Home Indoor flowers Indian language group on the map. The meaning of Indo-Iranian languages in the linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. Selected languages of the Far East that are not included in any groups

Indoor flowers

Indian language group on the map. The meaning of Indo-Iranian languages in the linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. Selected languages of the Far East that are not included in any groups

Spread of modern Indo-Aryan and Dardic languages Central and east-central zones Northern zone Northwest zone Eastern zone Southern zone Insular

Indo-Aryan languages(Indian) - a group of related languages included (together with Iranian languages and closely related Dardic languages) in Indo-Iranian languages, one of the branches of Indo-European languages. Distributed in South Asia: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal; outside this region - Romani languages, Domari and Parya (Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is about 1 billion people. (estimate, 2007).


Indo-Iranian (Aryan) languages
Nuristani
Ethnic groups
Indo-Aryans Iranians Dards Nuristanis
Religions
Pro-Indo-Iranian religion Vedic religion Hindu Kush religion Hinduism Buddhism Zoroastrianism
Ancient literature
Vedas Avesta

Classification

Until now, there is no generally accepted classification of the New Indian languages. The first attempts were made in the 1880s. German linguist A.F.R. Hoernle. The most famous were the classification of the Anglo-Irish linguist J. A. Grierson and the Indian linguist S. K. Chatterjee (1926).

Grierson's first classification (1920s), which was later rejected by most scholars, is based on the distinction between "external" (peripheral) languages and "internal" (which should have corresponded to the early and late waves of migration of the Aryans to India from the northwest) ... The "external" languages were divided into northwestern (Lakhnda, Sindhi), southern (Marathi) and eastern (Oriya, Bihari, Bengali, Assamese) subgroups. "Internal" languages were divided into 2 subgroups: central (Western Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Bhili, Khadeshi, Rajasthani) and Pahari (Nepali, central Pahari, Western Pahari). The intermediate subgroup (Mediate) includes Eastern Hindi. In the 1931 edition, a significantly revised version of this classification was presented, mainly due to the transfer of all languages, except for Western Hindi, from the central to the intermediate group. At the same time, Ethnologue 2005 still adopts the oldest Grierson classification of the 1920s.

Later, their variants of the classification were proposed by Turner (1960), Katre (1965), Nigam (1972), Cardona (1974).

The most reasonable can be considered the division of the Indo-Aryan languages, first of all, into the insular (Sinhalese and Maldivian languages) and the mainland sub-branches. The classifications of the latter differ among themselves mainly in the question of what should be included in the central group. The languages in the groups are listed below with a minimum membership of the central group.

Insular (Sinhalese) branch Continental branch Central group minimum composition Various classifications may also include eastern Punjabi, eastern Hindi, Fijian Hindi, bihari, all western and northern groups... Eastern group

Assamo-Bengali subgroup
- rajbansi
- bishnupriya (bishnupriya-manipuri)
Bihar language (bihari): maithili, magahi, bhojpuri, sadri, angika
Halbi (khalebi)
Eastern Hindi - intermediate between the eastern and central groups

Northwest group

"Punjabi zone"
- eastern Punjabi (Punjabi) - close to Hindi
- lakhnda (western Punjabi, lendi): saraiki, hindko, khetrani
- gujuri (gojri)
- western ploughman

Western group

khandeshi
ahirani
pavri
Rajasthani - close to Hindi

Southwest Group Northern Group (Pahari) Western Pahari belongs to the northwest group

Central Pahari: Kumauni and Garhwali
Nepali (Eastern Pahari)

Gypsy group

Lomavren (the language of the Gypsies of Armenia Bosha)

parya - in the Gissar valley of Tajikistan

At the same time, the languages of Rajasthani, Zap. and east. Hindi and Bihari are included in the so-called. "Hindi Belt".

Periodization

Ancient indian languages

The oldest period in the development of the Indo-Aryan languages is represented by the Vedic language (the language of the cult, which was supposedly functioning conditionally from the 12th century BC) and Sanskrit in several of its literary varieties (epic (3rd-2nd centuries BC), epigraphic (the first centuries A.D.), classical Sanskrit (flourishing in the 4th-5th centuries A.D.)).

Separate Indo-Aryan words belonging to a dialect other than Vedic (names of gods, kings, horse-breeding terms) have been attested since the 15th century BC. NS. in t. n. Mitannian Aryan by several dozen glosses in Hurrian documents from the Northern Mesopotamia (kingdom of Mitanni). A number of researchers refer to the extinct Indo-Aryan languages as Kassite (from the point of view of L. S. Klein, it could be identical to the Mitannian Aryan). In addition, there are a number of hypotheses according to which the dialects of some peoples of the northern Black Sea region of the era of antiquity, in particular, the dialects of the Taurus and Meots, belonged to the Indo-Aryan languages.

Central Indian languages

The Middle Indian period is represented by numerous languages and dialects that were in use orally, and then in writing from the middle. 1st millennium BC NS. Of these, the most archaic Pali (the language of the Buddhist Canon), followed by the Prakrites (the Prakrit of inscriptions are more archaic) and Apabhransha (dialects that developed by the middle of the 1st millennium AD as a result of the development of the Prakrites and are a transitional link to the New Indian languages ).

New Indian period

The New Indian period begins after the X century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages and a large number of dialects, sometimes very different from each other.

Areal connections

Literature

Elizarenkova T. Ya. Research on diachronic phonology of Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1974.
Zograf GA Morphological structure of the new Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1976.
Zograf G.A. Languages of India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Nepal, M. 1960.
Trubachev O. N. Indoarica in the Northern Black Sea region. M., 1999.
Chatterjee S.K. An Introduction to Indo-Aryan Linguistics. M., 1977.
Languages of Asia and Africa. T. 1: Indo-Aryan languages. M., 1976.
Languages of the World: Indo-Aryan Languages of Ancient and Middle Periods. M., 2004.

Bailey T. G. Studies in North Indian languages. L., 1938.
Beames, John. A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. V. 1-3. London: Trübner, 1872-1879.
Bloch J. Indo-Aryan from the Vedas to modern times. P., 1965.
Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan Languages // Encyclopedia Britannica, 15.1974.
Chatterji, Suniti Kumar: The Origin and Development of Bengali Language. Calcutta, 1926.
Deshpande, Madhav. Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers, 1979. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
Erdosy, George. The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1995. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
Grierson, George A. Linguistic survey of India (LSI). Vol. I-XI. Calcutta, 1903-28. Reprint Delhi 1968.
Grierson, George A. On the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars. Delhi, 1931-33.
Hoernle R. A comparative grammar of the Gaudian languages. L., 1880.
Jain, Dhanesh; Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan languages. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
Katre, S. M .: Some Problems of Historical Linguistics in Indo-Aryan. Poona 1965.
Kobayashi, Masato; Cardona, George. Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2004. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
Masica, Colin P. The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-23420-4.
Misra, Satya Swarup. The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1-2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan, 1991-1993.
Nigam, R.C .: Language Handbook on Mother Tongue in Census. New Delhi 1972.
Sen, Sukumar. Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1995.
Turner, R.L .: Some Problems of Sound Change of Indo-Aryan. Poona 1960.
Vacek, Jaroslav. The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University, 1976.
Roland Bielmeier: Sprachkontakte nördlich und südlich des Kaukasus in: Roland Bielmeier, Reinhard Stempel (Hrsg.) Indogermanica et Caucasica: Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag Berlin / New York 19946, S. 427-446.
Trubachev O. N. Indoarica in the Northern Black Sea Region: Reconstruction of the relics of the tongue. Etymological Dictionary. M., 1999.

