imagine what will happen if this happens in a densely populated area or over a metropolis?
Hydrogen whitening
On satellite images, “ring subsidence structures” are well deciphered: they appear in the form of light rings and circles at the outlets of hydrogen streams and jets. And they are especially clearly visible in the black earth zone. We specially dug holes and carried out manual drilling in order to find out the reason for this clarification. And it turned out that the outflowing hydrogen destroys black humus organic matter (the most valuable part of black soil). In chernozems, humus 8-10% are long organic molecules of complex composition. Their length is provided by the chemical bonds of carbon atoms to each other. But when they get into an environment with hydrogen, then hydrogen atoms are embedded between carbon atoms, long molecules split into shorter ones, which turn out to be volatile gases, and fly away. The black soil layer lightens and becomes light gray or beige. Of course, at the same time, its productivity is sharply reduced. You can see abandoned fields where agronomists have lost all hope of growing anything.
In addition, hydrogen has a detrimental effect on living flora directly. Trees and undergrowth perish in places where hydrogen streams emerge, and in some places grass even ceases to grow. When you see all this, you involuntarily ask yourself a question - how does hydrogen affect living fauna? We, too, are made up of long organic molecules.
Conclusion
The data we have collected do not allow us to doubt that the outflow of hydrogen from the deep bowels of the planet is currently taking place. We can also clearly see how this phenomenon is taking over new territories, where, quite recently, there were no signs of negative consequences associated with hydrogen, i.e. the process of outflow of hydrogen from the bowels of the planet has not yet stabilized, and is clearly progressing. Our study of space images of the Earth showed the global prevalence of this phenomenon. Some facts indicate its cyclical nature and, in all likelihood, we are currently living at the beginning of a new cycle. Humanity is unable to “turn it off”, but it can try (at least in places) to turn the flowing hydrogen to its advantage.
What to do?
It is necessary to learn how to identify hidden hydrogen wires at depth (we have gained a positive experience).
It is necessary to drill wells and intercept hydrogen flows at a depth of 1-1.5-2 km in order to prevent them from spreading in higher horizons. This can prevent the negative effects of hydrogen. According to our estimates, the flux of hydrogen from the bowels of the planet will exist for a very long (geological) time. Accordingly, the hydrogen production rate in the drilled wells will be maintained for a very long time (thousands of years, at least).
Cheap hydrogen from a well (unlike hydrogen obtained by electrolysis of water) is extremely beneficial to use as an energy carrier. In addition, when hydrogen is burned, only pure water is obtained, which is very important for many territories.
Hydrogen bacteria are well known to microbiologists. They have long attracted a lot of attention due to the possibility of obtaining fodder proteins that are complete in terms of amino acid composition and are well absorbed by animals. Compared to other microorganisms, hydrogen bacteria are characterized by a very high growth rate and can produce large biomass yields. Until now, this method of feed production has not been used due to the lack of cheap hydrogen. But perhaps the situation will change and the development of such a technology should be envisaged.
This is not a complete list of what can and should be done ...
V.Larin:
N. Larin: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
P.S. When looking at our data, the question usually arises - “ And why is such a large-scale phenomenon discovered only now, was it not 25-30 years ago?”? Of course, it was, and 30 years ago there was already degassing, maybe not as intense as it is now. And ring structures of subsidence already existed, but, in all likelihood, there were significantly fewer of them, and there was also less “hydrogen bleaching” of chernozems. However, the reason was not that there was less evidence, but something else. Within the framework of the prevailing ideas about the composition and structure of the planet, there should be no hydrogen degassing on the ancient platform. Usually researchers are not in the habit of looking for something that (from their point of view) cannot exist in principle. Therefore, they did not look for it. But we (the authors of this text) have long been working within the framework of a fundamentally new global geological concept, according to which the degassing of deep hydrogen is required. And as soon as hydrogen analyzers suitable for field work appeared, we bought them and went to look for hydrogen flows on the Russian Plain. We found it right away, but we must honestly say that at first we did not even suspect what the real scale of this phenomenon and its consequences would be.
Let's see what is the distance in degrees in longitude between the "spur" of the Apennine Peninsula and the Volga delta:
We have 32 degrees.
Now let's compare this distance according to Willem Janszon Blau's map of 1640: 
There is already 43 degrees.
This is the difference!
If on the old map more meridians were placed at the same distance, then the Earth was smaller?
Arguments about inaccuracies are not accepted, this is not America for you - everything was worn out and trampled down by the 17th century.
I also did not find anything about the starting point of reference (zero meridian) of Mr. Willem.
So the Earth has expanded!
The distance in degrees of longitude for stationary objects must remain unchanged. If the earth increases in size, then the meridians "move apart" and a smaller number of them are placed between the given points on the ground. Moreover, the difference in degrees does not depend on the origin of the reference point (zero meridian). The main thing is the number of degrees 360.
Read Larin's theory - the Earth really expands ("swells"). Link to the book on the net:
http://hydrogen-future.com/images/Nasha%20Zemlya,%20V.%20Larin,%202005.pdf
http://hydrogen-future.com - Earth hydride degassing
Brief explanation: metal hydrides expand to produce hydrogen.
Or the book by Yuri Babikov:
http://yadi.sk/d/f-pDoLcM25xLn
A short video on this topic:
But apart from more or less classical physical phenomena explaining these processes, there are also those from the category of "pushed back" ones. The ether theory explains the increase in the mass of the planet.
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Hydrogen Earth
Part 1. The origin and chemical composition of the planet Earth
When you ask geologists: "How is the Earth arranged?" You demand evidence, the tongue twisters are gone, but there is irritation - "here I am ... and why ask about what everyone has known for a long time." If you ask to be patient and indicate the evidence base, they begin to say something (sorry, mumble) about meteorites, and then (with obvious relief) they refer to specialists from cosmogony with parting words that this is their sphere, and that they have there everything has been proven long ago. A they have there an abundance of cosmogonic concepts, often mutually exclusive, and nothing has been proven. A person from the outside is alarmed. But what is truly shocking is that all the concepts of the Earth end up with the same - with an iron core and a silicate shell.
