Home Indoor flowers The Russian state in the second half of the xvi. The Russian state in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries. Eastern Slavs VI - VIII centuries

Indoor flowers

The Russian state in the second half of the xvi. The Russian state in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries. Eastern Slavs VI - VIII centuries

The Russian state and society in the second half of the 19th century. 1. Industrial revolution. 2. Abolition of serfdom 3. Transformations of Alexander II in the spheres of government and social structure: zemstvo, judicial, city, military and educational reforms. 4. Russia's foreign policy in the 60s-90s. XIX century. 5. Social movements.

started later than in economically developed European countries; began in the conditions of the domination of the serf economy, which had the most negative impact on its pace and geography; restrained by the relative slowness of the formation of large business capital; did not cause the rapid growth of new classes of the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat

The reign of Alexander II (1855 -1881) The main directions of internal policy "GREAT REFORMS" 60 -70s. XIX century. Abolition of serfdom 1861 Military reform of 1861 Judicial reform of 1864 Zemsky reform of 1864 City reform of 1864 Reform of public education 1863 -1964

Preconditions for the abolition of serfdom Economic low labor productivity; progressive landlessness of peasants; increased work in corvee; landlord's debt to the state; the budget deficit has grown; the serf system preserved poverty. Social increased the number of attempts by dissatisfied peasants on the life of landowners; there was an increase in peasant unrest; the growth of peasant discontent, which instilled fear of the threat of a new "Pugachevism". Political, without the abolition of serfdom, it turned out to be impossible to strengthen and improve the state system of government; it is impossible to overcome the country's backwardness without reforms; social and political life has become more active (- conservative - liberal - radical trends) Spiritual national consciousness is infringed upon, society and part of the ruling circles have awakened to search for ways to overcome backwardness; the need to return to Russia the status of a great power, lost as a result of the defeat in the Crimean War;

MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE REFORM OF FEBRUARY 19, 1861 The basic principles and conditions for the abolition of serfdom were formulated in the Manifesto "On the all-merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants ..." and the Regulations. The Manifesto and the Regulations dealt with three main issues: Redemption transaction Personal release Allotment of land to a peasant could own movable and immovable property, conclude transactions, act as a legal entity; the peasant was freed from the personal tutelage of the landowner, he could marry without his permission, enter the service and educational institutions, change his place of residence, transfer to the estate of bourgeois and merchants; the government began to create local government bodies for the liberated peasants. the peasants were freed with land, that is, with a field allotment, the size of a cat. it was different depending on the region of Russia; the peasants did not receive land free of charge, but had to buy it out from the landlord; peasants for 9 years could not give up their land allotment and leave the rural community; peasants, in the use of a cat. there was more land than envisaged by the reform norms, the surplus had to be returned to the landowner. the payment of the peasants to the landlord lasted for 20 years. She gave birth to a specific temporarily liable state of the peasants, who had to pay the quitrent and perform some duties until they fully redeemed their allotment, that is, 20% of the value of the land;

The historical significance of the abolition of serfdom, the beginning of the accelerated modernization of the country - the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society, undermined the basic foundations of both serfdom and natural structures; The Great Reform has given freedom to millions of people. The possibility and fruitfulness of peaceful transformations in Russia, taking place at the initiative of the authorities; a powerful impetus to the economic and social prospect of the country, opened up an opportunity for a broad development of market relations, led to the establishment of capitalist relations; the liberation of the peasants changed the moral climate in the country, influenced the development of social thought and culture in general; the severity of the redemption payments hindered the process of entering the peasant economy into market relations, and led many peasants to impoverishment; a labor-service system was formed that resembled corvee with all its negative consequences and slowed down the development of both peasant and landlord economies. Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom

the reform of 1861 was called "great"; Alexander II - the honorary title of "Tsar Liberator"; the change in the legal status of such a large group of the population as the peasantry could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia; the emancipation of the peasants had to be complemented by a number of other reforms.

non-class elective bodies of local self-government - zemstvos were introduced; zemstvos were elected by all estates for a three-year term and consisted of administrative bodies (uyezd and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (uyezd and provincial zemstvo boards); elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - meetings of vowels (deputies) were held on the basis of property qualifications, by curia. The first landowning curia. The second curia is urban. The third curia is the curia of rural peasant societies. zemstvos were deprived of any political functions, their activities were limited to solving local issues. They were responsible for public education, for public health, for timely food supplies, for the quality of roads, for insurance, for veterinary care and much more; zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes, impose duties on the population, and form zemstvo capital.

Zemstvo self-government Chairman Provincial Zemsky Assembly Provincial Zemsky Board Chairman Uyezd Zemstvo Assembly

Judicial reform of 1864 The non-literal nature of judicial activity was introduced, that is, the formal equality of all estates before the law Proclaimed the irremovability of judges and their independence from the administrative authorities Introduced transparency and adversarial proceedings Introduced the advocacy (jury or private attorneys) The institution of jurors was created to consider difficult criminal cases The election of some judicial bodies (justices of the peace) was introduced. The system of judicial proceedings was simplified and the number of judicial instances was reduced. The system of preliminary investigation was changed. it was now carried out not by the police, but by forensic investigators who were part of the district courts

Judicial system of Russia Reform of 1864 Emperor Congress of Justices of the Peace Magistrates' Court Elected by the District Zemsky Assembly Senate Supervisory and controlling functions Special Courts Judicial Chamber District Court of the Volost for peasants for clergy for the military for high dignitaries Appointed by the emperor

Military reform (1862-1874), military settlements were destroyed, humiliating corporal punishment was abolished; the country was divided into military districts; the officer corps has been qualitatively improved and updated; a system of military education was created (military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year term of study were created. Persons of all classes were admitted to them); the technical re-equipment of the army has been carried out; in January 1874, all-class conscription was proclaimed. All men aged 20, regardless of class, were subject to conscription into the army and navy

URBAN REFORM 1870 In 509 out of 1,130 cities, elective self-government was introduced - city dumas, elected for four years; the city duma (administrative body) elected its own permanent executive body - the city council, which consisted of the mayor (also elected for four years) and several members; the mayor was at the same time the chairman of the city council and the city council; city councils were under the control of government officials; only residents with a property qualification had the right to elect and be elected to the City Duma; the competence of the city government was limited to the solution of purely economic issues. EDUCATIONAL REFORM 1863 teaching at universities gained more freedom, they became available to free listeners, both men and women; in 1863, a charter was issued, according to which the professorial corporation received self-government. Students, on the other hand, did not receive the right to influence in any way the order at the university, which was the reason for frequent "student riots"; June 14, 1864 Regulations on elementary public schools: the education of the people was to be jointly dealt with by the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities); On November 19, 1864, a new statute on gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all classes. But because of the high pay, it was only available to the children of wealthy parents; in 1869, higher university-type courses for women were opened in St. Petersburg (higher Bestuzhev courses).

Foreign policy of Russia in the 60s-90s XIX century. Russia faced difficult tasks in the field of international relations: 1. The need to get rid of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty. 2. Eliminate the "neutralization" of the Black Sea. 3. Strengthen the security of its southern borders. 4. Get the opportunity to provide more active assistance to the Balkan Slavic peoples in their struggle against the Ottoman oppressors. In the foreign policy of Russia of this period, the following major problems can be distinguished: 1. Accession of Central Asia. 2. Participation in the solution of the Eastern question. 3. Real assistance to the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. 4. Expansion of relations with the USA and the countries of Latin America.