Dictionaries

Turner R. L. A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages, L., 1962-69.

Indo-Aryan languages (Indian) - a group of related languages, dating back to the ancient Indian language. It is included (together with Iranian languages and closely related Dardic languages) in Indo-Iranian languages, one of the branches of Indo-European languages. Distributed in South Asia: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal; outside this region - Romani languages, Domari and Parya (Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is about 1 billion people. (estimate, 2007). Ancient Indian languages.

Ancient Indian language. Indian languages come from dialects of the Lewnean Indian language, which had two literary forms - Vedic (the language of the sacred "Vedas") and Sanskrit (created by the Brahman priests in the Ganges valley in the first half - the middle of the first millennium BC). The ancestors of the Indo-Aryans left the ancestral home of the "Aryan space" at the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium. A related Indo-Aryan language is reflected in proper names, theonyms and some lexical borrowings in the cuneiform texts of the Mitanni and Hittite states. Indo-Aryan writing in the brahmi syllabic arose in the 4th-3rd centuries BC.

The New Indian period begins after the X century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages and a large number of dialects, sometimes very different from each other.

In the west and northwest they border on the Iranian (Baloch language, Pashto) and Dardic languages, in the north and north-east - with the Tibeto-Burmese languages, in the east - with a number of Tibeto-Burmese and Mon-Khmer languages, in the south - with Dravidian languages (Telugu, Kannada). In India, the array of Indo-Aryan languages is interspersed with linguistic islands of other linguistic groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, Dravidian, etc.).

Hindi and Urdu (Hindustani) are two varieties of the same New Indian literary language; Urdu - the state language of Pakistan (the capital of Islamabad), has a written language based on the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (the state language of India (New Delhi) - based on the Devanagari King's Indian script.
Bengal (State of India - West Bengal, Bangladesh (Kolkata))
Punjabi (eastern Pakistan, Punjab state of India)
Lakhnda
Sindhi (Pakistan)
Rajasthani (northwest India)
Gujarati - u-z subgroup
Marathi - western subgroup
Sinhalese - insular subgroup
Nepali - Nepal (Kathmandu) - center subgroup
Bihari - Indian State of Bihar - Eastern Subgroup
Oriya - Indian State of Orissa - Eastern Subgroup
Assamese - Ind. Assam State, Bangladesh, Bhutan (Thimphu) - east. subgroup
Gypsy -
Kashmiri - Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan - Darda group
Vedic is the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, formed in the first half of the second millennium BC.
Sanskrit is the literary language of the ancient Indians from the 3rd century BC. to the 4th century AD
Pali - Middle Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era
Prakrites - various colloquial Middle Indian dialects

Iranian languages are a group of related languages within the Aryan branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Distributed mainly in the Middle East, Central Asia and Pakistan.

The Iranian group was formed according to the generally accepted version as a result of the separation from the Indo-Iranian branch of languages on the territory of the Volga region and the southern Urals during the Andronov culture. There is also another version of the formation of the Iranian languages, according to which they separated from the main body of Indo-Iranian languages in the territory of the BMAK culture. The expansion of the Aryans in the ancient era took place to the south and southeast. As a result of migrations, the Iranian languages spread to the 5th century BC. in significant territories from the Northern Black Sea region to Eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Altai (Pazyryk culture), and from the Zagros mountains, eastern Mesopotamia and Azerbaijan to the Hindu Kush.

The most important milestone in the development of the Iranian languages was the isolation of the Western Iranian languages, which spread west from Deshte-Kevir along the Iranian plateau, and the East Iranian languages opposed to them. The work of the Persian poet Ferdowsi Shahnameh reflects the confrontation between the ancient Persians and nomadic (also semi-nomadic) Eastern Iranian tribes called Turanians by the Persians, and their habitat is Turan.

In the II - I centuries. BC. the Great Central Asian Migration of Peoples takes place, as a result of which the eastern Iranians populate the Pamir, Xinjiang, Indian lands south of the Hindu Kush, invade Sistan.

As a result of the expansion of the Turkic-speaking nomads from the first half of the 1st millennium AD. Iranian languages are beginning to be replaced by Turkic languages, first in the Great Steppe, and with the beginning of the 2nd millennium in Central Asia, Xinjiang, Azerbaijan and a number of regions of Iran. The relict Ossetian language (a descendant of the Alano-Sarmatian language) in the Caucasus mountains, as well as the descendants of the Saka languages, the languages of the Pashtun tribes and the Pamir peoples, remained from the steppe Iranian world.

The current state of the Iranian-speaking massif was largely determined by the expansion of Western Iranian languages, which began under the Sassanids, but gained full strength after the Arab invasion:

The spread of the Persian language to the entire territory of Iran, Afghanistan and the south of Central Asia and the massive displacement of local Iranian and sometimes non-Iranian languages in the corresponding territories, as a result of which a modern Persian and Tajik community was formed.

Expansion of Kurds into Upper Mesopotamia and the Armenian Highlands.

Migration of the Gorgan semi-nomads to the southeast and the formation of the Baloch language.

The phonetics of the Iranian languages shares many similarities with the Indo-Aryan languages as they evolved from the Indo-European state. The ancient Iranian languages belong to the inflectional-synthetic type with a developed system of inflectional forms of declension and conjugation, and thus are similar to Sanskrit, Latin and Old Church Slavonic. This is especially true of the Avestan language and, to a lesser extent, the Old Persian. In Avestan, there are eight cases, three numbers, three genders, inflectional-synthetic verb forms of present, aorist, imperfect, perfect, injunctiva, conjunctiva, optative, imperative, there is a developed word formation.

1. Persian - writing based on the Arabic alphabet - Iran (Tehran), Afghanistan (Kabul), Tajikistan (Dushanbe) - the southwestern Iranian group.

2. Dari - the literary language of Afghanistan

3. Pashto - since the 30s the state language of Afghanistan - Afghanistan, Pakistan - East Iranian subgroup

4. Baluch - Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan (Ashgabat), Oman (Muscat), UAE (Abu Dhabi) - northwest subgroup.

5. Tajik - Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan (Tashkent) - Western Iranian subgroup.

6. Kurdish - Turkey (Ankara), Iran, Iraq (Baghdad), Syria (Damascus), Armenia (Yerevan), Lebanon (Beirut) - Western Iranian subgroup.

7. Ossetian - Russia (North Ossetia), South Ossetia (Tskhinval) - East Iranian subgroup

8. Tatsky - Russia (Dagestan), Azerbaijan (Baku) - western subgroup

9. Talysh - Iran, Azerbaijan - northwestern Iranian subgroup

10. Caspian dialects

11. The Pamir languages are the unwritten languages of the Pamirs.

12. Yagnob is the language of the Yagnob people, residents of the Yagnob river valley in Tajikistan.

14. Avestan

15. Pahlavi

16. Median

17. Parthian

18. Sogdian

19. Khorezm

20. Scythian

21. Bactrian

22.Saki

Slavic group. Slavic languages are a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed in Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is about 400-500 million people [source not specified 101 days]. They differ in a large degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.