When trying to figure out how such unambiguity maybe with such a variety of concepts, it turns out, when cosmogonists seriously and massively began to solve the problem of the origin of the Earth (50s of the last century), version of the iron core and silicate mantle has already established itself as a dogma in the minds of most specialists in earthly sciences. Astrophysicists took this " The main dogma»In the earth sciences. And for some reason none of them thought, is this really so? Some kind of mysticism. Such brilliant minds (this is about astrophysicists) took on faith the speculative version, under which there was no evidence base, although the astute physicist Louis De Broglie, the founder of quantum mechanics, repeatedly warned “ on the need to periodically subject to a deep study of the provisions that began to be adopted without discussion».
Already in the middle of the 19th century, mathematicians and astronomers established that based on the moment of inertia of the Earth, our planet should have a significant increase in density towards the center. However, they could not know if it was happening gradually or if there was a large and dense core. At the beginning of the 20th century, the science of seismology appeared and pretty soon the network of stations was sufficient to identify the zone of "seismic shadow" from the core. Thus, the presence of the kernel was established.
A very young science has made a great discovery. And it coincided in time with the rapid industrial development of metallurgy and the blast furnace process. Iron was required for the construction of mighty battleships and luxury liners, for the construction of railways. The blast-furnace process was then considered the pinnacle of technical progress. The Age of Iron and Steam has reached its climax. Numerous excursions of the inquisitive public went to see the work of the blast furnace. It was impressive and inspiring. The mesmerizing melody "Bolero" was born to Ravel while the composer was watching the steel-making process.
Iron is the only heavy element widespread in nature, and therefore, somehow by itself, a "guess" appeared in the minds of people - the core of the Earth, of course, can only be iron. The earth gathered from cosmic dust, warmed up to melting, iron melted and collected in the center of the planet, and silicates (like slags in a blast furnace) floated up and formed the crust and mantle. Moreover, there are iron meteorites and stone (silicate) meteorites, which by that time had already been recognized as the planetary matter of the solar system. There were no other samples of this substance at that time, and therefore scientists gratefully accepted this gift from heaven. True, they did not accept it right away, the French academy, back in the 19th century, denied “stones falling from the sky”, since there can be no stone firmament in heaven (this reflected the struggle of the French encyclopedists with the dominance of churchmen in the understanding of the universe).
However, when they finally realized (at the beginning of the 20th century) that this is indeed a planetary substance, they began to treat meteorites with some reverent reverence, perceiving them almost as “ gift from above". And I suppose, " sent down"In order to help us understand the structure of our home planet. " They do not look at a given horse's teeth", Especially if this gift is" sent down from above. " And a lot of meteorites " said goodbye»: For example, and the fact that they come to us from the asteroid belt, which is located far beyond Mars, in the transition zone to the giant planets; and the fact that they constitute only a small and non-combustible fraction (less than 0.1%) of the total mass of meteoric matter burning in the Earth's atmosphere; and much more. In general, meteorites came in "just the right way" in the completion of the image of the Earth - as a large blast furnace. Even Viktor Goldschmidt (one of the founders of the science of geochemistry) suggested that the division of the Earth into geospheres occurred as a result of the melting of rocks (by analogy with the process of smelting iron in a blast furnace), and that in the center of the Earth there should be an iron-nickel alloy similar to that in meteorites. ...
Much later (in the 60s of the last century) by the shock compression method it was discovered that the density of iron in the megabar pressure range is significantly higher than the density of the earth's core. But this did not in the least confuse the supporters of the iron core hypothesis, they immediately proposed to dilute it with lighter elements (carbon, sulfur, oxygen, even potassium). In this case, the "light addition" should be approximately 20-25%. However, among the iron meteorites there are no samples with such additives, and a legitimate question arises: where are meteorites in general? And what remains "in the asset"? - the image of the Earth as a giant blast furnace! But doesn't it seem to you, dear reader, that this speculative analogy has no evidential power?
Among geologists, there is also a kind of myth that supposedly geophysics has long ago answered all questions about the internal structure of our planet. Seismic methods provide information about the inner zones of the Earth. But they give us information only about the velocities of seismic waves. And everyone seemed to have forgotten that the speed of sound can be the same in media that are completely different in composition. The famous astrophysicist Nobel laureate Fred Hoyle once made a caustic joke about this. He caught sight of the results of measurements of the speed of sound in the lunar regolith (these are dust and debris on the lunar surface). In Swiss cheese, the speeds were exactly the same. Hoyle published this concurring data in a leading scientific journal and attributed a short rhyme that translated from English roughly reads: “ It turned out that the Moon is made of Swiss cheese ?!»
And yet, by the beginning of the 50s, the version “ core - iron, shell - silicate"Acquired the status" Main dogma"In the earth sciences, and not from the fact that it received an evidence base, but simply because think so became habitual (i.e. it just became a habitual stereotype of thinking).
At the same time (early 50s), the explosions of the first hydrogen bombs marked a breakthrough in the understanding of thermonuclear reactions. Finally, it was clearly shown why the stars shine. And physicists, inspired by this success, decided at the same time to figure out, once and for all, with the problem of the origin of the Earth. But unfortunately, the version “ iron core, the rest is silicate"They took as the" finishing point "(final goal) in their theoretical research, and began to explain to us how such a planet could form.
