The Finno-Ugric tribes, like most of the pagan peoples of Northern and Eastern Europe, did not have a holy scripture - the entire religious tradition was transmitted orally. Already in our days, it was captured by the Finnish epic "Kalevala" and the Estonian "Kalevipoeg". Runes were used in calendars much longer than in Sweden. They continued to be used in Estonia as early as the end of the eighteenth century (the calendar from Hinumaa dates back to 1796). Thursday was revered as a sacred day - the best food for the whole week was put on the table: on this day they ate butter and meat. The pagan calendar divided the year into four parts with the following major holidays: Kunnipaev (Plow Day, April 14, equivalent to Scandinavian Summer Day), Karuspaev (Bear Day, July 13), Kolletamisepaev (Fade Day, October 14, equivalent to Scandinavian Winter Day), and Koryusep ( Gathering Day, 14 January, later Scandinavian Midwinter Festival).
Among the Finno-Ugric deities is the heavenly god, known by many local names (Yumala in Finnish; Taevataat, "heavenly grandfather", in Estonian; Yumo in Mari; Inmar in Udmurd and Ibmel in Sami). The Lapland deities Peive (sun, female) and Mano (or Asve, moon, male) have never been anthropomorphized, Peive appears as a rhombus or circle with four rays, and Mano as a month. Akko was the main deity of the Finns. His wife Akka patronized the harvest and fertility. Estonians called Akka "Maan-emo", "mother earth", and the Udmurts - "Musem-mumi". The god of thunder among the Saami bore the name Horagalles (old man Thor), among the Estonians - Tooru / Taara, and among the Ostyaks - Torim. The national god of the Sami, Rota, is identified with Odin. Trade contacts between Scandinavia and these northern Finno-Ugric lands, as well as joint settlements, contributed to the partial assimilation of both the names and attributes of deities. The Scandinavians of the Viking Age also considered the Sami and the Finns to be "magicians", masters of the "magical art". The Saami, who lived in small groups common to communities of hunters and gatherers, and, to a lesser extent, the more sedentary Finns, retained the role of a shaman - a magician who, in a state of trance, travels from the world of everyday life to the world beyond and returns with information that brings for the benefit of the entire tribe. The Norwegian Viking Ingimund the Old sent two Saami on a shamanic astral journey, "a magical way to Iceland". He lost the silver statue of the god Frey, and the Saami, returning from the "magic journey", told him where to look for it in Iceland. According to the "Book of Settlement of the Earth", their description turned out to be absolutely accurate: Ingimund, having gone to Iceland, found a statue of a god exactly where the Sami had predicted.
In the Finno-Ugric religion, as in the beliefs of other parts of Europe, there is a cult of ancestors, spirits of the earth and specific elements of shamanic practice. The Saami revered Radie-atche, the ancestor god, accompanied by his wife Radie-akka, the son of Radie-kiedde and the daughter of Rana-neida (the patroness of spring). Consecrated spindles were placed in the sanctuaries in honor of Rana-neida. In Estonia, the cults of the patron spirits Metsika and Tonna were very popular. Among a myriad of other creatures: the Estonian Uku (house spirit), the Sami Piegg-olmai ("master of the winds") and Veralden-olmai ("man of the universe, god of hunting and reindeer), the Udmurt water spirits Obin-murt ("rain man") , "Wu-murt ("man of water") and Wu-nuna ("uncle of water"). In addition, an important place in the religion of many tribes was occupied by the cult of the bear. In addition, amulets depicting a man with an elk's head were found in Chud (Estonian) graves near Lake Ladoga; the Sami god Radie-kiedde was also depicted with horns. For the Finno-Ugric tribes, sacred groves played the same great role as for the Celts and other Baltic peoples. Among the Mari, ceremonies in honor of good deities took place in Yumon-tot, and deities dangerous to humans were propitiated in a grove called keremen, enclosed by a fence (keremen, equivalent to the Scandinavian Vebond). Even at the end of the nineteenth century, the Mari had no less than sixty-four sacred groves. The same groves, called lud, were among the Udmurts. Also, the Udmurts erected sacred buildings (kvala) and low wooden structures without windows, which were the sanctuaries of the family and the gods of the family. Inside was a wooden vessel with images of the ancestor of a family or tribe. In accordance with the common tradition of European paganism, sacred trees were decorated with images of deities and symbolic ornaments.