Long-term independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences in material, functional, etc. Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language was first separated from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Pro-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language. It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic linguistic continuum from Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it happened to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time, it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants appeared later. The process of the transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages most actively took place in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e., during the formation of the early Slavic states on the territory of Southeast and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of different geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were developed, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this is reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the oldest - before the establishment of a close Balto-Slavic language contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialectal fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Eastern subgroup

1. Russian

2. Ukrainian

3. Belarusian

Southern subgroup

1. Bulgarian - Bulgaria (Sofia)

2. Macedonian - Macedonia (Skopje)

3. Serbo-Croatian - Serbia (Belgrade), Croatia (Zagreb)

4. Slovenian - Slovenia (Ljubljana)

Western subgroup

1. Czech - Czech Republic (Prague)

2. Slovak - Slovakia (Bratislava)

3. Polish - Poland (Warsaw)

4. Kashubian - a dialect of Polish

5. Luzhitsky - Germany

Dead: Old Church Slavonic, Polabian, Pomeranian

Baltic group. The Baltic languages are a linguistic group representing a special branch of the Indo-European language group.

The total number of speakers is over 4.5 million people. Distribution - Latvia, Lithuania, formerly the territory of (modern) north-east of Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad region) and north-west of Belarus; even earlier (up to the 7th-9th, in some places the 12th centuries) up to the upper Volga, the Oka basin, the middle Dnieper and Pripyat.

According to one theory, the Baltic languages are not a genetic formation, but the result of early convergence [source unspecified 374 days]. The group includes 2 living languages (Latvian and Lithuanian; sometimes the Latgalian language, which is officially considered the dialect of Latvian), is separately distinguished; the Prussian language attested in the monuments, which became extinct in the 17th century; at least 5 languages, known only by toponymy and onomastics (Curonian, Yatvyazh, Galindian / Golyad, Semigallian and Selonian).

1. Lithuanian - Lithuania (Vilnius)

2. Latvian - Latvia (Riga)

3. Latgale - Latvia

Dead: Prussian, Yatvyazhsky, Kurzhsky, etc.

German group. The history of the development of the Germanic languages is usually divided into 3 periods:

· Ancient (from the emergence of writing to the XI century) - the formation of individual languages;

· Middle (XII-XV centuries) - the development of writing in the Germanic languages and the expansion of their social functions;

· New (from the 16th century to the present) - the formation and normalization of national languages.

In the reconstructed Pro-Germanic language, a number of researchers distinguish a layer of vocabulary that does not have Indo-European etymology - the so-called pre-Germanic substrate. In particular, these are the majority of strong verbs, the conjugation paradigm of which also cannot be explained from the Proto-Indo-European language. The shift of consonants in comparison with the proto-Indo-European language - the so-called. "Grimm's law" - supporters of the hypothesis also explain the influence of the substrate.

The development of the Germanic languages from antiquity to the present day is associated with the numerous migrations of their speakers. The Germanic dialects of the earliest times were divided into 2 main groups: Scandinavian (northern) and continental (southern). In the II-I centuries BC. NS. some of the tribes from Scandinavia moved to the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and formed an East German group opposing the West German (formerly southern) group. The East German tribe of the Goths, moving southward, penetrated into the territory of the Roman Empire up to the Iberian Peninsula, where they mixed with the local population (V-VIII centuries).

Inside the West Germanic area in the 1st century AD NS. 3 groups of tribal dialects were distinguished: Ingveonian, Istveonian and Erminonian. The resettlement in the 5th-6th centuries, part of the Ingveonian tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) to the British Isles predetermined the development of the English language in the future.The complex interaction of West Germanic dialects on the continent created the preconditions for the formation of Old Frisian, Old Saxon, Old Low Franco and Old High German languages. Scandinavian dialects after their isolation in the 5th century from the continental group they were divided into eastern and western subgroups, on the basis of the first Swedish, Danish and Old Gutnic languages were later formed, on the basis of the second - Norwegian, as well as the island languages - Icelandic, Faroese and Norn.

The formation of national literary languages was completed in England in the 16th-17th centuries, in the Scandinavian countries in the 16th century, and in Germany in the 18th century. The spread of the English language outside England led to the creation of its variants in the USA, Canada, and Australia. German in Austria is represented by its Austrian version.

North German subgroup.

1. Danish - Denmark (Copenhagen), northern Germany

2. Swedish - Sweden (Stockholm), Finland (Helsinki) - contact subgroup

3. Norwegian - Norway (Oslo) - continental subgroup

4. Icelandic - Iceland (Reykjavik), Denmark

5. Faroese - Denmark

West German subgroup

1. English - Great Britain, USA, India, Australia (Canberra), Canada (Ottawa), Ireland (Dublin), New Zealand (Wellington)

2. Dutch - Netherlands (Amsterdam), Belgium (Brussels), Suriname (Paramaribo), Aruba

3. Frisian - Netherlands, Denmark, Germany

4. German - Low German and High German - Germany, Austria (Vienna), Switzerland (Bern), Liechtenstein (Vaduz), Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg

5. Yiddish - Israel (Jerusalem)

East German subgroup

1. Gothic - Visigothic and Ostrogothic

2. Burgundy, Vandal, Gepid, Herul

Romance group. Romance languages (lat. Roma "Rome") are a group of languages and dialects that are part of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family and genetically ascend to a common ancestor - Latin. The name Romanesque comes from the Latin word romanus (Roman). The science that studies romance languages, their origin, development, classification, etc. is called romance and is one of the subsections of linguistics (linguistics). The peoples who speak them are also called Romance. Romance languages developed as a result of the divergent (centrifugal) development of the oral tradition of different geographic dialects of the once common vernacular and gradually separated from the source language and from each other as a result of various demographic, historical and geographical processes. The beginning of this epochal process was laid by the Roman colonists who inhabited the regions (provinces) of the Roman Empire far from the capital - the city of Rome - in the course of a complex ethnographic process called ancient Romanization in the period of the 3rd century. BC NS. - 5 c. n. NS. During this period, various dialects of Latin are influenced by the substrate. For a long time, Romance languages were perceived only as vernacular dialects of the classical Latin language, and therefore were practically not used in writing. The formation of the literary forms of the Romance languages was largely based on the traditions of classical Latin, which allowed them to converge again in lexical and semantic terms already in modern times.

French - France (Paris), Canada, Belgium (Brussels), Switzerland, Lebanon (Beirut), Luxembourg, Monaco, Morocco (Rabat).
Provencal - France, Italy, Spain, Monaco
Italian - Italy, San Marino, Vatican, Switzerland
Sardinian - Sardinia (Greece)
Spanish - Spain, Argentina (Buenos Aires), Cuba (Havana), Mexico (Mexico City), Chile (Santiago), Honduras (Tegucigalpa)
Galician - Spain, Portugal (Lisbon)
Catalan - Spain, France, Italy, Andorra (Andorra la Vella)
Portuguese - Portugal, Brazil (Brasilia), Angola (Luanda), Mozambique (Maputo)
Romanian - Romania (Bucharest), Moldova (Chisinau)
Moldavian - Moldavia
Macedonian-Romanian - Greece, Albania (Tirana), Macedonia (Skopje), Romania, Bulgarian
Romansh - Switzerland
Creole languages - crossed Romance languages with indigenous languages

Italian:

1. Latin

2. Medieval Vulgar Latin

3. Osk, Umbrian, Sabelian

Celtic group. Celtic languages are one of the western groups of the Indo-European family, close, in particular, to the Italic and Germanic languages. Nevertheless, the Celtic languages, apparently, did not form a specific unity with other groups, as it was sometimes believed earlier (in particular, the hypothesis of Celtic-Italic unity advocated by A. Meillet is most likely incorrect).