Now there is no one to ask why they did this. After all, even a repeater, solving a problem by the method of fitting to a previously known result, first of all tries to make sure that he has spied on the correct answer, since there can be no correct solution for a false result in principle. However, gentlemen cosmogonists did not bother to examine the "foundation" on which " Main dogma". If they paid attention to this, it would immediately become clear that in this very “foundation” there are no empirically established facts, but only a speculative analogy with a blast furnace. They were not even sobered by the fact that instead of a coherent theory, they all the time turned out to be some kind of "patchwork quilt" with holes through which there was unproven.
The physical quantity is widely used in celestial mechanics mvr
, the so-called angular momentum.
Product of mass by speed "mv
"In mechanics they call"amount of movement
", And multiplication by the shoulder"r
” - “
moment
”. Hence the name of the quantity “mvr
” - “
angular momentum
”.
According to calculations, 98% of the total “ mvr “The solar system is localized in planets, the total mass of which is less than 1/700 of the mass of the Sun. It is quite obvious that even in the protoplanetary stage, practically all “ moment”Was moved from the center of the emerging system to its periphery. Without this transfer, the planetary system simply could not form. I must say that this is a big (and painful) problem for modern cosmogony. And if you, dear reader, will be assured that it is allegedly solved, do not believe these assurances. Some cosmogonists even agreed to leave this question for the future, that, they say, it "will be solved by itself", since the planets exist and, therefore, the "transfer of the moment" has somehow been realized.
However, if the "starting point" is not known, and the idea of where the "finish" is and what it is, are vague, then is it possible to find a path to follow? Surely it is possible to "get lost in three pines" or "go to the wrong steppe."
Solar wind hypothesis aims to explain the differences in the compositions of terrestrial planets and hydrogen-helium giants. It is assumed that when the Sun lit up, " sunny wind»Blew hydrogen, helium and other light elements from the inner zone of the protoplanetary disk to the periphery. And, allegedly, this is precisely what determines the differences in the compositions of the outer and inner planets. The idea is bright, but it doesn't stand up to evidence. The asteroid belt is 3 times farther from the Sun than the Earth. Accordingly, there should be more light elements. However, in meteorites (they come to us from the asteroid belt) gold and platinoids are 100 times greater than their abundance on Earth, mercury is 1000 times more. Are these elements lightweight? Or, for example, a germanium atom is about 3 times heavier than a silicon atom. According to the "solar wind" version, the Ge / Si ratio on Earth should be greater than in the asteroid belt. But, on the contrary, in meteorites this ratio is an order of magnitude greater than on Earth. In addition, germanium belongs to the geochemical class of "trace elements", and it has no tendency to concentrate anywhere. Therefore, it cannot be collected "to a heap" in a secret place, and not hidden at inaccessible depths. So it turns out that it was not the "solar wind" that determined the compositions of the planets, but some completely different process.
On At the stage of separation of the protoplanetary disk, the temperature of the protosolar nebula reached several thousand degrees (as shown by the calculations of astrophysicists). The separated disk had to cool quickly (otherwise it would simply dissipate). It is generally accepted that in this case condensation must have started - the formation of solid particles from the gas phase. And further collection of terrestrial planets is assumed in the form of a process of gravitational contraction of solid particles and bodies, which supposedly could grow to asteroid sizes. But modeling this process on modern computer technology reveals several dead-end problems.
For example, the simulation turns out many more planets than needed. To get a real picture, you need "the intervention of the creator." Everything "dances" only if we put into the orbits of the future Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury the "embryos" of planets, which are hundreds of times larger than the rest of the fragments. However, in the process of rigorous modeling, such "embryos" do not spontaneously (and even in the right places) do not appear.
But the main contradiction is seen in something else. According to " Isotope geochemistry”, The beginning of the formation of the solar system was laid by a powerful act of nucleosynthesis (believed to be the explosion of a Supernova). At the same time, the prototype of the solar system received an additional portion of elements throughout the list of the periodic system. But at the same time, a mass of short-lived radioactive isotopes with half-lives of the order of 10 5 -10 6 years was formed. This means that at the stage of the formation of the proto-solar nebula, a powerful source of ionization existed in it, and that the matter of the protoplanetary disk was in a state of plasma. Usually the term "plasma" is associated with the presence of very high temperatures in the hundreds of thousands and millions of degrees. However, plasma can be cold or, as physicists say, "non-isothermal", with low ionic and high electron temperatures. This is especially typical when ionization is carried out not by thermal heating, but by hard radiation: gamma rays, X-rays, hard ultraviolet light. Plasma state of matter excludes the possibility of sudden condensation. It would seem that it can be assumed that the protoplanetary disk has waited millions of years until the ionization source dries up in it (short-lived isotopes will die out), so that condensation begins, and then everything would go according to the “knurled scenario” of collecting planets from solid particles and bodies. However, this assumption is contradicted by the data of the same isotopic geochemistry. Most likely, this “rolled-up scenario” will have to be thrown into the trash can and start looking for something fundamentally new. The list of these “holes with unproven” can be continued for a long time, and one has to admit that we do not have a coherent and consistent picture of the origin of the Earth. Among astrophysicists, there is even an opinion that nature is supposedly too complex and therefore incomprehensible for the current level of development of science. The theory to which this book is devoted is not only based on well-known empirical facts, but also made it possible to make several completely brilliant predictions, thereby confirming its truth. But the conclusions following from this theory are so unusual, so overwhelming that not all scientists are ready to accept it today. So, the substance scattered by the explosion mixed with cosmic dust. Then, gradually, under the influence of gravity, this mixture began to pull towards a new center of gravity, the appearance of which in the spiral arm of our galaxy was provoked by a supernova explosion. The more the nebula was compressed, the faster it rotated - like a skater who presses outstretched arms, gathering "in a heap", and thereby sharply increases the speed of its rotation. The rotation speed of our nebula has grown from almost zero at the very beginning of compression to very noticeable values. And in the end, centrifugal forces counterbalanced the forces of gravity and the compression stopped. The moment of the so-called rotational instability has come. At this time, the nebula resembled a biconvex lens. The diameter of this gas and dust formation exactly fit into the current orbit of Mercury - 100 million kilometers. In the middle of the cold, foggy lens, there was a thickening, which later turned into the Sun, and at the periphery there was a more or less rarefied gas. In another way, astronomers call such a nebula a nebula. The temperature in the center of the nebula was then nothing but a few thousand degrees. Normal physical heating of a compressing gas.