1The article studies issues related to certain aspects of the sacred meaning of the image of a bird in the culture of the Finno-Ugric peoples and the materialization of this image in the objective world of ethnic groups. On the basis of the art history analysis of the artefacts with the image of a bird presented in the article, the author shows the main semantic accents and compositional techniques characteristic of the products of Finno-Ugric masters. The work highlights the currently existing problem of partial or complete loss of the spiritual and semantic content of the surrounding objective world that has existed for centuries. This, undoubtedly, is largely due to the inevitable withdrawal from everyday circulation of traditional carriers of this important component of the national Finno-Ugric culture that have lost their former everyday functionality. The author proposes a way to preserve the spiritual and semantic content in products with modern functionality on the example of designing women's household items.
sacred Finno-Ugric image of a bird
semantic accents and compositional techniques
material carriers
spiritual and semantic content
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Through all the manifestations of the many-sided, diverse, original culture of the Finno-Ugric peoples, the theme of reflecting the inextricable connection of people with nature, where a person not only existed and lived in it, as in a kind of spatial environment that gives livelihood, but was an integral part of it, passes as a single core. . It can be said that the life-giving sacred connection between man and nature ("flesh - earth, blood - water, hair - plants") was the very essence of the existence of the Finno-Ugric peoples. The entire spatial-objective world was permeated with the semantic content of the sacred connection with the gods and creatures of nature, which was reflected in its figurative materialization in traditional clothes, household items and jewelry. But today these material carriers, once common and ubiquitous, are irrevocably a thing of the past. With the steady disappearance of traditional bearers of sacred images, the problem of preserving and finding ways to adapt to modernity the original semantic component of the cultural heritage of the Finno-Ugric peoples has become acute.
Doctor of Arts A.G. Burnaev writes that folk symbolism is "... a conditional interpretation of reality in the human mind and can be outwardly manifested as the face of a myth and expressed figuratively in a word and an object." Finno-Ugric-pagans used to deify what seemed supernatural - inaccessible to understanding, beyond the scope of what people were capable of doing. For example, a bear was much stronger than any person, a squirrel could quickly climb trees, and a spider could spin a web. In this sense, the worship of ancient people to nature, the forest and its inhabitants is seen as absolutely natural. It was believed that the possession of a sacred connection with a supernatural entity, which was an animal or a bird, gave a person part of his strength and abilities. Therefore, animals and birds became the totems of childbirth, sacrifices were made to them, magical rituals were dedicated, and objects with totem images had a high sacred status.
The image of a bird is one of the main plot motifs of Finno-Ugric mythology and arts and crafts, as evidenced by the many artifacts found. On this account, Doctor of Arts A.G. Burnaev writes: ““The existence of mythological ideas about the Great Bird -“ Inenarmun ”among the Finno-Ugric peoples is confirmed in various metal jewelry made of forged silver.” By the value of the material for the manufacture of these items (forged silver) and their purpose (women's jewelry), one can judge the depth of reverence for the image of a bird and the traditional specifics of the semantic content (the personification of the great feminine principle) that the Finno-Ugric peoples put into these items.
Consider the mytho-religious content of the image of a bird. In the view of ancient people, waterfowl had special supernatural abilities, because they could freely exist in three different elements: water, earth and air. It is no coincidence that the Finno-Ugric myth about the creation of land, which, having dived at the behest of the gods, the bird pulled out from the bottom of the great primordial sea, is connected with a waterfowl with such abilities. The ability to fly in mythological perception turned the bird into a creature that had the divine gift to communicate with heaven, to be a link between the gods and man. Due to the fact that the magical power of birds (especially waterfowl) was enormous, they were treated with respect and care so as not to bring trouble. Researcher L.S. Gribova writes that "... to catch a live duck - unfortunately, it can take revenge ... in a supernatural way ("ertchyny," ortchyny) ". Together with the Great Mother (Ancestral Goddess), the Finno-Ugric people personified the feminine principle of nature. Rather, the bird was one of the many incarnations of the Great Mother, who gives life to all living things. Researcher N.V. Bortnikova writes in this regard that "... the continuation of life in the mind of an ancient person was ensured not only by a woman-mother, but also by the Ancestral Goddess, therefore, the images that personify the feminine permeate the entire material and spiritual culture of the Udmurts" . Some birds were directly identified with a woman. For example, among the Komi and Udmurts, a swan was considered a woman reincarnated as a bird, comparing young beautiful girls with it, because, as L.S. Gribov "... the swan among the Komi and Udmurts ... is considered a special, clean bird."