The annexation of Central Asia Two reasons prompted the autocracy to take up the annexation of this region: 1. Economic reason. Medium, with its vast territory and undeveloped industry, was a first-class sales market and a source of raw materials for the young Russian industry. Textile products, metal products, etc. were sold there. Cotton was mainly exported from Central Asia. 2. Political reason. It was associated with the struggle against England, which was trying to turn Central Asia into its colony. Process of accession: In 1864, troops under the command of Major General M.G. Chernyaev launched an offensive against Tashkent, but the first campaign ended in failure. Only in 1865 Russian troops captured Tashkent. In 1867, the Turkestan General Government was formed, which became the center of a further offensive in Central Asia. In 1868, the Kokand Khanate fell into dependence on Russia. In 1868, troops under the command of K.P. Kaufman captured Samarkand and Bukhara. The two largest states - Kokand and Bukhara, while maintaining internal autonomy, were subordinate to Russia. June 10, 1873 After the capture of the capital of the Khiva Khanate, an agreement was concluded with the khan, according to which he became a vassal of the king, renounced independent external relations with other states. Khiva fell under the protectorate of tsarist Russia. The annexation of Central Asia to Russia was objectively progressive. It consisted in the following: 1. Slavery was abolished. 2. The endless feudal strife and the ruin of the population ended. 3. Central Asia was drawn into the sphere of capitalist relations, which laid the foundations for the development of an advanced economy and culture. 4. The accession linked the advanced Russian culture with the original culture of the peoples of Central Asia.

In the 1870s. Russia is creating a military fleet on the Black Sea, restoring destroyed fortresses and starting to resolve the eastern issue. During these years, the liberation movement in the Balkans intensified, which the Turks tried to suppress, using the most brutal measures. Russia provided support to the Balkan peoples; In April 1877, when the impossibility of settling the matter peacefully became apparent, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. This war, which cost Russia many victims, ended in its grandiose victory. Having captured the Turkish fortress of Plevna, Russian troops crossed the Balkans and won victories in southern Bulgaria; In February 1878, an agreement was signed in the town of San Stefano, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received full independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality, its dependence on Turkey was limited to the payment of tribute. The strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and in the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers. They protested against the Treaty of San Stefano and threatened Russia with war. Under these conditions, the Russian government agreed to convene a European congress, which took place in Berlin in the summer of 1878. Finding itself in isolation, the Russian delegation was powerless to defend the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano; On July 1, 1878, the Treaty of Berlin was signed. The Bulgarian lands south of the Balkan Range made up the Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia. Austria-Hungary received the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Transcaucasia, only Kars, Ardahan and Batum with their districts remained for Russia; The Russian-Turkish war ended the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples. The victory of the Russian army was due to the popularity of this war in Russia. The Russian people and the Russian army were the decisive forces that ensured the victory over Turkey.

FAR EASTERN DIRECTION IN FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA In the second half of the XIX century. the Far East direction in Russian foreign policy gradually changed its peripheral character; The Anglo-French sabotage in Kamchatka during the Crimean War, the weakening of China and its transformation into a country dependent on Anglo-German-French capital, the rapid growth of Japan's naval and land forces showed the need to strengthen Russian economic and military-strategic positions in the Far East. According to the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, the lands on the left bank of the Amur were recognized for Russia, and from the Ussuri River to the sea were not delimited. In 1858, in the city of Aigun, the commander-in-chief of the Chinese troops I. Shan and the governor-general of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov signed an agreement in which the existing border was recognized. According to the Beijing Treaty (1860), the right bank of the Ussuri River and further south to the sea was recognized as the possession of Russia. The agreement was approved by Bogdykhan and signed by the Russian diplomatic representative Ignatiev. Accurate maps of the border were drawn, sealed, and exchanged between the two sides. VERDICT: According to the Aigun (1858) and Peking (1860) treaties with China, Russia was assigned the territory on the left bank of the Amur River and the entire Ussuri region.

EUROPEAN DIRECTION IN RUSSIAN FOREIGN POLICY. ESTABLISHMENT OF POLITICAL MILITARY BLOCKS. A new balance of political and military forces was taking shape in the world. By the beginning of the 80s. in Europe, there has been a sharp rise in Germany. The positions of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans were strengthened; Avoiding European conflicts, England stepped up colonial conquests; England actually turned out to be the master of the Black Sea straits. The British Navy was in the Sea of Marmara. As a result of the Berlin Congress, England received the right to seize Cyprus and had a strong influence on Turkish policy. In May 1879, the British government imposed the Gandoma Treaty on Afghanistan, which placed the country under an English protectorate; At the end of 1879, contacts began between Russia and Germany on the question of the normalization of relations. On June 6, 1881, the Austro-Russian-German treaty was signed under the name “The Union of Three Emperors”. The treaty enshrined the mutual obligations of the parties to maintain neutrality in the event of a war between one of them and a fourth country. The treaty established cooperation between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, and also provided for measures to prevent the entry of Turkish troops into Eastern Rumelia and promoted its reunification with Bulgaria; In 1887 the term of the “Union of the Three Emperors” expired. The aggravation of the Russian-Austrian contradictions in the Balkans ruled out its extension for a new term. This coincided with a new aggravation of the Franco-German contradictions. The real threat of war loomed. In June 1887, a secret Russian-German treaty was signed in Berlin, which went down in history under the name of the "Union of two emperors" or "reinsurance contract"; In 1882, the conclusion of the Triple Alliance between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy. At the beginning of the 90s. there were signs of a rapprochement between the members of the Triple Alliance with England. Under these conditions, the rapprochement between Russia and France began. On August 27, 1891, in an atmosphere of secrecy, the Russian-French alliance was concluded. A year later, a military convention was signed between Russia and France. The final design of the Russian-French union did not take place immediately. Only in January 1894 the treaty was ratified by Alexander III and became binding - the Franco-Russian alliance. (the beginning of the Alliance "Entente")

Revolutionary movements and circles 1. "Land and Freedom" (1861 -1864) N. N. Obruchev, A. Sleptsov, N. I. Utin 2. Terrorist group "Hell" 1863 -1866) N. A. Ishutina, I. A. Khudyakova 3. "People's reprisal" (1869 -1871) pp. G. Nechaeva 4. "Tchaikovsky" M. A. Natanson, N. V. Tchaikovsky 5. "Walking to the people" (1873 -1875) 6. "Black redistribution" G. V. Plekhanov, L. G. Deich

Labor movement and the beginning of the spread of Marxism Strikes of 1885 Nikolskaya manufactory in Orekhovo-Zuevo (Morozovskaya strike) 1872 Krenholm manufactory (Narva) Marxist circles in Russia Circle Year, place Leaders Activity Blagoev circle 1883 -1885 Petersburg D. Blagoev Studying of Marxism, its propaganda among the workers, the newspaper "Rabochy" Fedoseev's circle 1888 Kazan N. Ye. Fedoseev Organization of stud. unrest at Kazan University. Brusnev's circle 1889 -1892 St. Petersburg MI Brusnev Propaganda of Marxism, creation of workers' circles. Demonstrations