The spread of the Celtic languages, like the Celtic peoples, in Europe is associated with the spread of Hallstatt (VI-V centuries BC), and then La Tene (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) archaeological cultures. The ancestral home of the Celts is probably localized in Central Europe, between the Rhine and Danube, but they settled very widely: in the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. NS. they penetrated the British Isles around the 7th century. BC NS. - to Gaul, in the VI century. BC NS. - on the Iberian Peninsula, in the V century. BC NS. they spread to the south, cross the Alps and come to Northern Italy, finally, to the III century. BC NS. they reach Greece and Asia Minor. We know relatively little about the ancient stages of the development of the Celtic languages: the monuments of that era are very scarce and not always easy to interpret; nevertheless, the data of the Celtic languages (especially Old Irish) play an important role in the reconstruction of the Indo-European proto-language.

Goidel subgroup

Irish - Ireland
Scottish - Scotland (Edinburgh)
Manx - dead - the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea)

Brittish subgroup

1. Breton - Brittany (France)

2. Welsh - Wales (Cardiff)

3. Cornish - dead - in Cornwall - peninsula southwest of England

Gaulish subgroup

1. Gaulish - has died out since the formation of the French language; was distributed in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and Asia Minor

Greek group. The Greek group is currently one of the most peculiar and relatively small language groups (families) in the Indo-European languages. Moreover, the Greek group is one of the most ancient and well-studied since antiquity. Currently, the main representative of the group with a full set of language functions is the Greek language of Greece and Cyprus, which has a long and complex history. The presence of a single full-fledged representative today brings the Greek group closer to the Albanian and Armenian, which are also actually represented by one language each.

At the same time, other Greek languages and extremely isolated dialects previously existed, which either died out or are on the verge of extinction as a result of assimilation.

1.Modern Greek - Greece (Athens), Cyprus (Nicosia)

2.Ancient Greek

3. Middle Greek, or Byzantine

Albanian group.

The Albanian language (Alb. Gjuha shqipe) is the language of the Albanians, the indigenous population of Albania proper and part of the population of Greece, Macedonia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Lower Italy and Sicily. The number of speakers is about 6 million people.

The self-name of the language - "shkip" - comes from the local word "thorn" or "shkipe", which actually means "stony soil" or "rock". That is, the self-name of the language can be translated as "mountain". The word "skip" can also be interpreted as "understandable" (language).

Armenian group.

Armenian is an Indo-European language, usually separated into a separate group, less often combined with Greek and Phrygian languages. Among the Indo-European languages, it is one of the ancient written languages. The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405-406. n. NS. (see Armenian writing). The total number of speakers around the world is about 6.4 million people. During its long history, the Armenian language has been in contact with many languages. As a branch of the Indo-European language, Armenian later came into contact with various Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages - both living and now dead, having taken over from them and carrying to this day much of what direct written evidence could not preserve. Hittite and hieroglyphic Luwian, Hurrian and Urartian, Akkadian, Aramaic and Syrian, Parthian and Persian, Georgian and Zan, Greek and Latin, came into contact with the Armenian language at different times. For the history of these languages and their speakers, the data of the Armenian language are in many cases of paramount importance. These data are especially important for urartologists, Iranians, Kartvelists, who draw many facts of the history of the languages they study from Armenian.

Hittite-Luwian group. The Anatolian languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages (also known as the Hittite-Luwian languages). According to glottochronology, quite early they separated from other Indo-European languages. All languages of this group are dead. Their carriers lived in the II-I millennium BC. NS. on the territory of Asia Minor (the Hittite kingdom and the small states that arose on its territory), were later conquered and assimilated by the Persians and / or Greeks.

The oldest monuments of the Anatolian languages are Hittite cuneiform and Luwian hieroglyphics (there were also short inscriptions in the Palai language, the most archaic of the Anatolian languages). Through the works of the Czech linguist Friedrich (Bedřich) Grozny, these languages were identified as Indo-European, which contributed to their deciphering.

Later inscriptions in Lydian, Lycian, Sidian, Carian and other languages are made in Asia Minor alphabets (partially deciphered in the 20th century).

1. Hittite

2. Luwi

3. Palai

4. Carian

5. Lydian

6. Lycian

Tokhar group. Tocharian languages are a group of Indo-European languages, consisting of the dead "Tocharian A" ("East Tocharian") and "Tocharian B" ("West Tocharian"). They were spoken on the territory of modern Xinjiang. The monuments that have come down to us (the first of them were discovered at the beginning of the 20th century by the Hungarian traveler Aurel Stein) date back to the 6th-8th centuries. The self-name of the speakers is unknown, they are called “Tochars” conditionally: the Greeks called them Τοχάριοι, and the Turks called them toxri.

Tokharsky A - in Chinese Turkestan
Tokharsky B - in the same place

53. The main families of languages: Indo-European, Afrasian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Sino-Tibetan languages.

Indo-European languages. The first language family established through the comparative historical method was the so-called "Indo-European". After the discovery of Sanskrit, many European scholars - Danish, German, Italian, French, Russian - began to study the details of the relationship of various outwardly similar languages of Europe and Asia using the method proposed by William Jones. German experts called this large grouping of languages "Indo-Germanic" and often continue to call it that way to this day (this term is not used in other countries).

Separate language groups, or branches that were included in the Indo-European family from the very beginning, are indian, or Indo-Aryan; Iranian; greek, represented by dialects of the Greek language alone (in the history of which the ancient Greek and modern Greek periods differ); italic, which included the Latin language, the numerous descendants of which form the modern Romanesque group; celtic; german; Baltic; slavic; as well as isolated Indo-European languages - Armenian and Albanian... There are generally recognized rapprochements between these groups, which make it possible to speak of such groups as the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages.

In the late 19th - early 20th century. inscriptions in languages were discovered and deciphered Hittite-Luwian, or the Anatolian group, including the Hittite language, which shed light on the earliest stage in the history of Indo-European languages (monuments of the 18-13th centuries BC). The use of materials from the Hittite and other Hittite-Luwian languages stimulated a significant revision of the systematizing statements about the structure of the Indo-European proto-language, and some scholars even began to use the term "Indo-Hittite" to designate the stage that preceded the separation of the Hittite-Luwian branch, and the term "Indo-European" is proposed to be kept for one or more later stages.

Indo-European also include Tocharian a group that includes two dead languages, which were spoken in Xinjiang in the 5th-8th centuries. AD (texts in these languages were found at the end of the 19th century); Illyrian group (two dead languages, actually Illyrian and Messapian); a number of other isolated dead languages common in the 1st millennium BC. in the Balkans, - Phrygian, Thracian, venetian and ancient Macedonian(the latter was under strong Greek influence); pelasgian the language of the pre-Greek population of Ancient Greece. Without a doubt, there were other Indo-European languages, and possibly groups of languages that disappeared without a trace.

In terms of the total number of languages included in it, the Indo-European family is inferior to many other language families, but in terms of geographic prevalence and the number of speakers it has no equal (even without taking into account those hundreds of millions of people practically around the world who use English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian , Hindi, to a lesser extent German and New Persian as the second).