Products and ornaments with the image of a bird were in the active everyday life of Finno-Ugric women, were objects of worship and had a high sacred status. For example, among the Udmurts, the stylized ornamentation of the image of a bird (according to their beliefs) protected the body of a woman from evil spirits and was an obligatory attribute of embroidering the sleeves and bibs of a women's wedding shirt (“Chozh burd puzhy” - duck wings; “Pal chozh burd” - half a wing of a duck, “ Climb-crawl chözh burd "- one duck wing above the other, "Chözh burd yuboen" - duck wings with columns).
Consider the compositional constructions of some traditional material carriers, personifying the sacred image of a bird. On fig. 1 presents female plaques with the image of a bird (both in the form of independent compositions (plaques 1-4) and as part of the collective image of the Great Mother (plaques 5, 6)).
Badge 1 . The image is embodied in the form of a bird of prey (the head, tail, wings, paws testify to this) with clawed wings spread out for fast flight. On the chest of the bird there is a human “mask”, denoting the sacred connection of the bird with a person. It is noteworthy that the shape of the upper part of the "mask" clearly symbolizes the female breast.
Badge 2 . The compositional structure of this plaque is similar in general terms to the previous one, but the bird that forms the main image is different from plaque 1. The wings of the bird are spread out, and an animal with a thin body and a curved back is depicted at the level of the claws. In the central part of the composition there is a female “mask”, the upper part of which has the shape of a female breast.
Badge 3 . In this plaque, the general image of a bird of prey with spread wings and a female "mask" on the chest is complemented by a threefold repetition of bird heads. Such duplication is characteristic of the Finno-Ugric culture and emphasizes the special sacred significance of the image.
Badge 4 . This product clearly reflects the inextricable sacred connection between a woman and a bird. The very form of the bird has obvious anthropomorphic features: a female head and breasts, as well as lowered wings resembling hands, with growths in the upper part in the form of two additional "masks".
Badges 5 and 6. The overall composition of the plaques embodies the complex collective image of the Great Mother (Ancestral Goddess). But at the same time, the upper part of the composition highlighted in the figure can be defined as a completely independent image of a bird, which includes such elements as the head of a bird (or several heads), wings and the “mask” of a woman.
Rice. 1. Women's plaques with the image of a bird
Analyzing and comparing the semantic components of the plaques and their mutual arrangement, one can come to the conclusion about the common compositional solutions that have been established for centuries and have become traditional for the Finno-Ugric people: a bird with outstretched wings, having one or three heads with a female “mask” placed on the levels of the chest. At the same time, such a compositional structure does not undergo significant modifications, whether it is a separate isolated image of a bird, or an element of the collective image of the Great Mother (Ancestral Goddess). The differences in the plaques relate only to individual details that could be associated either with the specifics of the hunting of the tribe (the game animal in the claws of a bird on plaque 2 indicates this), or with a special worship of any individual bird, which is the totem of the tribe (which is clearly emphasized in the formal display details of wings, head, tail and feathers).
The subject-everyday environment of a modern woman, no doubt, is strikingly different from the centuries-old traditions of Finno-Ugric culture. The change in the organization of society, the economic structure and religious ideas led to the exit from the daily practical use of most objects with sacred pagan symbols, which include the Finno-Ugric symbolism of the image of a bird. The significance of its semantic sacral status is also largely forgotten, passing into the category of archival ethno-cultural information. On the other hand, it should be noted that the need for active practical use of such information exists even today, because, as G.K. Shklyaev, "... it would be wrong to say that the psychology of a woman, her role in the structure of the ethnos has completely changed" . Psychologically, the inner world of a woman, as in the old days, lives with a figurative perception of reality, and sacred symbolism for a Finno-Ugric woman is still of great importance. That is why the formation of the semantic content of modern women's household items (material carriers of ethno-cultural information) is one of the important creative tasks of modern arts and crafts and design design.