Today we know the total amount of matter in the solar system and, based on this, we can quantitatively estimate the time interval from the moment of the supernova explosion to the moment of the onset of rotational instability. This process, I must admit, took some time. True, according to the astronomical clock, the time is absolutely insignificant - a million years. The evolution of the stellar system proceeded exponentially.
What was this very gas, which condensed into a spinning flattened nebula? A cool mess of brand new atoms produced in the nuclear furnace of a supernova and then scattered by an explosion across interstellar space! The entire periodic table was there. There were also radioactive elements - both long-lived and with a half-life of one hundred thousand or a million years. Now they are no longer in our solar system - they have become extinct long ago. And once they were and played a very important role. In short, due to radioactivity and its attendant ionization, our nebula consisted of a partially ionized gas - plasma. Plasma is an electrical conductor. And in the center of the nebula, which by that time had been heated to several thousand degrees and therefore began to glow dimly with a dark red light, the first convection currents appeared, which carried excess heat to the outer borders of the nebula. From the hot center, the heated gas rose up, cooled down, and again went down.
The Coriolis forces - the same ones that we passed in school and because of which the rivers in the northern hemisphere are undermining the right bank - swirled the convection currents of plasma in our nebula against the direction of rotation of the nebula. They wound in spirals, and this whole structure resembled a solenoid. To this picture it is necessary to add the lines of force of the galaxy's magnetic field, which thickened in the nebula and acquired the shape of a "grandmother's ball of wool" (in fact, they wound onto the nebula when collecting its mass). So what happened? The classic picture is conductors (convection plasma flows) moving in a magnetic field. Electric motor! Electric currents must be generated in the conductors. But since these conductors are twisted into a solenoid coil, such a structure must generate its own magnetic field. And this field was very powerful, since the energy for it was drawn directly from the energy of the gravitational contraction of the future star.
The nebula, rigidly reinforced, like a skeleton, by magnetic lines of force, began to rotate as a whole - as a solid body, that is, the angular velocity of all atoms in it became the same. Before that, it rotated like a cloud of gas: different layers and particles were carried at different speeds; this is how the sun rotates now - in layers. And here a curious moment arises. We said here that the nebula was a lens-shaped gas nebula. What do you think was the density of this nebula? Was she like air? No! It was almost empty, practically a laboratory vacuum. And this "almost emptiness" with rare particles and magnetic lines of force "frozen in" into it rotated as a whole! Isn't it amazing? In addition, there was a significant flattening of the plump lens of the nebula, it became more like a coin. And now, some time after the nebula ceased to be a chaotic mess, “grabbed” and began to rotate as a single whole, our external observer would see an amazing picture - a sharp discharge of the equatorial part of the spinning nebula. The physics of this process should be understandable to people who are well acquainted with theoretical mechanics, and is completely uninteresting to the general reader. It's just that part of the mass was abruptly separated from the equator of the spinning nebula, forming a "smoke ring". Later, the planets appeared from this ring ...
The moment of momentum was dropped - the skater spread out his clasped hands, and his rotation slowed down. The nebula began to spin more slowly, so the Coriolis forces in the center of concentration weakened almost to zero, the plasma jets stopped spinning in spirals, the solenoid collapsed, and with it the generation of the nebula's magnetic field was turned off. It turns out that the nebula seemed to deliberately turn on its own magnetic field in order to throw off part of the mass to form the planetary system. How long did this cosmic moment last when part of the excess mass was dropped and the protoplanetary disk was formed? A paltry hundred years! An impressive instant chord after a million years of at first unhurried and then accelerating thickening! Well, then it went like clockwork. Since the rotation speed of the central condensation (protosun) dropped, the centrifugal forces could no longer resist gravity, the gas began to actively contract, the temperature rose, and, eventually, in the center of this entire gas heap, consisting mainly of hydrogen, thermonuclear reactions began - ignited star. And what happened at this time with the dropped gas bagel, orbiting the star? He began to live his life. And this life was amazing.
The magnetic field of the nebula was quite strong before it was turned off. And the inner part of the protoplanetary disk, covered by this field, was ionized, that is, conductive. When the switch was turned off (the solenoid disintegrated) and the field began to collapse, circular electric currents were directed in the conductive disk. A well-known thing: remember the school experience - the teacher opens the circuit in the induction coil, and the voltmeter needle makes a swing, fixing the voltage surge. This is due to the induction of a current in the coil, which tends to keep the magnetic field from decaying. In the school experience, this phenomenon (voltage surge) lasts for a fraction of a second. But in the nebula, the solenoid coil was a thousand billion times larger. Therefore, the power surge extended over thousands of years. And all this time, powerful electric currents were walking in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk (where terrestrial planets were later formed). As a result, the gas bagel began to split into many thinner individual rings. This is because currents flowing in one direction are attracted. At first there were a lot of these thin rings around the protosolar nebula, but then they began to merge with each other. Moreover, the merger of several adjacent thin gas rings into one did not lead to its thickening. On the contrary, the cross-section of the rings decreased, they became denser and denser for the same reasons of mutual attraction.