Completion of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of the Russian state. After the death of Basil II, the throne passed to his son without any mention of the Horde. During the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), the Moscow principality developed successfully: with practically no resistance, many Russian lands were annexed to Moscow - Yaroslavl, Rostov, as well as Perm, Vyatka, with non-Russian peoples living here. This expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state. Chernigov-Seversk possessions passed from Lithuania.
The Novgorod boyar republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. In 1471 Ivan III took decisive measures to subjugate Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on the Sheloni River, when the Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. In 1478 the republic in Novgorod was finally liquidated. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.
In 1480 the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash between the Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. At the head of the Horde troops was Khan Akhmat. Having stood on Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to engage in battle. This event went down in history as "standing on the Ugra". Russia, several years before Akhmat's campaign, stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.
In 1497, a set of laws was introduced - Ivan III's Code of Laws, which strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the "Sudebnik" regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. According to the "Code of Law", peasants could leave the feudal lords only a week before and a week after St. George's autumn day (November 26), having paid the elderly. The nationwide governing bodies of the country began to form - orders. There was localism - the procedure for obtaining positions depending on the nobility of the family. Local administration was carried out on the basis of a feeding system: collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds for themselves. The sovereign's authority was strengthened by the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Sophia Palaeologus.
The father's business was completed by Vasily III (1505-1533), annexing Ryazan and Pskov, having conquered Smolensk from Lithuania. All Russian lands were united into a single Russian state. During the reign of Vasily III, stone construction began in many Russian cities. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, into which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. The moat near the Moscow Kremlin was laid out with stone. Wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and Zaraisk were replaced with stone ones. And in Novgorod, which the Grand Duke of Moscow liked to visit, in addition to the walls, streets, squares and rows were rebuilt.
Russia under Ivan IV. Reforms of the mid-16th century The policy of the oprichnina. After the death of Vasily III, the throne passed to the three-year-old Ivan IV (1533-1584), later nicknamed the Terrible. In fact, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. She entrusted all state affairs to the Boyar Duma. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya in the war with Lithuania, small territories in the west were annexed, and the raids of the Tatar cavalry on the Moscow lands were also repelled. A monetary reform was carried out: coins of various principalities were replaced by coins of a single sample - kopecks. In 1538 Elena died unexpectedly (there is an assumption that she was poisoned). After her death, the struggle for power between the boyar groups intensified.
Upon reaching the age of 17 in 1547, Ivan Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, becoming the first tsar in Russia. The ceremony of accepting the royal title took place in the Kremlin's Assumption Cathedral. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV received the cap of Monomakh and other signs of tsarist power.
Under the young tsar, a circle of friends was formed - the Chosen Rada. It included the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Archpriest Sylvester (confessor of the young tsar), Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius. The task of these people was to help the tsar in running the state and to develop reforms.
In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor in the country's history was convened, which included elected representatives from each estate. In the 1550s, the folding of the order system was completed, until 1568 it was called the "order hut". The creation of orders was caused by the complication of state administration due to the growth of subordinate territories. There were Ambassadors, Pomestny, Razryadny, Rogue orders, and the Chelobitnaya hut - the supreme control body of the state. The order was headed by a boyar or a clerk - a major government official.
In 1550, a new "Code of Law" was adopted, which confirmed the rule of St. George's Day.
In 1555-1556. the reform of local government was completed, the feeding system was canceled, a streltsy army was created, lip and zemstvo reforms were carried out. In 1551 "Stoglav" was adopted - the decision of the church council, which regulated the affairs of the church.
In 1565-1572. Ivan IV established the oprichnina regime, which led to numerous casualties and the ruin of the country. The territory of the state was divided into two parts: oprichnina and zemstvo. The tsar included the most important lands in the oprichnina. They were settled by the nobles who were part of the oprichnina army. The guardsmen in a short time brought these lands to the most miserable situation, the peasants fled from there to the outskirts of the state. The population of the Zemshchyna was supposed to support this army. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine loyalty of the guardsmen to the king and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country. At the head of the guardsmen, Ivan Vasilyevich made a punitive campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. The cities on the way to Novgorod, Novgorod itself and its environs were subjected to terrible devastation. Pskov managed to pay off with very big money. In 1581, "reserved summer" was introduced - the prohibition of the passage of peasants on St. George's Day.
Expansion of the territory of Russia in the 16th century. Livonian War. In foreign policy, Ivan IV strove to expand the territory of the state: in 1552 Kazan was taken, in 1556 - Astrakhan, in 1582 the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began.
In 1558-1583. the Livonian War took place for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea. But this war ended in failure for Russia: according to the Yam-Zapolsky peace (1582) Livonia retreated to Poland, according to the Plus peace (1583) Sweden secured the Gulf of Finland, part of Karelia, the fortresses of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye, Yam, Karela.
During the Livonian War and the oprichnina in the spring of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey moved to Moscow. The oprichnina army could not resist the external enemy. Moscow was burnt by the khan. The fire killed up to 80 thousand people.