Adaptation to modern material carriers of the traditional semantic content of the image of a bird should be based on strict adherence to the characteristic symbolic compositional solutions, which determined the specific sacred semantic status of the product. Let's consider one of the variants of such adaptation (Fig. 2) using the example of composite women's accessories (belts, bracelets, etc.), where each link is the personification of the image of a bird and has a sacred amulet value.
Rice. 2. The image of a bird in traditional and modern products (I - a traditional women's plaque, II - a link of an element of a women's accessory (creative project of the author), III - variants of women's accessories (creative project of the author))
Comparing (in Fig. 2) the iconic compositions of the traditional female badge I and link II, we can state the preservation of the main semantic elements of the image of the bird (which were described above), as well as their relative position:
1. The outer side contours of the link have the outlines of spread wings, which in the form of a bird personifies a creature capable of living in the air element, which means being much closer to the heavenly deities than a person.
2. The hole in the center of the link symbolizes the female face, showing the inextricable sacred connection between the bird and the woman.
3. A three-fold duplicated upper ledge with a hole in a stylized form represents the bird's head. As you can see, in the traditional badge I this element is also repeated three times, which is typical for Finno-Ugric art, which further emphasizes the sacred significance of the image of the bird.
4. The tail of the bird is indicated by three holes in the elongated lower region of the link.
Along with the preservation in link II of the traditional (characteristic for the composition of the Finno-Ugric image of a bird) mutual arrangement of symbolic semantic elements, one can also note the presence of symmetry of the product, which can also be observed in the traditional female plaque I. Thus, the new material carrier (link II) is maximally retained the compositional-sign structure of the image of a bird, and hence its ethno-semantic content. Options for creating composite women's accessories from such links, as shown in fig. 2, quite a lot. At the same time, their functional purpose (decoration) is complemented by the sacral-semantic Finno-Ugric content of the image of a bird - protecting a woman from evil forces, granting well-being and motherhood by the gods.
The image of a bird (echoing and being part of the image of the Great Mother - Ancestral Goddess) in Finno-Ugric mythology is one of the main ones. He personifies the worship of the gods, the forces of nature and the great feminine. A woman was traditionally associated with a bird, so objects with the image of a bird were indispensable attributes of her world. According to mythological ideas, protection from evil spirits, health and well-being were provided by the inextricable sacred connection of a woman with the gods through a representative of the air element (birds).
The modern world of things is far from the former practical and sacred-semantic functionality of traditional Finno-Ugric women's household items. The ongoing rapid and radical modification of the objective world can lead to the loss of the original semantic content of the image of a bird, which for centuries has played a big role in a woman's life, was an important element of national culture. The characteristic traditional compositional schemes of the image of a bird identified in the article, which are the essence of the methods of materialization of its semantic content that have developed over the centuries, have a logically designated practical approach to the design of new modern products (women's accessories), which makes it possible to largely adapt the former sacred content of the Finno-Ugric image birds to new subject carriers.
Reviewers:
Umnyashkin V.A., Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Design Department of the Institute of Arts and Design of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Udmurt State University", Izhevsk;
Bendersky B.Ya., Doctor of Technical Sciences, professor, professor of the Institute of Arts and Design, Udmurt State University, Izhevsk.
The work was received by the editors on August 14, 2014.
Bibliographic link
Zykov S.N. THE SACRED IMAGE OF A BIRD IN FINNO-UGRIAN SUBJECTS // Fundamental Research. - 2014. - No. 9-8. - S. 1876-1880;URL: http://fundamental-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=35159 (date of access: 01/13/2020). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"
Over the 23 years of my work at the cemetery, I have often thought about why people sometimes make ridiculous mistakes when they come to the graves of their loved ones. While still a worker, I tried to explain to them the essence of these mistakes. This is not about church canons, signs, mysticism. It is better to talk about this with the clergy. I was more concerned with issues related to what I had to do every day. Namely: work on the improvement of burial places and digging of graves.
Subsequently, when I became the head of the cemetery, people began to be more trusting of my advice. But, unfortunately, this often happened after certain actions were taken, leading to not very good consequences, including the loss of large sums of money. Let's talk about the most common mistakes.