And then an unusual phenomenon occurred - thin gas hoops revolving around the protosun began in some places as if pulled by invisible threads, turning into a ring bunch of "sausages" of unequal length. In physics, this phenomenon is called the pinch effect: when a current flows through the plasma filament, annular cuffs of magnetic field lines begin to form on it, which soon pinch the conductor completely. Later, under the influence of gravity, these sausages turned into gas balls - globules, from which the planets were then assembled. There were tens of thousands of different-sized globules, and their diameters reached a million kilometers. The further process of assembling planets from gas globules is well known to modern science, it was perfectly described mathematically by Russian scientists Timur Eneev and Nikolai Kozlov back in 1980. Moreover, it is interesting that their remarkable discovery was made, as they say, "out of poverty." More precisely, to simplify the work. Before Eneev and Kozlov, it was believed that the planets were collected from solid particles attracted to each other - first small dust grains, then larger pieces, such as a meteorite, then from gizmos the size of a good asteroid ...
But it was impossible to calculate mathematically the collision of myriads of elastic particles on the computers of that time because of the different results of the collisions. Indeed, when solid particles collide, their adhesion and crushing are possible, as well as an elastic shock with expansion ... The computer could calculate only a thousand of such interacting particles. Too little! ... The task seemed insurmountable. And I wanted to count. Therefore, Eneev and Kozlov made themselves a favor. They decided that each approach of two particles ends with their merger, and not repulsion and fragmentation. This made it possible to increase the number of particles from a thousand to tens of thousands. But in physical essence, this assumption meant one thing: scientists actually abandoned the model of solid bodies' unification and switched to a model of absolutely inelastic collisions, similar to mercury droplets merging. Completely different physics! Contradicted the then ideas about the birth of the solar system, but made possible the calculations. The counting gave an unexpected result. The car, humming, showed a picture of the solar system, which fully corresponds to the real one! The Eneev-Kozlov model gave not only such fundamental parameters of the solar system as the required number of planets and the Titius-Bode law (the law of planetary distances), but even the peculiarities of the rotation of individual planets, for example, the reverse rotation of Venus!
This could only mean one thing: the model was most likely correct, and the collisions were indeed inelastic. But for the final triumph of the model and assigning it the title of true, it was still necessary to make a prediction. And such a prediction was made by Eneev and Kozlov: in accordance with their model, there should be another asteroid belt in the solar system - beyond Neptune ... Everyone, except the French, knows the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. But even scientists then knew nothing about the second asteroid belt. However, later this belt was discovered, hundreds of asteroids with a diameter of 200-300 km revolve there ... So the hypothesis became a theory. There remained only one question: why were the collisions of protoplanetary globules inelastic, although, in theory, they should have been elastic? Now the answer to it has been found: the ionization of the gas, which was constantly supported by short-lived radioactive elements, did not allow particles of matter to collect into solid and therefore elastic lumps - the electrostatic repulsion of positively charged ions resisted the forces of universal gravity. That is why the collection of planets took place not from solid particles and bodies, but from gaseous protoplanetary clumps - globules. As the proto-earth was collected, its mass increased and, accordingly, the forces of gravitational contraction increased. This led to an increase in the average density. As a result, the radius of the growing protoplanet remained within a million kilometers. At first, other terrestrial planets were in the same state (of gas protoplanets). And only then did the condensation begin, since by this time the short-lived isotopes had died out and the degree of ionization began to decrease. In a gas protoplanet, united by the forces of gravity, the growth of large solid bodies was impossible, and the condensation of proto-matter with its subsequent compaction into a solid planet was like a "soft ash fall" to the center of gravity.
It took place rather slowly - over the next million years - and resembled either the merging of drops, or the sticking together of large ash flakes in slow flight. From this "ashes" the Earth was made. Science, for example, has long known that 98% of the angular momentum of the solar system is concentrated in its planets, although the mass of the planets is only 1/700 of the mass of the sun (angular momentum is the product of mass and speed and distance to the center of rotation: M = m v r). And it was completely incomprehensible how the nebula managed to throw off part of the matter along with the moment of momentum for further production of the planetary system from it. This painful question did not find an answer for a very long time, until the English astrophysicist Fred Hoyle suggested that its own magnetic field could help in dropping the extra mass of the nebula. As soon as the magnetic field turned on and made the nebula rotate as a whole, that is, with the same angular velocity , so immediately the angular momentum, expressed through this same angular velocity, took the following form: M = m ·? · r ^ 2. A square appeared in the formula! That is, in a system that rotates with one angular velocity, the angular momentum "by itself" has shifted to the edge of the system. That is why there was a separation. And when the gas bagel came off the equator of the nebula, the "extra" moment of momentum left with it. What we have the pleasure of observing and counting today ... Excellent explanation!