Afrasian languages. The Semitic language family has been recognized for a long time, the similarities between Hebrew and Arabic were noticed already in the Middle Ages. Comparative study of the Semitic languages began in the 19th century, and archaeological finds of the 20th century. introduced a lot of significant new information into it. The establishment of kinship between the Semitic family and some of the languages of northeastern Africa led to the postulation of a Semitic-Hamitic macrofamily; this term is still very common today. A more detailed study of the African members of this group led to the rejection of the idea of some special "Hamitic" linguistic unity, opposed to the Semitic, in connection with which the now generally accepted name among specialists was proposed "Afrasian" (or "Afro-Asian") languages. The considerable divergence of the Afrasian languages and the very early estimated time of their divergence make this grouping a classic example of a macrofamily. It consists of five or, according to other classifications, six branches; besides semitic, this is egyptian a branch consisting of the ancient Egyptian language and the Coptic inherited from it, now the cult language of the Coptic church; kushite branch (the most famous languages are Somali and Oromo); formerly part of the Cushite languages Omotskaya branch (a number of languages in the south-west of Ethiopia, the largest are Volamo and Kaffa); Chadian branch (the most significant language is Hausa); and Berber-Libyan the branch, also called Berber-Libyan-Guanche, since, according to modern concepts, in addition to the numerous languages and / or dialects of the nomads of North Africa, it also included the languages of the Canary Islands aborigines exterminated by Europeans. In terms of the number of languages included in it (more than 300), the Afrasian family is among the largest; the number of Afrasian speakers exceeds 250 million (mainly due to Arabic, Hausa and Amharic; Oromo, Somali and Hebrew are also quite large). The languages Arabic, Ancient Egyptian, Hebrew revived in the form of Hebrew, Geez, as well as the dead Akkadian, Phoenician and Aramaic languages and a number of other Semitic languages play or have played in history an outstanding cultural role.

Sino-Tibetan languages. This language family, also called Sino-Tibetan, is the largest in the world in terms of the number of native speakers. Chinese language that together with Dungan forms a separate branch in its composition; other languages, numbering from about 200 to 300 or more, are combined into the Tibeto-Burmese branch, the internal structure of which is interpreted by different researchers in different ways. With the greatest confidence in its composition, the Lolo-Burmese groups stand out (the largest language is Burmese), bodo-garo, kook-chin (largest language - maithei, or manipuri in eastern India), Tibetan (the largest language - Tibetan, divided into very different dialects), Gurung and several groups of so-called "Himalayan" languages (the largest - newari in Nepal). The total number of speakers of the languages of the Tibeto-Burmese branch is more than 60 million people, in Chinese - more than 1 billion, and due to this, the Sino-Tibetan family ranks second in the world in terms of the number of speakers after Indo-European. Chinese, Tibetan, and Burmese have long written traditions (from the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, 6th century AD, and 12th century AD, respectively) and great cultural significance, but most Sino-Tibetan languages remain unwritten. From the numerous monuments discovered and deciphered in the 20th century, a dead tangut the language of the Xi-Xia state (10-13 centuries); there are monuments of a dead language drink(6-12 centuries, Burma).

Sino-Tibetan languages have such a structural characteristic as the use of tone (pitch) differences to distinguish between usually monosyllabic morphemes; there is no or almost no inflection or any use of affixes at all; the syntax relies on phrasal phonology and word order. Some of the Chinese and Tibeto-Burmese languages have undergone large-scale study, but reconstruction, similar to that made for Indo-European languages, has so far been carried out only to a small extent.

For quite a long time, the Thai and Miao-Yao languages were also brought together with the Sino-Tibetan languages, specifically with Chinese, uniting them into a special Sinic branch, opposed to the Tibeto-Burmese. Currently, this hypothesis has practically no supporters.

Turkic languages are part of the Altai language family. Turkic languages: about 30 languages, and with dead languages and local varieties, the status of which as languages is not always indisputable, - more than 50; the largest are Turkish, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Kazakh, Uyghur, Tatar; the total number of speakers of the Turkic languages is about 120 million people. The center of the Turkic area is Central Asia, from where, in the course of historical migrations, they also spread, on the one hand, to southern Russia, the Caucasus and Asia Minor, and on the other, to the northeast, to eastern Siberia up to Yakutia. Comparative historical study of the Altai languages began as early as the 19th century. Nevertheless, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of the Altai proto-language, one of the reasons is the intensive contacts of the Altai languages and numerous mutual borrowings, which complicate the application of standard comparative methods.

Uralic languages. This macrofamily consists of two families - Finno-Ugric and samoyed... Finno-Ugric family, which includes, in particular, Finnish, Estonian, Izhorian, Karelian, Vepsian, Vodian, Livonian, Sami (Baltic-Finnish branch) and Hungarian (Ugric branch, which also includes Khanty and Mansi languages) languages, was described in general terms at the end of the 19th century; at the same time, the reconstruction of the proto-language was carried out; the Finno-Ugric family also includes the Volga (Mordovian (Erzyan and Mokshan) and Mari (mountain and meadow dialects) languages) and Permian (Udmurt, Komi-Permian and Komi-Zyryan languages) branches. Later, a relationship with the Finno-Ugric languages of the Samoyed languages common in the north of Eurasia was established. The number of Uralic languages is more than 20, if the Sami is considered a single language, and about 40, if we recognize the existence of separate Sami languages, and also take into account the dead languages, known mainly only by names. The total number of peoples speaking the Uralic languages is about 25 million people (more than half of them are native speakers of the Hungarian language and over 20% are Finnish). Small Baltic-Finnish languages (except Vepsian) are on the verge of extinction, and Vodian may have already disappeared; three of the four Samoyed languages (except Nenets) are also dying out.

54. Typology, morphological classification of languages: flexion and agglutination.

Typology is a linguistic discipline that classifies languages according to external grammatical features. Typologists of the 20th century: Sapir, Uspensky, Polivanov, Khrakovsky.

Romantics first raised the question of the "type of language". Their thought was this: "the spirit of the people" can manifest itself in myths, in art, in literature and in language. Hence the natural conclusion that through language one can cognize the “spirit of the people”.

Friedrich Schlegel. All languages can be divided into two types, inflectional and affixing. The language is born and remains in the same type.

August-Wilhelm Schlegel. Defined 3 types: inflectional, affixing and amorphous. Inflectional languages: synthetic and analytical.

Wilhelm von Humboldt. Proved that Chinese is not amorphous, but isolating. In addition to the three types of languages noted by the Schlegel brothers, Humboldt described a fourth type; the most accepted term for this type is incorporating (a sentence is constructed as a complex word, i.e. unformed root words are agglutinated into one common whole, which will be both a word and a sentence - Chukchi -ty-atakaa-nmy-rkyn “I am fat deer I kill ").

August Schleicher. Indicates three types of languages in two possibilities: synthetic and analytical. Isolating, agglutinating, inflectional. Isolating - archaic, agglutinating - transitional, inflectional synthetic - an era of prosperity, inflectional - analytical - an era of decline.

Fortunatov's morphological classification is especially worthwhile. He takes the structure of the form of the word and the relationship of its morphological parts as a starting point. Four types of languages.

The forms of individual words are formed by means of such a selection in words of the stem and the affix, in which the stem either does not represent the so-called inflection (internal inflection) at all, or it does not constitute the necessary belonging of the forms of words and serves to form forms separate from those formed by affixes ... Agglutinative languages.

Semitic languages - the stems of words themselves have the necessary forms formed by the inflection of stems, although the relationship between stem and affix in Semitic languages is the same as in agglutinative languages. Inflectional-agglutative.

Indo-European languages - there is an inflection of bases in the formation of the very forms of words that are formed by affixes, as a result of which parts of words in the forms of words represent here in meaning such a connection between themselves in the forms of words, which they do not have in the two above-named types. Inflectional languages.

Chinese, Siamese, etc. - there are no forms of individual words. These languages are called root languages in the morphological classification. The root is not part of the word, but the word itself.