In 1582, facing the threat of a new invasion of the Tatars, Ivan IV was forced to abandon the Division of the Army. As a result, the united army under the leadership of the voivode Prince MI Vorotynsky defeated the Tatars near the village of Molody. The oprichnina was canceled.
Troubles. The beginning of the Romanov dynasty. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Zemsky Sobor, composed of service people, recognized the son of Ivan IV Fyodor as tsar. In 1589, the patriarchate was introduced, which meant the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from Constantinople. In 1597, the "regular summer" was introduced - a five-year period for detecting fugitive peasants. In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich and the suppression of the Rurik dynasty, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the throne by a majority of votes.
The beginning of the 17th century - the period of the Time of Troubles. The causes of the Troubles were the aggravation of social, estate, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.
1) In the 1570-1580s. the most economically developed center (Moscow) and the north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country fell into desolation. As a result of the oprichnina and the Livonian War, part of the population fled, while others perished. The central government, in order to prevent the flight of the peasants to the outskirts, took the path of attaching the peasants to the land of the feudal landowners. In fact, a system of serfdom was established on a national scale. The introduction of serfdom led to an exacerbation of social contradictions in the country and created conditions for mass popular demonstrations.
2) After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, there were no heirs able to continue his policy. During the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598), soft in character, the de facto ruler of the country was his guardian Boris Godunov. In 1591 in Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the last of the direct heirs to the throne, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsarevich Dmitry, died. Popular rumor attributed the organization of the murder to Boris Godunov. These events triggered a dynastic crisis.
3) At the end of the XVI century. there is a strengthening of the neighbors of Moscow Russia - the Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire. The aggravation of international contradictions will become another reason for the events that erupted during the Time of Troubles.
During the Time of Troubles, the country was actually in a state of civil war, accompanied by Polish and Swedish interventions. Rumors were widespread that Tsarevich Dmitry was alive, "miraculously escaped" in Uglich. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. According to the official version of the Moscow government of Boris Godunov, the man posing as Dmitry was the fugitive monk Grigory Otrepiev. He went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.
In June 1605, a protege of the Polish gentry, False Dmitry I, entered Moscow. However, his policy aroused the discontent of both the common people and the boyars. As a result of the conspiracy of the boyars and the uprising of Muscovites in May 1606, False Dmitry was killed. Boyars proclaim Vasily Shuisky as tsar (1606-1610).
In 1606-1607 there is a popular performance under the leadership of Ivan Bolotnikov. In the summer of 1606 Bolotnikov from Krom moved to Moscow. On the way, a small detachment turned into a powerful army, which included peasants, townspeople and even detachments of nobles led by Procopius Lyapunov. The Bolotnikovites laid siege to Moscow for two months, but as a result of treason, some of the nobles were defeated by the troops of Vasily Shuisky. In March 1607 Shuisky published the Code on the Peasants, which introduced a 15-year term for the search for fugitive peasants. Bolotnikov was driven back to Kaluga and besieged by the tsarist troops, but he escaped the siege and retreated to Tula. The three-month siege of Tula was led by Vasily Shuisky himself. The Upa River was blocked by a dam and the fortress was flooded. After V. Shuisky's promise to save the life of the rebels, they opened the gates of Tula. Breaking his word, the king cruelly dealt with the rebels. Bolotnikov was blinded and then drowned in an ice hole in the city of Kargopol.
At the time when Shuisky was besieging Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the Bryansk region. Relying on the support of the Polish gentry and the Vatican, in 1608 False Dmitry II set out from Poland to Russia. However, attempts to take Moscow ended in vain. False Dmitry II stopped 17 km from the Kremlin in the village of Tushino, for which he received the nickname "Tushinsky thief".
To fight the Tushins, Shuisky in February 1609 concluded an agreement with Sweden. The Swedes provided troops to fight the "Tushinsky thief", and Russia renounced its claims to the Baltic coast.
The Polish king Sigismund III ordered the gentry to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp fell apart. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. The Tushino boyars invited the son of the Polish king, Tsarevich Vladislav, to the Moscow throne.
In the summer of 1610, a coup took place in Moscow. Shuisky was overthrown, power was seized by the boyars headed by F.I.Mstislavsky. This government was named "seven-boyars". Despite the protests of Patriarch Hermogenes, the "seven-boyars" concluded an agreement on calling Tsarevich Vladislav to the Russian throne and let the Polish invaders into the Kremlin.
The catastrophic situation stirred up the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. At the beginning of 1611, the First People's Militia was formed, led by P. Lyapunov, who besieged Moscow, but because of internal disagreements between the participants, it disintegrated, and Procopius Lyapunov was killed.
Swedish troops, freed from treaty obligations after the overthrow of Shuisky, captured a significant part of northern Russia, including Novgorod, laid siege to Pskov, the Poles, after almost two years of siege, captured Smolensk. The Polish king Sigismund III announced that he himself would become the Russian tsar, and Russia would enter the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In the fall of 1611, the Second People's Militia was formed on the initiative of the Nizhny Novgorod mayor Kuzma Minin and led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In 1612 Moscow was liberated from the Poles.
In February 1613, Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.
Culture. Literature. One of the most striking works of the second half of the 15th century. was "Walking the Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin. The Tver merchant traveled to India in 1466-1472. The work of Afanasy Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. The creation of a unified state contributed to the emergence of an extensive journalistic literature, the main theme of which was the ways of the country's development. Publicism is represented by the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky, the works of M. Bashkin, F. Kosoy, I. Peresvetov. In 1564 Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets laid the foundation for book printing in Russia. The first dated Russian book "Apostle" (1564), then "Book of Hours" (1565), the first Russian primer (1574).
Painting. At the end of the 15th century. the famous master of icon painting was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of A. Rublev. His creations are characterized by delicate patterns, soft colors and a festive mood. Dionysius created the famous paintings of the Ferapontov Monastery.
Architecture. At the end of the 15th century. Moscow became the capital of the Russian state, which should have been consolidated in the appearance of the city. During the reign of Ivan III, a modern Kremlin wall with towers was built under the guidance of Italian craftsmen. For that time, it was an outstanding fortification, designed for a long siege. Ivan III attracted Italian craftsmen to build new cathedrals inside the Kremlin. The main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral - the architect Aristotle Fioravanti created on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The Faceted Chamber was built by Pietro Solari and Mark Fryazin. The Cathedral of the Annunciation and the Cathedral of the Archangel were erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Another Italian architect, Aleviz New, took part in the creation of the latter. In the first half of the XVI century. in Russian architecture, a national hipped roof style arose. An outstanding monument of this style is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. In 1554-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, by order of Ivan IV, the Intercession Cathedral was built on the Moat (St. Basil's Cathedral) (Russian architects Barma and Postnik), which became a symbol of Russia for many centuries. In the XVI century. stone walls were erected around many cities. The most famous creator of the fortifications was Fedor Kon. He built the walls of the White City in Moscow (on the site of the present Garden Ring), the walls of the Smolensk Kremlin.

Topic 4. The Russian state in the second half of the 15th - early 17th century.

The Novgorod boyar republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. In 1471 Ivan III took decisive measures to subjugate Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on the Sheloni River, when the Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. In 1478 the republic in Novgorod was finally liquidated. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

In 1480 the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash between the Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. At the head of the Horde troops was Khan Akhmat. Having stood on Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to engage in battle. This event went down in history as "standing on the Ugra". Russia, several years before Akhmat's campaign, stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

In 1497, a set of laws was introduced - Ivan III's Code of Laws, which strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the "Sudebnik" regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. According to the "Code of Law", peasants could leave the feudal lords only a week before and a week after St. George's autumn day (November 26), having paid the elderly. The nationwide governing bodies of the country began to form - orders. There was localism - the procedure for obtaining positions depending on the nobility of the family. Local administration was carried out on the basis of a feeding system: collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds for themselves. The sovereign's authority was strengthened by the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Sophia Palaeologus.

The father's business was completed by Vasily III (1505-1533), annexing Ryazan and Pskov, and conquering Smolensk from Lithuania. All Russian lands were united into a single Russian state. During the reign of Vasily III, stone construction began in many Russian cities. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, into which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. The moat near the Moscow Kremlin was laid out with stone. Wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and Zaraisk were replaced with stone ones. And in Novgorod, which the Grand Duke of Moscow liked to visit, in addition to the walls, streets, squares and rows were rebuilt.
Russia under Ivan IV. Reforms of the mid-16th century The policy of the oprichnina. After the death of Vasily III, the throne passed to the three-year-old Ivan IV (1533-1584), later nicknamed the Terrible. In fact, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. She entrusted all state affairs to the Boyar Duma. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya in the war with Lithuania, small territories in the west were annexed, and the raids of the Tatar cavalry on the Moscow lands were also repelled. A monetary reform was carried out: coins of various principalities were replaced by coins of a single sample - kopecks. In 1538 Elena died unexpectedly (there is an assumption that she was poisoned). After her death, the struggle for power between the boyar groups intensified.

Upon reaching the age of 17 in 1547, Ivan Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, becoming the first tsar in Russia. The ceremony of accepting the royal title took place in the Kremlin's Assumption Cathedral. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV received the cap of Monomakh and other signs of tsarist power.