Hoyle's guess was not believed for a long time. The fact is that young stars that have just lit up do not have a magnetic field that goes beyond the limits of the star itself. And to dump a donut, you needed a field stretching hundreds of millions of kilometers from the protosun! And it was embarrassing ... But Hoyle did not say anything about the already lit star, he was talking about the protostar - the nebula. And his guess that a short burst of the magnetic field of the nebula played a decisive role in the birth of the planetary system was later successfully supplemented by the physical mechanism of how exactly it could turn on and off (in a very simplified way, we described this mechanism in the chapter above). So, Hoyle, a Nobel laureate, gave up the guess that it was the magnetic field of the nebula that played an important role in the formation of the planetary system. The thought was thrown to them at the level of a pure idea, without a detailed thought over the mechanism for switching the field on and off. This mechanism was later worked out by other people. Developed and supplemented with very important details. Who exactly? This was done by the Soviet scientist Vladimir Larin, who brilliantly brought together everything that was known before him and arranged it all in a logical order. Indeed, having drawn the picture of the birth of the solar system described above, Larin himself did not discover anything new. Let's go back 4.5 billion years ago, to the time when in those zones where planets will soon appear, still hefty loose formations made of soft flakes of sticky matter were flying. What were the flakes made of? The fact is that in each zone where the planets were formed, the composition of the chemical elements was different. In other words, the ingredients of all the pie planets in our solar system were different. Why did this happen, because the initial composition of the nebula was chaotic, that is, completely homogeneous? Because the matter in the nebula was partially ionized, and after the protoplanetary donut was dropped, it had to fly away from the proto-sun, pushing its way through the magnetic field lines. And ionized particles, that is, particles with an electric charge, cannot cross the lattice of magnetic field lines as freely as neutral particles. The magnetic field slows them down, stops them. At the same time, atoms of different elements have different propensities for ionization. Therefore, some atoms - with a high propensity to ionization - are retained near the protosun by the magnetic field, while others, whose propensity to ionization is low, fly away freely. That is why giant gas bubbles (Jupiter, Saturn, etc.) are spinning at the periphery of the solar system. ), and near the Sun - small "metal" planets. Neutral particles freely fly through the magnetic "rods". The tendency of chemical elements to ionize is called the ionization potential. And if you take a plate with the ionization potentials of all elements of the periodic table, then you can estimate how exactly the magnetic separation of matter took place, how many, what elements and at what distance from the Sun hung in different zones. In other words, from what then did the Earth, Mars, Venus come together ...
But first, let's see if this idea itself is true: did the magnetic field of the nebula really play a decisive role in the separation of chemical elements. This conjecture is easy to check, since we know something about the composition of different bodies in the solar system. The distribution of elements in the solar system really depends on their ionization potential. The system works! ... The model of the Earth, which in the XX century was established in the minds of scientists, looks as follows: after the planet finally gathered from the space trash into a heap, it warmed up to high temperatures, the iron melted in it and the glass went down to the center of the planet, and the slags floated upward, as happens in a blast furnace. So it turned out an iron core and a silicate mantle. Analysis of meteorite matter seemed to confirm this hypothesis: there are iron meteorites, and there are stone (silicate) ones. And everything seems to converge: here it is, the interplanetary matter from which the planets were formed! To the question of how it happened that the outer planets are gas bubbles, and the inner ones are solid and iron, they answered as follows. The solar wind easily blew the light elements of the periodic table to the edge of the system, and gas giants formed from them. And heavy elements are more inertial, so they stayed close to the Sun, and from them terrestrial planets were formed - small and heavy. But gradually began to accumulate facts contradicting her. And, as usually happens, at first these facts were hardly noticed. When a fact comes up that contradicts the existing theory, a patch is immediately put on the theory - a small clarification is introduced, which, with a stretch, could explain this fact. Apparently, the contradictory facts must accumulate in a certain critical mass before exploding ... And they accumulated.
Twenty years after World War II, physicists who were engaged in explosive compression of metals discovered that at high pressures (such as in the center of the Earth) the density of iron is noticeably greater than the density of the earth's core. They immediately offered a patch: let's say there is not pure iron, but with impurities of carbon, potassium, and something else. They also reduce the density. If the impurities are about 25%, then the density should just be the same. Well, okay, sort of fit the answer. But patches are so bad that they raise new questions, in response to which you also need to put patches ... Let's say there is iron with an admixture in the Earth's core. But why, then, are there no such impurities in meteorites? After all, iron meteorites were just one of the arguments in accepting the hypothesis of an iron core! But putting a patch on a patch is somehow completely undignified, so no one has given an answer to this question. By the way, about meteorites! How on time they flew up here ... Analysis of meteorite matter shows that it is full of gold, mercury and platinoids. Well, what does it mean full? This means that the abundance of precious metals between Mars and Jupiter, from where meteorites come to us, is 100 times higher than their content on Earth, and there is generally 1000 times more mercury there than here. How can this be if the solar wind drove light elements to the outskirts of the solar system? And such heavy ones as precious metals and mercury should have remained near the star. That is, there should be 100-1000 times more of them on Earth, and not beyond Mars! Or take germanium. Germanium is three times heavier than silicon. This means that the germanium / silicon ratio in the belt where the Earth was formed should be greater than in the asteroid belt. Nothing of the kind, the opposite is true! ... Some kind of devilry.
But if you remember Hoyle's guess, which Larin proved, then everything immediately falls into place. Gold and platinum have a high ionization potential. It is difficult to remove an electron from them, so they remain electrically neutral for a longer time. Accordingly, these elements can be dragged much further through the rods of the magnetic lines of force. And dragged them! Therefore, there is more gold and platinum in the asteroid belt (in meteorites) than on Earth. Well, judge for yourself, what does heavy, metallic and very low-melting mercury have in common with carbon - non-metallic, light and refractory? Well these are just some kind of chemical antagonists! ... But no! They have one thing in common! And this is common - the ionization potential of the first electron. That is why such dissimilar mercury and carbon appeared together, side by side - between Mars and Jupiter. The situation is similar with sulfur, osmium, beryllium, iridium ... There are a lot of them in meteorites. And what is not enough in meteorites? In meteorites there is little cesium, uranium, rubidium, potassium ... They are easily ionized, easily slowed down by a magnetic field. Therefore, there are more of them on Earth than on Mars. And on Mercury, there should be unmeasured ones at all! Everything seems to be taking shape ... And that means that now we can determine what the Earth is actually made of. We have all the data for this.