Comparison of fusion and agglutination:

The root can change in the phonemic composition / the root does not change in its composition

· Affixes are ambiguous / unambiguous

Affixes are non-standard / standard

Affixes are attached to the stem, which is usually not used without these affixes / affixes are attached to what, in addition to this affix, constitutes a separate independent word

The connection of affixes with roots and stems has the character of a tight weave or alloy / mechanical attachment

55. Morphological classification of languages: synthetism and analytism.

August-Wilhelm Schlegel showed in inflectional languages two possibilities of grammatical structure: synthetic and analytical.

Synthetic methods - methods expressing grammar within a word (internal inflection, affixation, repetitions, addition, stress, supletivism).

Analytical methods - methods expressing grammar outside the word (service words, word order, intonation).

With the synthetic tendency of grammar, the grammatical meaning is synthesized, combined with lexical meanings within the word, which, with the unity of the word, is a strong indicator of the whole. Analytic tendency separates grammatical meanings from the expression of lexical meanings.

The word of synthetic languages independently, fully both lexically and grammatically, and requires, first of all, morphological analysis, from which its syntactic properties arise by themselves.

The word of analytical languages expresses one lexical meaning and, being taken out of the sentence, is limited only by its nominative capabilities, but it acquires a grammatical characteristic only as part of the sentence.

Synthetic languages: Latin, Russian, Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, Lithuanian, German.

Analytical: English, Romance, Danish, Modern Greek, New Persian, New Indian, Bulgarian.

56. Typology: universals.

Universal in linguistics is one of the most important concepts of typology, a property inherent in all or the vast majority of natural languages. The development of the theory of universals is often associated with the name of Joseph Greenberg, although similar ideas were put forward in linguistics long before him.

The classification of universals is made on several grounds.

· Absolute universals (common to all known languages, for example: every natural language has vowels and consonants) and statistical universals (tendencies) are opposed. An example of statistical universality: almost all languages have nasal consonants (however, in some West African languages, nasal consonants are not separate phonemes, but allophones of oral stops in the context of nasal consonants). The so-called frequentals are adjacent to statistical universals - phenomena that occur in the languages of the world quite often (with a probability exceeding random).

· Absolute universals are also opposed to implicative (complex) ones, that is, those that assert a connection between two classes of phenomena. For example, if a language has a dual, it also has a plural. Hierarchies are a special case of implicative universals, which can be represented as a set of "two-term" implicative universals. This is, for example, the Keenan-Comrie hierarchy (the noun phrase availability hierarchy, which regulates, among other things, the availability of arguments for relativization:

Subject> Direct Object> Indirect Object> Indirect Object> Possessed> Comparison Object

According to Keenan and Comrie, the set of elements available for relativization in some way covers a contiguous segment of this hierarchy.

Other examples of hierarchy are Silverstein's hierarchy (animate hierarchy), a hierarchy of argument types available for reflexivization

Implicative universals can be either one-sided (X> Y) or two-sided (X<=>Y). For example, the word order SOV is usually associated with the presence of postpositions in a language, and conversely, most postpositional languages have the word order SOV.

· Contras are also deductive (obligatory for all languages) and inductive (common to all known languages) universals.

Universals are highlighted at all levels of the language. So, in phonology, a certain number of absolute universals (often referring to a set of segments) are known, a number of universal properties are distinguished in morphology. The study of universals is most widespread in syntax and semantics.

The study of syntactic universals is primarily associated with the name of Joseph Greenberg, who identified a number of essential properties associated with word order. In addition, the existence of universals in the framework of many linguistic theories is considered as confirmation of the existence of a universal grammar; the theory of principles and parameters was engaged in the study of universals.

Within the framework of semantic research, the theory of universals led, in particular, to the creation of various directions based on the concept of a universal semantic metalanguage, primarily in the framework of the works of Anna Vezhbitskaya.

Linguistics is also engaged in the study of universals in the framework of diachronic research. So, for example, it is known that the historical transition → is possible, but the reverse is not. A lot of universal properties associated with the historical development of the semantics of morphological categories (in particular, within the framework of the method of semantic maps) have been revealed.

Within the framework of generative grammar, the existence of universals is often seen as evidence of the existence of a special universal grammar, however, functional directions associate them rather with the general features of the human cognitive apparatus. So, for example, in the well-known work of J. Hawkins, the connection between the so-called "branching parameter" and the peculiarities of human perception is shown.

Modern Indian (New Indian) languages are spoken in Central and Northern India, as well as in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The linguistic situation in Indo-speaking countries is extremely complex. In the south of India, many Indo-Aryan languages coexist with the languages of the Dravidian family. New Indian includes Hindi, the language of the Hindu population, and its version of Urdu, which is spoken by Muslims in the cities of Pakistan and some Indian states (Hindi uses a special Indian script, Devanagari, Urdu - Arabic script). The differences between these two varieties of the literary language are small and are revealed mainly in writing, while the spoken language, called Hindustani, is almost the same among Hindus and Muslims. Further, the Indo-Aryan group includes the languages of Gujarati, Bhili, Marathi, Punjabi, Assamese (in India), Bengali (in Bangladesh), Sinhalese (in Sri Lanka), Nepali (of course, in Nepal), etc. a language spread far beyond the main area of Indo-Aryan speech, including in Russia.

Indian literary languages have a glorious history. The oldest recorded Indian language in writing is Vedic, that is, the language of the Vedas - collections of religious hymns, incantations, chants. The collection of the Rig Veda (Veda of hymns), which was formed at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, is especially famous. NS. The Vedic language has replaced Sanskrit, which is known in two forms that have replaced one another - the epic, on which are composed two famous and huge poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", and the classical one. Literature written in classical Sanskrit is large in volume, diverse in genres and brilliant in execution. Vedic and Sanskrit together are called ancient Indian. Sanskrit grammar ("Eight Books"), created by Panini in the IV century. BC e., still serves as a model for linguistic description. Between Old Indian and New Indian languages in time lie numerous Middle Indian languages - prakrits (Sanskrit "natural", "ordinary").

At the end of the 18th century. it was the surprise of European scientists with the beauty and severity of Sanskrit, which revealed much in common with the languages of Europe, that became the impetus for the creation of a comparative historical direction in linguistics.

The Iranian group is the largest in the Indo-European family in terms of the number of languages it comprises. Iranian speech sounds in modern Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan, India, Central Asia and the Caucasus. In addition to living languages, the Iranian group includes a large number of dead languages - both written and those who did not know writing, but reconstructed on the basis of circumstantial evidence. Among the first, first of all, the literary language in which the Avesta is written - a collection of sacred texts of the ancient religion of fire worshipers - Zoroastrians, is worthy of mention. It is called that: Avestan. Among the unwritten ones, the Scythian language is interesting, which is widespread in the Northern Black Sea region, on the territory of modern southern Ukraine and the North Caucasus and ceased to exist one and a half millennia ago. Linguists believe that the modern Ossetians are the linguistic heirs of the Scythians.

The ancient Iranians (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.) were the direct neighbors of the Slavs. Contacts with the Iranians led to the appearance in the Russian language of many borrowings. Surprisingly, such borrowings are such familiar words as khata, pants, boot, ax; the traces of the Iranians' stay in the Black Sea region include numerous Iranian names of rivers, including the Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Danube.