Under the young tsar, a circle of friends was formed - the Chosen Rada. It included the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Archpriest Sylvester (confessor of the young tsar), Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius. The task of these people was to help the tsar in running the state and to develop reforms.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor in the country's history was convened, which included elected representatives from each estate. In the 1550s, the folding of the order system was completed, until 1568 it was called the "order hut". The creation of orders was caused by the complication of state administration due to the growth of subordinate territories. There were Ambassadors, Pomestny, Razryadny, Rogue orders, and the Chelobitnaya hut - the supreme control body of the state. The order was headed by a boyar or a clerk - a major government official.

In 1550, a new "Code of Law" was adopted, which confirmed the rule of St. George's Day.
In 1555-1556. the reform of local government was completed, the feeding system was canceled, a streltsy army was created, lip and zemstvo reforms were carried out. In 1551 "Stoglav" was adopted - the decision of the church council, which regulated the affairs of the church.

In 1565-1572. Ivan IV established the oprichnina regime, which led to numerous casualties and the ruin of the country. The territory of the state was divided into two parts: oprichnina and zemstvo. The tsar included the most important lands in the oprichnina. They were settled by the nobles who were part of the oprichnina army. The guardsmen in a short time brought these lands to the most miserable situation, the peasants fled from there to the outskirts of the state. The population of the Zemshchyna was supposed to support this army. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine loyalty of the guardsmen to the king and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country. At the head of the guardsmen, Ivan Vasilyevich made a punitive campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. The cities on the way to Novgorod, Novgorod itself and its environs were subjected to terrible devastation. Pskov managed to pay off with very big money. In 1581, "reserved summer" was introduced - the prohibition of the passage of peasants on St. George's Day.

Expansion of the territory of Russia in the 16th century. Livonian War. In foreign policy, Ivan IV strove to expand the territory of the state: in 1552 Kazan was taken, in 1556 - Astrakhan, in 1582 the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began.

In 1558-1583. the Livonian War took place for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea. But this war ended in failure for Russia: according to the Yam-Zapolsky peace (1582) Livonia retreated to Poland, according to the Plus peace (1583) Sweden secured the Gulf of Finland, part of Karelia, the fortresses of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye, Yam, Karela.

During the Livonian War and the oprichnina in the spring of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey moved to Moscow. The oprichnina army could not resist the external enemy. Moscow was burnt by the khan. The fire killed up to 80 thousand people.
In 1582, facing the threat of a new invasion of the Tatars, Ivan IV was forced to abandon the division of the army. As a result, the united army under the leadership of the voivode Prince MI Vorotynsky defeated the Tatars near the village of Molody. The oprichnina was canceled.

Troubles. The beginning of the Romanov dynasty. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Zemsky Sobor, composed of service people, recognized the son of Ivan IV Fyodor as tsar. In 1589, the patriarchate was introduced, which meant the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from Constantinople. In 1597, the "regular summer" was introduced - a five-year period for detecting fugitive peasants. In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich and the suppression of the Rurik dynasty, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the throne by a majority of votes.

The beginning of the 17th century - the period of the Time of Troubles. The causes of the Troubles were the aggravation of social, estate, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.

1) In the 1570-1580s. the most economically developed center (Moscow) and the north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country fell into desolation. As a result of the oprichnina and the Livonian War, part of the population fled, while others perished. The central government, in order to prevent the flight of the peasants to the outskirts, took the path of attaching the peasants to the land of the feudal landowners. In fact, a system of serfdom was established on a national scale. The introduction of serfdom led to an exacerbation of social contradictions in the country and created conditions for mass popular demonstrations.

2) After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, there were no heirs able to continue his policy. During the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598), soft in character, the de facto ruler of the country was his guardian Boris Godunov. In 1591 in Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the last of the direct heirs to the throne, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsarevich Dmitry, died. Popular rumor attributed the organization of the murder to Boris Godunov. These events triggered a dynastic crisis.

3) At the end of the XVI century. there is a strengthening of the neighbors of Moscow Russia - the Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire. The aggravation of international contradictions will become another reason for the events that erupted during the Time of Troubles.

During the Time of Troubles, the country was actually in a state of civil war, accompanied by Polish and Swedish interventions. Rumors were widespread that Tsarevich Dmitry was alive, "miraculously escaped" in Uglich. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. According to the official version of the Moscow government of Boris Godunov, the man posing as Dmitry was the fugitive monk Grigory Otrepiev. He went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.

In June 1605, a protege of the Polish gentry, False Dmitry I, entered Moscow. However, his policy aroused the discontent of both the common people and the boyars. As a result of the conspiracy of the boyars and the uprising of Muscovites in May 1606, False Dmitry was killed. Boyars proclaim Vasily Shuisky as tsar (1606-1610).

In 1606-1607. there is a popular performance under the leadership of Ivan Bolotnikov. In the summer of 1606 Bolotnikov from Krom moved to Moscow. On the way, a small detachment turned into a powerful army, which included peasants, townspeople and even detachments of nobles led by Procopius Lyapunov. The Bolotnikovites laid siege to Moscow for two months, but as a result of treason, some of the nobles were defeated by the troops of Vasily Shuisky. In March 1607 Shuisky published the Code on the Peasants, which introduced a 15-year term for the search for fugitive peasants. Bolotnikov was driven back to Kaluga and besieged by the tsarist troops, but he escaped the siege and retreated to Tula. The three-month siege of Tula was led by Vasily Shuisky himself. The Upa River was blocked by a dam and the fortress was flooded. After V. Shuisky's promise to save the life of the rebels, they opened the gates of Tula. Breaking his word, the king cruelly dealt with the rebels. Bolotnikov was blinded and then drowned in an ice hole in the city of Kargopol.

At the time when Shuisky was besieging Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the Bryansk region. Relying on the support of the Polish gentry and the Vatican, in 1608 False Dmitry II set out from Poland to Russia. However, attempts to take Moscow ended in vain. False Dmitry II stopped 17 km from the Kremlin in the village of Tushino, for which he received the nickname "Tushinsky thief".

To fight the Tushins, Shuisky in February 1609 concluded an agreement with Sweden. The Swedes provided troops to fight the "Tushinsky thief", and Russia renounced its claims to the Baltic coast.

The Polish king Sigismund III ordered the gentry to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp fell apart. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. The Tushino boyars invited the son of the Polish king, Tsarevich Vladislav, to the Moscow throne.

In the summer of 1610, a coup took place in Moscow. Shuisky was overthrown, power was seized by the boyars headed by F.I.Mstislavsky. This government was named "seven-boyars". Despite the protests of Patriarch Hermogenes, the "seven-boyars" concluded an agreement on calling Tsarevich Vladislav to the Russian throne and let the Polish invaders into the Kremlin.

The catastrophic situation stirred up the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. At the beginning of 1611, the First People's Militia was formed, led by P. Lyapunov, who besieged Moscow, but because of internal disagreements between the participants, it disintegrated, and Procopius Lyapunov was killed.

Swedish troops, freed from treaty obligations after the overthrow of Shuisky, captured a significant part of northern Russia, including Novgorod, laid siege to Pskov, the Poles, after almost two years of siege, captured Smolensk. The Polish king Sigismund III announced that he himself would become the Russian tsar, and Russia would enter the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In the fall of 1611, the Second People's Militia was formed on the initiative of the Nizhny Novgorod mayor Kuzma Minin and led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In 1612 Moscow was liberated from the Poles.