The ionization potentials of chemical elements are known. We also know the composition of the primitive nebula - it corresponds to the composition of the Sun. The composition of the Sun is well known to us, for four billion years of burning it has hardly changed, except that some of the hydrogen burned out and turned into helium. Well, a little more lithium and beryllium were spent - literally a penny. And everything else remained intact! Great, isn't it? And it is not at all like what the established theory draws. There is very little iron here. The core is clearly not enough. For an iron core - the kind that supposedly is in the center of the Earth, the iron should have been at least 40 weight percent. And it is four times less ... And it does not work very well with a silicate shell. For the Earth to have a mantle of silicates, it needs at least 30 weight percent oxygen. And it is thirty times less! But now we have a lot of silicon, magnesium, hydrogen. By the way, about hydrogen ... In the framework of the old "theory of an iron core and a silicate shell", there is almost no hydrogen on Earth. And the minuscule that is, has long been bound by oxygen and splashes in the form of water in our taps and oceans. But in the new picture of the world ... In the new picture of the world, hydrogen turns everything upside down. Literally everything! It radically changes the picture of the past, present, and most importantly, the future of our planet.
To be continued.
After 2000, media interest in ozone depletion plummeted. You can even say that he disappeared altogether. However, the problem of ozone layer depletion itself has not gone away. Its destruction is going on more intensively than ever, and ozone holes simply "dance" around the planet. They especially loved Europe: in terms of the frequency of occurrence of deep (up to 50-60% ozone losses) holes, Western Europe now ranks second in the world after Antarctica! It is interesting that for their appearance holes are often "chosen" by holiday dates. On the first day of 1998 over the Baltics, the ozone layer thinned by almost 70%, and on the last Catholic Christmas it was clearly lacking in Sweden and Norway.
Obviously, in addition to the "Freon" hypothesis marked by the 1995 Nobel Prize, strictly adapted to Antarctic conditions, it is necessary to seek and discuss other theories that can explain the cause of ozone holes in Europe. At least one such theory already exists - the hydrogen concept of ozone depletion. It proceeds from the assumption that the main enemy of stratospheric ozone is the deep gases of the Earth - hydrogen and methane.
Hydrogen is the enemy of ozone
The mechanism of the hydrogen decomposition of ozone was discovered back in 1965 and has been well studied by now. The key role in them belongs to the OH - hydroxyl group formed by the interaction of hydrogen, methane and water molecules with atomic oxygen. These ions quite actively "break up" ozone molecules, acting as a catalyst for the hydrogen cycle of ozone decomposition, which can be represented by the following reactions:
OH + O 3 = HO 2 + O 2,
HO 2 + O 3 = OH + 2 O 2,
Bottom line: 2 O 3 = 3 O 2.
In total, the cycle has more than forty reactions and is always interrupted by the formation of water according to the scheme
OH + HO 2 = H 2 O + O 2,
OH + OH = H 2 O + O.
Where does the hydrogen come from in the atmosphere is also quite understandable: the release of this gas and methane from the depths of the Earth is a phenomenon well known to geologists studying planetary degassing. Only this phenomenon for some reason has never been taken into account by experts in the field of atmospheric chemistry when considering the possible causes of the destruction of the ozone layer.
Light gases hydrogen and methane, released from the bowels to the earth's surface, quickly rise to stratospheric heights, where they actively react with ozone. The resulting water freezes at stratospheric altitudes to form stratospheric clouds. The presence of streams of hydrogen, methane, and many other gases coming from the ground has long been confirmed by multiple instrumental measurements. In the 80s of the last century, Academician Alexei Alexandrovich Marakushev formulated a hypothesis that the main repository of the planetary supply of hydrogen is the liquid core of the Earth. The crystallization process of the solid inner core leads to the distillation of hydrogen into the outer outer zone of the liquid core, to the border with the mantle.
The same instrumental measurements also revealed an important feature of deep degassing. The outflow of gases is uneven in time and occurs mainly (hundreds of times more than in other areas of the planets) in rift zones located on the crests of mid-ocean ridges. The apparent coincidence of major ozone anomalies and rift zones is a strong argument in favor of the hydrogen concept.
Hazardous areas
It is well known that the most severe and frequent destruction of the ozone layer is over Antarctica. But it is here that the mid-ocean ridges (rifts) approach as closely as possible and merge into a single Circumantarctic rift - they merge (we pay special attention to this!) With their southern segments, where, according to geophysical studies, the mantle is most heated and degassing is most active. Thus, Antarctica is a part of the planet over which the most abundant flows of reducing fluids are summed up, and the atmosphere is subject to the maximum blowing by natural ozone-depleting gases under terrestrial conditions. That is why the effect of destruction of the ozone layer is most pronounced here.
The above is confirmed by the "stellar" form of ozone anomalies over Antarctica. On the maps of anomalies obtained by orbiting observatories, it is perfectly visible that the rays of the "ozone stars" are projected onto the southern ends of the oceanic rift zones. So far, there is no other theory capable of explaining this phenomenon. It is impossible to dismiss it as an accident, since the Antarctic "ozone stars" have been recorded more than once. They usually appear in late October - early November.
The results of fundamental importance for the hydrogen concept regarding ozone anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere were obtained at the Central Aerological Observatory of Roshydromet. Here, all the observation series of the world ground-based network of ozonometric stations were analyzed in order to identify those of them where lower TO values were most often recorded. As a result of the studies carried out, three of the most stable ozone minima in the Northern Hemisphere - about. Iceland, Red Sea, Hawaiian Islands. It is easy to see that all of these points are as far away from industrial areas as possible, but they are active centers of volcanism. They are distinguished by intense modern volcanic activity, which is accompanied by streams of ozone-depleting gases. An important feature of these centers is the extremely high ratio of helium isotopes 3 He / 4 He, which indicates the deep nature of the gas flows.
The distribution of ozone anomalies over the territory of Russia is even more revealing. The centers of such anomalies are shown on the map of the centers of ozone anomalies that arose over Russia and adjacent territories from November 1991 to 2000. They are grouped into several clearly distinguishable clusters - the Ural-Caspian, West Siberian, East Siberian, Sakhalin-Indigirsky ... One of them is located above the north-west of the European part of Russia and it could be called the White Sea-Baltic or Scandinavian. I would like to note that for the compilation of this map, more than a hundred maps of the average monthly TO deficit were used, compiled in the Central Administrative District of Roshydromet.