INDIAN (INDOARIAN) LANGUAGES - a group of genetically related languages dating back to the ancient Indian language and together with the Dardic languages and Iranian languages to the Indo-Iranian linguistic community, which is part of the Indo-European. family of languages (see. Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-European languages). I. (and.) I. common in sowing. and center. India [Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assami (Assamese), Sindhi, etc.], Pakistan (Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi), Bangladesh (Bengali), Sri Lanka (Sinhalese - in the south. Islands), Republic of Maldives (Maldives), Nepal (Nepali); outside this region - Gypsy and Parya (dialect on the territory of the USSR in the Gissar valley of Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is 770 million. At 3.and S.-Z. I. (and.) I. They border on the Iranian (Baluch, Pashto) and Dardic languages, in the north and north-east with the Tibetan and Himalayan languages, and in the east with a number of Tibeto-Burma. and Mon Khmer. languages, in the south - with Dravidian (Telugu, Kannada). In India, in the massif I. (and.) I. interspersed with language islands of other linguistic. groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, Dravidian, etc.).
The most ancient period of development of I. (and.) I. represented by the Vedic language. (the language of the cult, which presumably functioned from the 12th century BC) and Sanskrit in several of its lit. varieties (epic -3-2 centuries BC, epigraphic - the first centuries AD, classical Sanskrit - flourishing of the 4th-5th centuries AD). Dept. Indo-Aryan words belonging to a dialect other than Vedic (names of gods, kings, horse-breeding terms) are attested since the 15th century. BC NS. in the so-called. Mptanny Aryan in documents from Asia Minor and Western Asia.
For other-ind. states ia phonetic-phonological. the level is characterized by the presence of classes of occlusive noisy aspirated and cerebral phonemes (preserved with certain changes up to the present state), phonological. opposition of simple vowels in longitude / brevity in syllables of any type, the admissibility of a consonant outcome of a word along with a vowel, the presence of numerous. combinations of consonants, especially complex ones, in the middle of a word. At the heart of Old-Ind. morphology is a system of qualities, vowel alternations in the root and in the suffix. The language is characterized by a developed synthetic. build. Grammar. meanings are conveyed by a combination of numerous. types of stems of a name in a verb with one or another series of endings. The name has 8 cases, 3 numbers, the verb - 3 persons, 3 numbers, 6-7 tenses, 4-6 moods, 3 voice. The paradigm of the verb is represented by mi. dozens of personal inflectional forms. In word formation, prefixation and suffixation are productive, and a number of suffixes require a definition. the degree of alternation of the root vowel. Morphological. the structure of the word is very clear. In syntax, with the predominant end position of the verb predicate and the prepositiveness of the definition, the word order is free.
Wed-ind. period of development I. (I.) I. represented by numerous. languages and dialects that were in use orally, and then in writing. form to ser. 1st millennium BC NS. Of these, the most archaic Pali (the language of the Buddhist Canon), followed by the Prakrites (the Prakrites of inscriptions are more archaic) and Apab-Khrisha (dialects that developed by the middle of the 1st millennium AD as a result of the development of the Prakrites and are transitional link to New Indian languages). For Wed-Ind. states in comparison with Old Indian on phonetic-phonological. the level is characterized by sharp restrictions on the combination of consonants, the absence of a consonant outcome of the word, a change in intervocal stops, the appearance of nasalized vowel phonemes, and an increase in rhythm. patterns in the word (vowels are opposed in longitude / brevity only in open syllables). As a result of these background-teach. changes, the clarity of the morphemic structure of the word is lost, the system of qualitative morphonological elements disappears. vowel alternations and diminishes discernible, strength of inflection. In morphology, there are tendencies to unify the types of declension, to mix the nominal and pronominal declensions, to a strong simplification of the case paradigm and the development of a system of post-leveled official words, to the disappearance of a number of verb categories and a narrowing of the scope of use of personal forms (starting with prakrites in the function of personal forms of the verb in last time only participles are used). A number of additions and restrictions appear in the syntax, leading to a greater standardization of the sentence structure.
Novoind. period in the development of I. (and.) I. starts after the 10th century It is represented by about two dozen major languages and a large number of dialects, sometimes very different from each other. Classification of modern I. (and.) I. proposed in the 80s. 19th century A.F.R. Hoernle and linguistically developed in the 1920s. 20th century J.A. Grierson. It is based on the distinction between "external" (peripheral) languages, which have a number of common features, and "internal", where acc. features are absent (it is assumed that this division reflects, respectively, the early and late wave of migration of the Aryan tribes to India, coming from the northwest). "External" languages are divided into north-western [lakhnda (lendi), sindhi], southern (Marathi) and eastern (Oriya, bihari, Bengali, Assamese) subgroups. "Internal" languages are divided into 2 subgroups: central (Western Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Bhi-li, Khadeshi, Rajasthani) n Pahari (Eastern Pahari - Nepali, center, Pahari, Western Pahari). The intermediate subgroup includes east. Hindi. Ind. linguists often follow the classification of S. K. Chatterjee, who refused to distinguish between "external" and "internal" languages and emphasized the similarity of languages occupying adjacent areas. According to this classification, which does not contradict, in essence, Grirson's, stand out
sev., zap., vent., east. and south. subgroups. A special place is occupied by the Gypsies, lang., Revealing a number of common features with the languages of the North-West. India and Pakistan. I. (and.) I. outside India (Gypsy, lang. in different countries, Parya dialect in Tajikistan, Sinhalese language in Sri Lanka, Maldivian language in the Maldives) reveals the influence of foreign language systems.
Modern I. (and.) I. are united by a number of common features, to-rye are explained to a certain extent by the further development of tendencies inherent in prakrits, and by the presence of interlingual contacts, leading to the formation of decomp. language unions. Phonological. the systems of these languages have from 30 to 50 or more phonemes (the number of phonemes is gradually decreasing in linguistic areas from northwest to southeast). In general, for obshcheind. phonological the model is characterized by the presence of consonants of the aspirate and cerebral rows. The most common model of consonantism includes 5 quadrangles: k-g, kh-gh; c-j, ch-jh; t-d, th-dh; t-d, th-dh; p-b, ph-bh (Hindi, Oriya, Bengali, Nepali, Marathi and Sindhi - in the last two languages the general model is presented in an expanded form: in Marathi due to affricates, in Sindhi due to implosive ones). In Punjabi, this is not a four-, but a three-term opposition (k-g-kh, etc., as in Dardians), in Sinhalese and Maldivian - binary (k-gHT. D., As in Tamil), in Assamese the model is the same four-membered, but there are no cerebral and palatal squares. Opposition to aspirate in voiced consonants is interpreted in a number of modern. I. (and.) I. on the verge of inherent and prosodic (in Punjabi, Lendi, dialects of Western Pahari and Eastern Bengal, this is a prosodic opposition of tones). In most languages (except Marathi, Sinhalese and Maldivian), the opposition of nasality is phonological for vowels, the opposition in longitude / brevity is not phonological (except for Sinhalese and Maldivian). For modern. I. (and.) I. in general, the absence of an initial combination of consonant phonemes is characteristic.
In the field of morphology modern. I. (and.) I. represent different stages of successive. processes: the loss of the old inflection - the development of aialitich. forms - the creation on their basis of a new agglutinative inflection or a new sitetich. inflection, expressing a smaller range of meanings than the old inflection. Based on the typology. studying morphological. building modern. I. (and.) I. GA Zograf divides them into 2 types: "western" and "eastern". In the "zap." type of grammar. values are transmitted inflectional and analytic. indicators, and the second are built up into the first, forming two- and three-tier systems of formants (for names - an indirect stem + postpositions, primary and derivative; for a verb - a combination of participles or verbal names with auxiliary verbs, primary and secondary). In the "east." type, these values are transmitted mainly by agglutinative indicators, on which analytical ones can be increased, for example. for names - stem (= direct case) + [affix of certainty or plurality] + affix of case + [postposition]; for verbs - stem (= root) + tense affix + face affix. In the "zap." type is grammatical. the category of the genus, which usually includes two genders, less often - three (Marathi, Gujarati), in the "eastern" there is no such category. In the "zap." type adjectives are divided into 2 subclasses: mutable and
unchangeable, in the "eastern" they are always unchangeable.
In the syntax for modern. I. (and.) I. characterized by a fixed position of the verb (at the end of the sentence) and associated words, the widespread use of auxiliary words (in the "zap." type - postpositions, in the "eastern" type - special particles). For "zap." the type is characterized by the development of an ergative or different variants of an erg-like design; "East. > they are not typical of the type.
In the vocabulary of modern. I. (and.) I. it is customary to distinguish between the words tadbhava (literally - "coming from him," that is, from Sanskrit) - DOS. the core of the primordial, non-borrowed words that have passed through the Prakrites to the present. condition; tatsama (literally - "like him", that is, Sanskrit) - borrowings from Sanskrit, deshya (literally - "local") - words that do not have Sanskrit, source, dialectisms of Old Ind. period, borrowing from the non-Aryan languages of India. Among the outside. borrowings are highlighted in Arabic, Persian, English, etc.
In different places of the area occupied by the modern. I., (I.) I., local features are superimposed on the general model. They are clearly contrasted at all levels of the East-Ind. languages and a more fragmented group of languages, conventionally Iaz. Western Indian. The features of the linguistic union are united by certain I. (and.) I. with Dravidian: Sinhalese with Tamil, Marathi with Kannada. Sindhi, Punjabi, Pahari show a number of similarities with other languages of the "Himalayan" language union, in particular with Dard and Tibetan.