In February 1613, Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.

Culture. Literature. One of the most striking works of the second half of the 15th century. was "Walking the Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin. The Tver merchant traveled to India in 1466-1472. The work of Afanasy Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. The creation of a unified state contributed to the emergence of an extensive journalistic literature, the main theme of which was the ways of the country's development. Publicism is represented by the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky, the works of M. Bashkin, F. Kosoy, I. Peresvetov. In 1564 Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets laid the foundation for book printing in Russia. The first dated Russian book "Apostle" (1564), then "Book of Hours" (1565), the first Russian primer (1574).

Painting. At the end of the 15th century. the famous master of icon painting was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of A. Rublev. His creations are characterized by delicate patterns, soft colors and a festive mood. Dionysius created the famous paintings of the Ferapontov Monastery.

Architecture. At the end of the 15th century. Moscow became the capital of the Russian state, which should have been consolidated in the appearance of the city. During the reign of Ivan III, a modern Kremlin wall with towers was built under the guidance of Italian craftsmen. For that time, it was an outstanding fortification, designed for a long siege. Ivan III attracted Italian craftsmen to build new cathedrals inside the Kremlin. The main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral - the architect Aristotle Fioravanti created on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The Faceted Chamber was built by Pietro Solari and Mark Fryazin. The Cathedral of the Annunciation and the Cathedral of the Archangel were erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Another Italian architect, Aleviz New, took part in the creation of the latter. In the first half of the XVI century. in Russian architecture, a national hipped roof style arose. An outstanding monument of this style is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. In 1554-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, by order of Ivan IV, the Intercession Cathedral was built on the Moat (St. Basil's Cathedral) (Russian architects Barma and Postnik), which became a symbol of Russia for many centuries. In the XVI century. stone walls were erected around many cities. The most famous creator of the fortifications was Fedor Kon. He built the walls of the White City in Moscow (on the site of the present Garden Ring), the walls of the Smolensk Kremlin.

Topic 4. The Russian state in the second half of the 15th - early 17th century.

To fight the Tushins, Shuisky in February 1609 concluded an agreement with Sweden. The Swedes provided troops to fight the "Tushinsky thief", and Russia renounced its claims to the Baltic coast.

In February 1613, Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.

Test topic

The Russian state in the second half of the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible

St. Petersburg

Introduction

The initial period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible

Reforms of the Chosen Rada: the path to centralization of state power

Oprichnina: causes, essence, consequences

The main directions of the foreign policy of Ivan IV

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

In the centuries-old history of feudal Russia, it is difficult to find a time more contradictory than the 16th century, especially its second half, or, as it is still called in historical literature, the time of Ivan the Terrible. The boyar strife, which shook the state, was replaced by a short period of rallying of the entire class of feudal lords around the young monarch, which, in turn, was followed by the turbulent years of the oprichnina. Military victories at that time were side by side with defeats. The economic recovery of the first half of the century was replaced by an economic crisis with a decline in crafts, the agrarianization of cities and a massive exodus of peasants from the central districts of the country to the southern and eastern outskirts. The rapid development of trade was combined with the further development of serfdom, and the flourishing of Russian culture and social thought was accompanied by cruel persecution of free-thinkers - heretics.

Historians of the past have puzzled over the reasons for the drama of this era and its contrasts. They were seen in the struggle between good and bad historical figures, they were looked for in the character of Ivan the Terrible himself, they were deduced from the struggle of the state principle with the remnants of clan relations. We have to admit that despite the contradictory assessments and concepts of the history of Russia in the 16th century, all of them, in general, which are inherent in all of them, lead us to the problem of power and its significance in Russian history. This is an indisputable historiographic fact.

... The initial period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible

In December 1533, Vasily III died unexpectedly. Under the minor heir to the throne, three-year-old Ivan, a board of trustees (Regency Council) was created by will. The creation of this state body was necessary not only for management, but also for the preservation of power in the hands of their descendants. After a while, the second wife of Vasily III, Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, a representative of the princely family of Western Russian lands, becomes the de facto ruler. However, along the way, she met resistance. The first to try to seize power was Yuri Ivanovich Dmitrovsky, the brother of Vasily III, but was arrested. Uncle Elena's attempt, Mikhail Glinsky, was also suppressed. But these were not the last attempts to seize the throne.

After Elena's death, the period of boyar rule (1538 - 1547) began, where there were several boyar groups: Glinsky, Belsky, Shuisky, Vorontsov. All of them pursued different policies, but the fact was only one thing - one or another group came to power.

As a child, John had to endure terrible trials that left their mark on his character. Having lost his father at the age of three, and at the age of seven and a half, having remained a complete orphan, a feeling of abandonment and loneliness deeply engraved in the child's soul. Ugly scenes of boyar willfulness and violence turned his timidity into nervous fearfulness. From the moment of his coronation, the boy had to sit for hours at long ceremonies, perform rituals, refusing to play children. He retained an unkind feeling towards guardians for the rest of his life.

Freed from the tutelage of the boyars, the Grand Duke indulged in wild amusements and games. At the age of 12, he climbed the peaked towers and shoved cats and dogs out of there. He rode through the streets of the city, trampled the people with horses, beat and robbed.

In other words, while the state languished under the unbearable yoke of the boyar tyranny, the future sovereign received a sad lesson from those around him. Thanks to the deeds of the boyars, the spirit of violence in various forms took possession of the youth's imagination and feelings, penetrated into his flesh and blood. In the atmosphere of the struggle for power, the future despot was ripening - vindictive, extremely nervous, hot-tempered and cruel. He was not only not prevented from indulging in cruel and bloody fun, but even encouraged.

However, the speeches of 1547 did not violate the objective course of events in recent decades. They only emphasized the need for further transformation. After a number of new beginnings at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. and their continuation in the 30s - 40s of the 16th century, the country was prepared to carry out more ambitious reforms.

... Reforms of the Chosen Rada: the path to centralization of state power

Around 1549, from people close to young John, a new government was formed, later named by Prince A. Kurbsky the Chosen Rada. It included: Alexey Adashev, a representative of ignoble but large landowners, who headed the Chosen Rada, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Priest Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Ivan Viskovaty.

Rada was not an official state body, but in fact for 13 years it was the government and ruled the state on behalf of the king.

Reforms of the Chosen Rada.The new level of the country's political organization, which had developed by the middle of the 16th century, had to correspond to new state institutions - estate and representative institutions that defended the interests of large regions. The Zemsky Sobor became such an organ.

The Council of 1549 was the first Zemsky Council, that is, a meeting of estate representatives with legislative functions. Its convocation reflected the establishment of an estate-representative monarchy in Russia. However, the first Council was not yet elective, and representatives of the city's trade and craft population and peasants were not present there. However, both of these categories of the population did not play a big role in the cathedrals in the future.

From 1550 to 1653, 16 councils were convened, and after the closure of the last of them there was no living memory or regret.

Adoption of a new code of law.Undoubtedly, the largest undertaking by the government of Ivan the Terrible was the new legislative code drawn up in June 1550, which replaced the outdated code of law of 1497. Of the 99 articles of the code of law, 37 were completely new, and the rest were subjected to cardinal revisions. The social legislation, included in the code of law of 1550, deals with two major issues - land tenure and the dependent population (peasants and slaves). For the first time in the code of law there was a chapter about the king, which stipulated the rights of the king, the title, the form of government. A clause on high treason was also introduced.

The new Code of Law fully met the needs of the time. For the first time, it introduced the punishment for bribery, and the norms of law appear that still exist.

Local government reforms.Zemstvo reform was destined to acquire special significance - the introduction of zemstvo institutions and the transition to the abolition of feeding. Lands not assigned to the princely palace were included in the circle of local government. This administration was carried out by governors and volosts. The position of the steward was called feeding, since he fed at the expense of the governed. Viceroyalty was given not for government work, but for court service.

The reform was supposed to lead to the final elimination of the power of the governors by replacing it with local government bodies selected from the wealthy black-sowed peasantry and townspeople. The Zemskaya reform, conceived as a nationwide reform, was fully implemented only in the black-wooded territories of the Russian North. As a result of the elimination of the feeding system and the creation of estate-representative institutions on the ground, the Russian government was able to achieve the solution of the most important tasks in strengthening the centralized apparatus of power. As a result of the reform, the bulk of the nobles were freed from fed functions, which increased the fighting efficiency and increased the personnel of the Russian army; the nobility strengthened their positions - they received regular remuneration for the proper performance of military service.

Army reforms.The reform of the army, which began in 1556, was also associated with the Kazan War. As a result of several unsuccessful campaigns, it became clear that the old way of organizing the army was no longer suitable for such a state, that is, the army needed transformations.

The army was already recruited not only from Russian soldiers. In the second half of the 16th century, the Cossacks who lived on the Don joined the army. Cossacks were used to carry out border service.

By creating such a manning system, Ivan receives a solid base for further changes in the structure of the army. The cavalry militia of the nobility becomes the core of the army.

A permanent type of troops appears - archers. They were formed as permanent contingents of infantry (partly cavalry), armed with firearms. They were provided collectively with land, city courtyards (not taxed), a small monetary grant, while retaining the right to small trade and handicrafts.

Modernization and good living conditions for the riflemen in the second half of the 16th century made the permanent rifle army the most powerful fighting force of the Russian state.

Thanks to the changes carried out in the army, its armament has acquired some uniformity. Each warrior had an iron helmet, armor or chain mail, sword, bow and arrows.

Added to the changes in the army is the appearance of artillery. The artillery park, serving the cannons and squeaks, is increasing.

Military reform also includes the prohibition of parochial disputes between voivods, now all of them were subordinate to one commander-in-chief. Appointment to senior voivodship posts on the principle breeds and the nobility led to disastrous consequences on the battlefield. The new laws made it possible to appoint less noble, but more courageous and experienced commanders as comrades to the commander-in-chief.

As a result of the reforms, a powerful combat-ready army was created, capable of withstanding a strong and large enemy.

The church reform was also aimed at educating "literate" ministers of the church, changing the service itself, its unification, because within the church organization itself there were differences in the composition of the "saints" and there was no strict order in the performance of church rituals, there was no strict system of internal regulations.

Changes in the tax system.The period of reforms in the 50s coincides with the Kazan War. As you know, war and reforms required huge funds and therefore various financial transformations are being carried out. In addition, Russia inherited the tax system from the time of the fragmentation of the state into principalities, which was morally outdated and did not meet the requirements of the time.

Tax reform took several directions. The first reform hit the monasteries the hardest. In 1548-1549, began, and in 1550-1551, the abolition of financial withdrawals for the payment of basic taxes and various travel and trade duties - the main source of income for the monasteries was carried out.

Was established a single measure for determining profitability - "plow" - land unit. Not only new taxes are being introduced ("food money", "full tax"), but old ones are also being increased. For example, there is an increase in the rates of one of the main land taxes ("Yamsk money").

According to the tax changes, we can conclude that they were aimed at increasing state revenues. There is a sharp and noticeable increase in the monetary tax press. These transformations were distinguished by their completeness and constructiveness. As a result of the reforms, the authorities have achieved uniformity in the tax area.

The results of the reform.These were the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, worked out together with the members of the Chosen Rada. The main feature of the transformations during the reign of the Chosen Rada was the randomness of their implementation and at the same time their complexity. The reforms cannot be called unsuccessful, since the main institutions and institutions, the main regulatory norms survived both the oprichnina and Ivan IV himself, which means they achieved their goal. As a result of the reforms, Russia received a new set of laws - the Code of Laws of 1550, a new system of governance at the local level and in the center. The military service system acquired its final form and became the foundation of the Russian monarchy. The reforms were reinforced by the development of trade and diplomatic relations with the West. Science and art are developing, the state is flourishing, and if the reforms had not encountered opposition from the aristocracy, whose rights were infringed upon, they would have led to even greater results. But the hostility of the boyars leads to the oprichnina.

... Oprichnina: causes, essence, consequences

reign formidable reform

The government reforms of the 1950s strengthened the central government and undermined the political strength of the boyars. The highest power was possessed by the tsar, who was assisted by the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor, which limited the autocracy. In 1560, Ivan got rid of the Chosen Rada. But long and difficult wars, as well as new taxes, ruined the country, there were many disaffected among the nobles, priests, and townspeople. The heretics called for the destruction of icons, the church itself, preached the equality of all people, the community of property. Ivan Vasilyevich himself saw only serfs in all his subjects. Their duty, according to the king, was unquestioning obedience to his will.

In 1553, Ivan IV fell seriously ill and made a will in favor of the infant Dmitry. However, close boyars and many appanage princes did not want to support his heir. Ivan IV recovered, but his mental balance was broken. The tsar looked everywhere for treason, subjected the boyars to executions. A very tense situation has developed in the country. Companions advised to establish a dictatorship and crush the opposition with terror and violence. But such a major political decision could not be made without approval in the Boyar Duma. Then, in order to wrest consent from the Duma, Ivan undertakes a major political maneuver: he decided to voluntarily leave the throne and leave Moscow.

In early December 1564, the tsar and his family, guarded and accompanied by a huge convoy, left Moscow for the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. In January of the following year, he sent 2 letters, one of which was intended for Metropolitan Athanasius, and the second for the boyars and the people. He accused the boyars of treason to the tsar, and the metropolitan of aiding the boyars and assured the people that he was not angry with them. The boyars found themselves between two fires - the king and the people. The people unanimously supported the sovereign, and the boyars were forced to ask the tsar to return to the throne. The king, in turn, demanded that he be granted extraordinary powers, to which the boyars responded with humble consent.

On February 2, 1565, Ioann Vasilyevich solemnly entered the capital, and the next day announced to the clergy, boyars and noble officials about the establishment of the oprichnina.

What is the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible? Term oprichnina comes from Old Church Slavonic oprise - except, therefore, the oprichniks were also called "scoundrels". In ancient Russia, the oprichnina was the name of the part of the principality that, after the death of the prince, was allocated to his widow oprise all destinies. The tsarist reform included three groups of measures:

In the system of a centralized state, John Vasilievich singled out oprise of all the land, significant territories in the west, north and south of the country, which made up his special personal possession - the sovereign's inheritance or oprichnina. The supreme administration and court in the sovereign's inheritance was carried out by the Boyar Duma oprichnina. The oprichnina included the cities of Mozhaisk, Vyazma, Kozelsk, Przemysl, Suzdal, Shuya, Galich, Yuryevets, Vologda, Ustyug, Staraya Russa and a number of highly profitable volosts. From all cities, counties, volosts and from the streets that had passed into the state domain, it was necessary to forcibly evict all the princes, boyars, nobles and clerks, if they did not voluntarily register as oprichniki.

For his protection, the sovereign created bodyguards from princes, boyars, nobles and boyar children. Initially, the oprichnina corps did not exceed 1000 people, but soon the special army was brought up to 5000 people. The selection of the guardsmen was made by Ioann Vasilievich himself. Each oprichnik pledged to serve only the king. For all this, the sovereign bestowed upon all those selected by estates and land in those cities and volosts from which princes, boyars, nobles and clerks who did not want to enter the oprichnina were evicted. The guardsmen wore black clothes. They attached a dog's head and a broom to the saddle. These were signs of their position, which consisted in tracking down, sniffing out and sweeping out treason and gnawing at the sovereign's villains - seditious.

That part of the state that remained outside the sovereign's inheritance - oprichnina, began to be called zemstvo. The current state affairs here were still dealt with by the Boyar Duma and orders. The supreme authority in court cases and in the field of international relations, as before, was the tsar.

February 1565, that is, on the second day after the establishment of the oprichnina, a new period of brutal reprisals began against those who still regularly served the sovereign. Some boyars and princes were executed, others were tonsured into monks and exiled to distant monasteries, etc. The property of all the disgraced was confiscated. The guardsmen smashed the boyar houses, took away property, drove away the peasants.

So, the main goal of the introduction of the oprichnina is to combat the remnants of political decentralization.

The oprichny terror inflicted merciless blows not only on the boyar and princely nobility, but also on the entire population of those possessions where the oprichniks broke into, where they rampaged and robbed indiscriminately. The oprichnina was in the hands of the tsar a powerful military-punitive organization.

Naturally, the oprichnina very soon aroused discontent not only among the feudal elites, but also among the mass of the common people.

An entire era of bloody executions that Russian society was subjected to during the oprichnina period is an inappropriately heavy punishment. The unbridled desire of Grozny to strengthen his personal power and his barbaric methods of fighting political opponents left a terrifying imprint of despotism on all the events of the oprichnina years.

... The main directions of the foreign policy of Ivan IV

The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in the middle and second half of the sixteenth century. were as follows: in the east and southeast - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and advance to Siberia, in the south - protection from the raids of the Crimeans, in the west - an attempt to reach the Baltic Sea.

The Mongol kingdom fell apart. Russian feudal lords hoped to receive new lands, merchants - a trade route along the Volga, the tsarist government counted on income from tribute from the peoples of the Volga region. In Kazan and Astrakhan, the Crimean steppes, independent khanates still existed, sometimes taking on a threatening character. Khan Saip-Tirey was able to unite several khanates and gain a foothold in Kazan in 1539. Turkey supplied the khan with weapons and cannons. From 1539 to 1552 there was a struggle against the Tatars. In 1548 and 1549, Ivan IV made attempts to capture Kazan, but to no avail. By this time, a new rifle army was formed, many weapons and guns were brought from abroad, which helped to take Kazan by storm on October 2, 1552. In the same year, Bashkiria joined.

Astrakhan joined in 1556. Khan Derbysh-Ali fled when he saw the approaching Russian troops. Another khanate, the Nogai Horde, recognized its vassal dependence on Russia. The final development of these lands ended by 1559.

Around 1581 - 1582, Ataman Ermak organized campaigns to Siberia. Khan Kuchum fled after the battle. The population of Siberia agreed to pay tribute. In the mid-80s Siberia became part of Russia.

In the second half of the 1550s. the Western direction became the main one in Russian foreign policy. After the capture of Astrakhan and Kazan, the army tried its hand at a short war with the Swedes (1554 - 1557). Influenced by the first successes, Ivan IV put forward plans to conquer Livonia and establish himself in the Baltic states.

The feudal lords were interested in the war, hoping for new lands and peasants. The merchants counted on expanding trade ties through the Baltic ports. Communication with European countries, development of diplomatic relations.

The reason for the start of the war was the question of the "Yuryevskaya tribute", which the Livonian Order had to pay to Russia. The order did not pay tribute for a long time and was not going to repay the penalty. In addition, he entered into a military alliance with the king of Poland and the prince of Lithuania Sigismund II Augustus. In January 1558, the Livonian War began. The main results of 1558-1559 were the destruction of the Livonian Order. The new Master Kettler gave Livonia to Sigismund. Northern Estonia came under Swedish rule. Now the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (united with Poland), Sweden and Denmark were opposed to Livonia being ruled by Russia. Instead of one enemy, Russia had three of them.

Meanwhile, two parties were formed in the Moscow government. Adashev is a supporter of the policy of the East and Crimea and Basmanov, who advocated the continuation of the war with Livonia.

The course of the war was aggravated by Oprichnina and in 1569 the unification of Poland and the Lithuanian principality into a single Rzeczpospolita. After the death of the childless Sigismund (1572), turmoil began. During the timeless years, Ivan the Terrible won several victories, and in 1577 Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, where the prince was Magnus, who was married to the niece of Ivan IV, but in 1579 he went over to the side of Sweden. In 1581, the siege of Pskov took place, the Swedes captured Narva. The heroic defense of Pskov thwarted the further plans of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In 1583, in Yama-Zapolsky, an armistice was concluded with the Commonwealth, and in Plus - with Sweden. Under their terms, Russia lost all the territories it had acquired in Livonia and Belarus. Part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland went to Sweden. The prolonged Livonian war (1558 - 1583) ended with the complete defeat of the Russian side.

Thus, Russia realized its plans only in the eastern direction, having annexed Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia. The outlet to the Baltic Sea remained closed.

Conclusion

The half-century reign of Ivan the Terrible left a deep and dark mark on the history of Russia. The reign of Ivan IV showed that the first attempt at reform in Russia ended in failure. In Russia in the 16th century, it was impossible to build a state either on the basis of local, communal pre-state values, or on the basis of the tsar's unlimited power. It was necessary to seek compromises between society and government. The life of the first bearer of the title of the Russian Tsar, saturated with dramatic events, interested many historians and writers. As a person and as a statesman, Ivan IV was a complex and contradictory person. A highly educated patron of book printing and a writer himself, a sovereign who did a lot to strengthen and expand the Russian state, he destroyed with his own hands what he had created, and at the same time brutally persecuted those to whom he owed the successes of domestic policy and foreign policy victories.

The personality of John IV the Terrible is undoubtedly complex and contradictory, but precisely because of its eccentricity, it will again and again rivet the views of researchers seeking to understand the essence of historical processes. Many aspects of Grozny's activities still remain unexplored, nevertheless, a whole era of development of the Russian state is associated with his name, an era that had a huge impact on the entire subsequent course of the history of our state and led to the notorious Time of Troubles.

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