In addition, it is impossible not to notice that in each of the groups the centers are distributed along the meridian. Why this is happening, it will also immediately become clear if you superimpose on this map another one - which shows areas where increased flows of deep-seated gases were recorded at different times and by different methods. These areas are located along the so-called submeridional faults, and hydrogen-methane sources have been discovered near each of them - on the Kola Peninsula, around the lake. Baikal, in the kimberlite pipes of Yakutia, in the Urals, in the Caspian region, on the Ustyurt plateau ...
The geological addresses of ozone anomalies in Western Europe are just as obvious. They often occur over the Rhine-Libyan rift zone stretching from the Oslo graben in Sweden to North Africa. But the centers of the above "New Year" anomaly of 1998 and "Rozhdestvenskaya" 2007 can be associated with the rift zone of the Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea.
Time factor
There is an explanation for the unevenness of gas emissions into the atmosphere and over time. But their power can sometimes increase millions of times! The reason is in seismic activity or cosmic "influences". The latter means, first of all, the gravitational effect of the Moon and the Sun, which reduces the pressure on the liquid core, the main planetary reservoir of hydrogen, and also makes the internally solid core inside the liquid “move”, which also contributes to increased degassing.
The generally accepted "freon" hypothesis associates ozone anomalies with the changing seasons in Antarctica. She proposes such a sequence of events. In winter, due to extreme cold weather, polar stratospheric clouds are formed in the stratosphere of Antarctica. Chlorine-containing freons, which got here as a result of general mixing of atmospheric air, break down on ice particles and release free chlorine, which freezes into the micro-ice. In the spring (to the north of the equator at this time in autumn), with the arrival of sunlight and heat, the stratospheric clouds melt, chlorine is released, which intensively destroys ozone. Thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica indeed reveals such a pattern. In this sense, the prediction of the Freon theory is correct. But the analysis of thousands of satellite maps of the TOC planetary field shows that the intensification of the destruction of the ozone layer in late autumn and early winter occurs almost synchronously throughout the planet. The Nobel hypothesis can no longer explain this in principle.
But it is the temporal heterogeneity that shows the predictive power of the alternative hypothesis. A continuous series of five-minute records of the maximum every second measurements of the subsoil hydrogen concentration in the Khibiny massif, carried out in 2007 with the assistance of researchers from the Geological Institute of the Kola Science Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the city of Apatity, showed the periodicity in its change. The main period turned out to be associated with the daily rotation of the Earth (that is, it was close to 24 hours). The periods of 7.2 and 13.9 days were clearly revealed, falling on the moments of the changes of the lunar phases. The discovered temporal patterns of degassing directly indicate the dependence of this process on the gravitational influence of the space environment on the Earth. From this point of view, the autumn planetary synchronicity in the destruction of the ozonosphere in different parts of the globe means an increase in deep degassing associated with the approach of the Earth to the perihelion point in the circumsolar orbit.
An obvious weakness?
The hydrogen concept of ozone depletion, in turn, has its weak points. The main ones are expressed in the form of two questions: 1) Can a sufficient amount of ozone-depleting gases be released from geological structures to explain all the observed phenomena? 2) Can these gases rise to the stratosphere, where the ozone concentration is maximum?
Indeed, two years ago, the journal Nature published an article by Dr. Frank Keppler that made a lot of noise. It proved that the share of biogenic atmospheric methane significantly exceeds the share of technogenic one. According to his estimates, methane formed on the surface of swamps and rice fields, in the stomachs of livestock and termites' dwellings, is emitted in an amount of 500 Tg annually (1 Tg = 10 9 g = 10 6 tons). But the most modest estimates of the endogenous (deep) component of the hydrogen-methane flux into the atmosphere based on the ratios of carbon isotopes give 2500–3000 Tg / year, a value 5–6 times greater. High, close to the indicated estimates of deep methane fluxes are also given by calculations performed at the academic institutes of Physics of the Earth and Dynamics of Geospheres.
However, it is not enough for methane and hydrogen to simply be above the earth's surface - for the described phenomena to occur, they need to reach the lower layers of the stratosphere, where the main reserves of ozone are concentrated. Many researchers believe that this is impossible, because gases are strongly loosened by wind currents during ascent. In addition, some opponents of the hydrogen concept believe that the breakthrough of any gases into the stratosphere outside the intertropical zone is impossible. In modern scientific literature, there are various numerical calculations and model constructions that answer these questions in different ways.
The experiment was to play a decisive role. This problem could well be solved by monitoring the release of hydrogen in known degassing centers in order to establish a correlation between the release of hydrogen and the drop in ozone content over a given area. The synchronicity of these processes - the intensification of hydrogen degassing and the drop in the total ozone content - should mean the correctness of the hydrogen concept. It took several years to organize such an inspection.
The goal of the experiment was achieved in 2005. A hydrogen sensor, installed with the help of the Kola geologists in the Khibiny Mountains, long known for intense emissions of methane and hydrogen, showed significant peaks in hydrogen concentration on the full moon on April 26-27 (see: Syvorotkin V.L... Experimental confirmation of the hydrogen concept of destruction of the ozone layer of the Earth // System planet Earth. Materials of the XIII scientific seminar. M., 2005. S. 265–267). On the same days, a significant decrease in TO was recorded at the Murmansk ozonometric station. The same ozone anomaly over the Kola Peninsula was "seen" by the American space satellite EarthProbe. From a methodological point of view, this means that it was in April 2005 that the "hydrogen" hypothesis of ozone depletion became a theory.