Trees near the graves: friends or foes
Do not plant trees near graves. Firstly, the tree and its roots occupy the volume of the area allotted to you, and therefore interfere with subsequent burials. Secondly, if a tree or its large branches fall due to wind, illness, damage to the root system when digging a grave, then the tombstone and fence standing on the grave of your relatives and neighbors can be damaged. Thirdly, the roots act on already established monuments, raising their foundations. Fourthly, most of the flowers planted at burial sites require sunlight, which is prevented by dense foliage.
Therefore, if a tree is already growing near the grave, then it is advisable to get rid of it faster. You should not try to do this chemically, or by removing part of the bark. This can lead to an uncontrolled fall of the tree, with all the ensuing consequences. Given the complexity, it is better in such cases to resort to the services of climbers. But the stump can be removed by yourself, using special chemicals or salt for this.
Polyethylene: a way to protect or destroy
Do not wrap monuments for the winter with polyethylene. In the arguments that you protect the monument from the penetration of water into microcracks, the fact that condensate forms under the film is not taken into account. Droplets of moisture that have arisen in sufficiently severe frosts will produce the very effect from which you tried to protect yourself. If vases made of granite or marble are installed on the burial, then be sure to drain the water for the winter, for which there is usually a special hole. Then cover them from above to avoid further moisture ingress. Plastic vases, which are removable, just need to be removed.
Candles and lamps on graves
Do not leave burning candles and lamps on the graves after you have left. Even a small gust of wind or a fallen branch can set fire to artificial flowers or wreaths. It happens that it is impossible to read the inscription on a granite monument due to soot, and monuments made of granite polymer under the influence of fire can be melted and completely destroyed. Sometimes adjacent graves also suffer.
Kiss for the ages
This advice is mainly for ladies. Dear women, do not kiss graphic portraits on monuments. The fat that is part of any lipstick instantly penetrates into the surface layer of the stone, leaving stains. In most cases, they can be removed with a colorless solvent, but unfortunately not always.
Extra sand is not good
Every year before the Easter holidays, sand is brought to the cemeteries, which visitors can use for free. Do not try to cover the surface of the area adjacent to the grave with a very thick layer. Even though some of the sand will subsequently be washed away by rain, the annual backfilling leads to the fact that the base of the tombstones and flower beds will inevitably be sunk into the ground.
You have found on the grave of a deceased relative something that looks like a magical lining: coins, candles, parcels, bags, a bottle, a handkerchief on a fence, or something else. What does this mean and how should we respond?
The lining on the grave is a fairly common thing. Alarming letters are constantly written to me about some finds found on the graves of deceased relatives. Here is a standard example: "Hello, Vladimir Petrovich! We were at the cemetery, and on a birch tree next to the grave of the father-in-law, they found a white cotton scarf tied in a knot (grandmothers like to wear such). Tell me, please, is this a cause for concern?"
There is no reason for the author of the letter to worry. If the appearance of this scarf on the grave was of witchcraft origin (and, for sure, it is), the grave was simply chosen, suitable for a number of signs (gender, name, age of the deceased, etc.). For example, in some magical ritual it could be said that after certain manipulations, a scarf tied to a knot should be left on the grave of a man with a name that matches the name of the object of witchcraft. Your father-in-law's grave met those criteria, that's all.
The vast majority of strange finds on the graves have just such an origin. With the help of cemetery magic, they induce and remove damage, do love spells and lapels, provoke or treat ailments, solve the problem of alcoholism, etc. But, in any case, such things usually have nothing to do with the relatives of the deceased, on whose grave a magical lining was found. The grave was simply chosen, suitable for some conditions of the ritual. For example, sometimes you need to do something on a grave located on the edge; on the grave where a man of such and such age is buried; on the grave where a woman with such and such a name is buried, etc. etc. In order for my readers to better understand the essence of such phenomena, I will give specific examples.
One of the methods of causing damage to epilepsy is as follows: the attacker takes a certain number of chicken eggs to the grave where a person is buried who had the same name as the victim of damage. A special conspiracy is pronounced, then the eggs remain on the grave for a certain time. Subject to special rules, eggs are taken from the grave and later given as food to a person destined for spoilage. Soon the first epileptic seizure occurs with the unfortunate. When the disease enters the chronic phase, the attacks intensify precisely by the day of the month when the described cemetery manipulations were performed. At the same time, the attacker, of course, is not at all interested in the relatives of the person buried in that very grave.
One of the love rituals is performed in a somewhat similar way. A photograph of a beloved person refers to the grave where a person of close age who had the same name is buried. A series of manipulations are performed, special conspiracies are pronounced, and the victim of the love spell begins to experience mortal anguish without the object of his passion. If the relatives of the deceased "at the wrong time" visit his grave, they, of course, will find an extraneous photograph, remove it from the grave and, thus, this time thwart the intruder's plan, but they themselves will not suffer.
It should be noted that rituals of various directions are performed in cemeteries; knowledgeable people are not limited to black magic. Graves can be used in the treatment of various diseases (including the same epilepsy), to rid a person of alcohol addiction, to relieve love languor, etc. If you, having visited the grave of some of your relatives, suddenly find a bottle of vodka on it, this may mean that someone is being spoiled for alcoholism, or, conversely, they are trying to save someone from drunkenness.
Thus, if you find any foreign objects (coins, chicken eggs, photographs, etc.) on the grave where your relative was buried, you should not panic. Most likely, this witchcraft has nothing to do with you. Why do I write "probably"? The fact is that sometimes some kind of witchcraft pads on the graves are still addressed specifically to the relatives of the deceased. Such linings are usually found not at any arbitrary time, but on the eve of the memorial day, celebrated a week after Easter (the so-called "Red Hill"). Or on some anniversary of death. That is, exactly when it is reasonable to expect relatives to visit the cemetery for cleaning or commemoration. For example, you can find chicken eggs, coins, or anything else that quantitatively matches the number of members of your family.
What should be done with such finds? Without touching the thing with bare hands (use gloves, a bag, paper), you just need to remove it from the grave. But remember that direct contact with these things is highly undesirable, so do not pick them up or step on them!
If, nevertheless, you have the feeling that you "hooked on something", or you reasonably assume that the lining was addressed specifically to you and your family members, click on the button below and write me a letter.
Everything connected with death has been used in divination and witchcraft since ancient times. In our time, nothing has changed, as a rule, ancient teachings are used for magical rites.
The basis of such rituals is a recent burial, up to 40 days, when the soul of the deceased is still near the body. It also happens that witches come to the cemetery in search of a funeral procession and, while grieving relatives say goodbye to their loved ones, they can either put something in the coffin, or, conversely, take something.
What to do if traces of someone else's presence are left on the grave of a loved one, obviously not with good intentions?
Strange items
If you find items on the grave that were not brought there, in no case take anything and do not touch it. If a witchcraft ceremony was performed at this place, then the witch takes her ritual things, such as candles, animal skulls, books and other things, with her. At the grave, she can only leave the so-called ransom for the dead, that is, the sacrifice that she gives to the deceased as a token of gratitude. It can be anything - money, a doll, a bottle of alcohol, a deck of cards, a bouquet of flowers.
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Some healers advise not to do anything with such things and leave everything as it is, justifying this by the fact that this is a gift to the deceased, and the thing no longer belongs to this world. -
Others advise to sprinkle the object with holy water, take it with a newspaper or a scoop, and then throw it into running water.
Whichever method is chosen, in any case, it is necessary to order a prayer service for the repose in the church (in no case should you put funeral candles at home) and commemorate the deceased.
living grave
In the vocabulary of witches and sorcerers there is such a thing as an active, or living grave. Near such a burial there is an increased growth of plants, the activity of animals and insects, very often there are anthills near such burials. Why is this happening?
If there are signs of an active grave, then this may mean that magical rites are regularly performed in this place. Practitioners of black magic with their help "tie" the dead to this world in order to use their capabilities. As a result, the spirit cannot rest and continues to be in the world of the living in the capacity in which it is needed in magic. Usually the witch thanks her otherworldly helper - she regularly cleans the grave, plants flowers, and brings gifts.
To help your loved one go to another world and prevent the warlocks from disturbing his spirit, the following actions are necessary:
- In no case do not read any spells and other things on the grave yourself, you do not know what you are dealing with and you can harm yourself and the soul of the deceased with your actions.
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If the deceased has children, they should be the first to remember, put a candle for the repose and order Sorokoust in the church. -
On the day of remembrance or the date of death of your relative, bake a cake and give it to strangers for commemoration;
Invite a priest to consecrate the grave, faith and the church are the most effective methods against the action of black magic.