The total number of speakers is 850 million. Indo-Iranian languages are a genetic concept motivated by the presence of the Indo-Iranian linguistic community, which preceded the disintegration into separate groups and retained a number of common archaisms related to the Indo-European era. It is very likely that the core of this community was formed back in the southern Russian steppes (as evidenced by archaeological finds in Ukraine, traces of linguistic contacts with the Finno-Ugric peoples, which most likely took place north of the Caspian Sea, Aryan traces in toponymy and hydronymics of Tavria, the Northern Black Sea region and others) and continued to develop during the period of coexistence in Central Asia or in the adjacent territories.

Comparative-historical grammar reconstructs for these languages a common initial system of phonemes, a common vocabulary, a common system of morphology and word formation, and even common syntactic features. So, in phonetics, Indo-Iranian languages are characterized by the coincidence of Indo-European * ē̆, * ō̆, * ā̆ in Indo-Iranian ā̆, reflection of Indo-European * ə in Indo-Iranian i, transition of Indo-European * s after i, u, r, k to š-shaped sound; in morphology, a basically identical declension system of a name is developed and a number of specific verb formations are formed, etc. The general lexical composition includes the names of key concepts of Indo-Iranian culture (primarily in the field of mythology), religion, social institutions, objects of material culture, names, which confirms the presence of the Indo-Iranian community. The common name is * arya-, which is reflected in many Iranian and Indian ethnic terms over a vast territory (the name of the modern state of Iran originated from the form of this word). The most ancient Indian and Iranian monuments "Rigveda" and "Avesta" in their most archaic parts are so close to each other that they can be considered as two versions of one source text. Further migrations of the Aryans led to the division of the Indo-Iranian branch of languages into 2 groups, the separation of which began with the entry of the ancestors of the modern Indo-Aryans into northwestern India. Linguistic traces have survived from one of the earlier waves of migration - Aryan words in the languages of Asia Minor and Western Asia from 1500 BC. NS. (names of gods, kings and nobles, horse-breeding terminology), the so-called Mitannian Aryan (belonging to the Indian group, but not fully explained from the Vedic language).

The Indo-Aryan group turned out to be more conservative in many respects than the Iranian one. Some archaisms of the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian eras are better preserved in it, while the Iranian group has undergone a number of significant changes. In phonetics, these are changes primarily in the field of consonantism: spirantization of voiceless stops, loss of aspirated consonants, transition from s to h. In morphology, this is a simplification of the complex ancient inflectional paradigm of a name and a verb, primarily in the ancient Persian language.

The ancient Indian languages are represented by the Vedic language, Sanskrit, as well as a number of words of the Mitannian Aryan; Middle Indian - Pali, Prakrit, Apabhransha; new Indo-Aryan languages - Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Sinhalese, Maldivian, Gypsy and others.

Ancient Iranian languages are represented by Avestan, Old Persian (the language of Achaemenid inscriptions), as well as by individual words in Greek transmission in Scythian and Median (one can judge about some phonetic features of these languages). The Middle Iranian languages include Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Saka languages (dialects), Bactrian (first of all, the language of the inscription in Surkhkotal). The new Iranian languages include Persian, Tajik, Pashto (Afghan), Ossetian, Kurdish, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran, Tat, Talysh, Parachi, Ormuri, Yagnob, Mundjan, Yidga, Pamir (Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, , Ishkashim, Vakhan) and others.

Modern Indo-Iranian languages are widespread in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq (northern regions), Turkey (eastern regions), USSR (Tajikistan, the Caucasus, etc.). They are characterized by a number of common trends, which indicates a common typology of the development of these two groups of languages. The ancient inflection of a name and a verb has been almost completely lost. In the nominal paradigm, instead of the multi-relational inflectional declension system, an opposition is developed between direct and indirect forms, accompanied by official words: postpositions or prepositions (only in Iranian languages), that is, an analytical way of expressing grammatical meaning. In a number of languages, on the basis of these analytical constructions, a new agglutinative case inflection is formed (eastern type of Indian languages, among Iranian - Ossetian, Baluch, Gilan, Mazandaran). In the system of verb forms, complex analytical constructions that convey the meanings of type and time, analytical passive, analytical word formation are becoming widespread. In a number of languages, new synthetic contracted verb forms are formed, in which the official words of analytical constructions acquire the status of morphemes (in Indian languages, primarily in languages of the oriental type, this process has gone further, in Iranian it is observed only in the colloquial speech of many living languages). In the syntax for the new Indo-Iranian languages, there is a tendency towards a fixed word order and, for many of them, towards ergativity in its various variants. The general phonological trend in the modern languages of these two groups is the loss of the phonological status of the quantitative opposition of vowels, the strengthening of the meaning of the rhythmic structure of the word (a sequence of long and short syllables), a very weak character of dynamic verbal stress and the special role of phrasal intonation.

The Dardic languages constitute a special intermediate group of the Indo-Iranian language branch. Scientists have no consensus regarding their status. R.B.Shaw, S. Konov, J.A. Grierson (in his early works) saw an Iranian basis in the Dardic languages, noting their special affinity with the Pamir. G. Morgenstierne as a whole classifies them as Indian languages, as does R.L. Turner. Grierson (in later works), D.I. Edelman consider them an independent group that occupies an intermediate place between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages. In many ways, the Dardic languages are included in the Central Asian language union.

Edelman D.I., Comparative grammar of Eastern Iranian languages. Phonology, M., 1986;
see also literature under the articles Indian (Indo-Aryan) languages, Iranian languages, Dardic languages, Nuristan languages.

T. Ya. Elizarenkova.

Materials devoted to the study of Indo-Iranian languages, in addition to general linguistic journals (see Linguistic journals), are published in specialized journals in a number of countries: