Borrowing forms in Chinese. The term "military vocabulary". The composition and structure of the Chinese military vocabulary. Cases of abbreviation and synonymy as methods of creating new vocabulary. Ways of borrowing foreign language vocabulary in the field of military terminology.
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The main reason for the immunity of the Chinese language to sound borrowings, which penetrate into it mainly through writing, is the hieroglyphic nature of the writing, the assignment of certain meanings to individual syllables. In other words, for the Chinese, each syllable designated by one or another hieroglyph is not only a phonetic, but also a semantic unit. The use of hieroglyphs for recording sound borrowings, one way or another, leads to the loss of a clear internal motivation for the term that arose in a foreign language. As a result, the term becomes difficult to understand and remember, since its literal content has nothing to do with the actual meaning.
Phonetic factors also play a role in the negative reaction of the Chinese language to sound borrowings. The syllabic nature of Chinese writing, the syllabic nature of its sound system, which lengthens the phonetic composition of a foreign word by inserting a vowel after each consonant, often leads to the emergence of polysyllabic, cumbersome lexical units that are not entirely convenient for linguistic communication. In addition, in the Chinese language, in which the main mass is made up of two-syllable and three-syllable speech complexes, the pronunciation of polysyllabic borrowings to some extent contradicts the pronunciation norms of the Chinese language, violates the rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech (for example, Л№МШДЄО¬їЛsitermoweike "stormtrooper"). The need to pronounce such borrowings together, without rhythmic pauses, emphasizes their alien character, presents certain difficulties for the articulatory base of the Chinese language.
The largest number of sound borrowings falls on the English language, which is explained by the long-term economic and political cooperation between China, England and America. Such words as M№їЛtanke (tank) “tank”, TeZzhyinqing (engine) “engine, motor”, YshDYshengna (sonar) “sonar” penetrated into the Chinese military vocabulary from the English language.
The specificity of sound borrowings in the Chinese language is the desire to make them more understandable, to introduce them into certain lexico-grammatical categories of words. In practice, this is manifested in the addition of a significant part of borrowed words to monosyllabic and more complex words expressing certain generic concepts. One syllable, or, much less often, a compound word has a well-known classifying property, i.e. indicates to which group or class of concepts this sound borrowing belongs. As a result of this combination, the words hybrids are obtained, consisting of a borrowed stem and a Chinese word-formation element: Д¦НРіµmotoche "motorcycle", јЄЖХіµjipuche "jeep", ЕВї © А®ВпГйЧјѕµpalolama miaozhunjing "gun panorama".
It is interesting to note one kind of borrowing of surnames as proper names, serving as definitions in a multi-component term. For the sake of brevity, the surname in such phrases is not completely transcribed, but only the first root syllable is taken and the hieroglyph К¦shi "clan, clan" is added to it, for example, ± YKUµј "рПЯbishi daohuoxian" bikford cord ", ОЕКА№Ь wenshi guan" Venturi tube ", BTKїOV ± klieshi wenbiao" Reaumur scale ", YgKPOV¶ИјЖsheshi wenduji" Celsius thermomiter ".
Almost all sound borrowings in Chinese military vocabulary have original synonyms. Between these synonymous pairs there is a struggle for existence, for the right to monopoly designation of a military concept or object. In this struggle, the winner is usually the term that meets the criteria of accuracy and brevity to a greater extent. So, for example, the brevity of the borrowed terms ACHґpleida "radar" and YshDJshengna "sonar" played a decisive role in the fight against complex in structure, albeit more accurate primordial equivalents of OYUPYAµzMЅІв¶ЁПтТЗwuxiandian tance dingxiangyi® The brevity in combination with a clear internal motivation of the original term ЅTSAEjielei “barricade” has led to the displacement of the sound borrowing from active use ° HAiIYOMSh balikate.
For transcribing foreign words, a limited number of hieroglyphs are used, which relatively rarely appear in everyday words. Sometimes hieroglyphs are specially created for this purpose, devoid of any lexical meaning.
The second channel for borrowing foreign vocabulary is tracing, which is widely used in the field of creating special vocabulary, since scientific, technical, military and other special terminology is the lexical layer of the language in which interlanguage contacts are most clearly manifested.
When tracing, a foreign word or phrase is decomposed into significant parts, then these parts of the lexical complex are more or less translated into Chinese, while maintaining its derivational structure. For the Chinese language with its hieroglyphic writing, the borrowing of foreign words using tracing is more important than sound. Calci, like sound borrowings, can be direct (traced directly from words or phrases of the language in which they arose) or indirect (penetrate into Chinese through Japanese).
For example, direct tracings from English include: µЇСьґшdanyaodai (ammunition belt) "cartridge belt". A significant place in modern Chinese military terminology has tracings from Russian military terms: FZHF ± ЈHy¶Uyundong baozhengdui "traffic support detachment", З№ "ъИєqiangjiqun" assault group ", NBDs · Ydµgtumu fashedian" wood-earth fire point ". Terms - tracing copies from other languages - are relatively rare in the field of military terminology. Indirect tracings of English origin that have penetrated into the Chinese language through Japanese include: "ъ№ШЗ№jiguanqiang (machine gun)" machine gun ", ЕЬЅўpaojian (gun boat)" gunboat ", ЦчµЦї№ПЯzhu dikangxian (main line of resistance) "Main resistance band".
The Chinese language also resorts to tracing when it is required to transfer the names of weapons and military equipment. Their translation into Russian presents a significant difficulty, since in Russian, in contrast to Chinese, these terms are mainly transcribed. Therefore, for a correct understanding, it is necessary to know their literal meaning. For example:
єmN · К¦µјµЇ "hongtou" - shi daodan "Red Top rocket" (literally "Red top"), L "Y'CHUK¦UoTszh ").
Sometimes a combined method is used, when part of the name is traced, and part is transcribed:
IPKµFјєI "chengshi yuehan" -shi huojian "Honest John" rocket, Yunggan aolian -shi daodan "Bold Orion-rocket" "Brave Orion").
In terms of their form, tracing terms do not always correspond to the model of a foreign word, on the basis of which they are created. For example: YЁACHЅўsaoleijian "mine sweeper" (tracing paper from English mine sweeper), ІјАЧјдbuleijian "minelayer". In this case, although the components of the term are rearranged, that is, the model characteristic of the English language changes, the semantic structure of this term is completely preserved.
Considering the issue of foreign language borrowings, one should dwell on the terms borrowed from Japan. The similarities between Chinese and Japanese terms are very great. The similarity of terminological techniques, the identity in most cases of the semantics of root morphemes lead to the preservation of a clear semantic structure of terms, when borrowing only changes their pronunciation: they are read differently in Chinese and Japanese. Thus, Japaneseisms occupy an intermediate position between sound borrowings and tracing copies of European origin. With the first, they are united by the borrowing of the external form of a foreign language term, but they are distinguished by a change in the phonetic appearance. It is because of this that the Japanese and Chinese, as a rule, understand the terms written in hieroglyphs, but do not understand them by ear. With the latter, they are related by the preservation of the characteristic underlying the name, but they distinguish between the absence of the need to convey it by their own word-formation means. The change in the phonetic, but the preservation of the word-formation structure, allows the Japaneseisms to be attributed to a special category of tracing terms. Thus, the clear internal motivation of Japanese terms, their hieroglyphic character and brevity have created fertile ground for a wide penetration of Japaneseisms into Chinese terminology.
Conclusion
The result of all of the above can be the following conclusions:
To form the terms used in military vocabulary, lexical elements of the old literary language - wenyan can be used;
Most of the terms are created by the tracing method (tracing copies significantly prevail over phonetic borrowings); - Chinese military vocabulary is characterized by a predominance of four-syllable terms and an almost complete absence of monosyllabic terms; widely developed abbreviation;
Semantic: Chinese military vocabulary is highly unambiguous.
Borrowings in the field of Chinese military vocabulary are unique in that they use words of the so-called "secondary borrowing", i.e. words that previously existed in the Chinese language, which later passed into the Japanese language, and after a while they were re-adopted by the Chinese language.
Listliterature
List of sources in Chinese
1. Applied Russian-Chinese Dictionary. - Beijing: Peking University Publishing House, 1993 (KµUG¶nєєґKµd. - ± mon ѕ ©: ± mon ѕ © ґуСгіц ° жИзЈ¬ ± ѕ © уС§іц ° УС§іц ° - 900s.
2. Russian-Chinese scientific and technical dictionary. - Beijing: Publishing House of Atomic Energy, 1985 (¶нєєїЖјјґК "гґуИ". - ± mon ѕ ©: ФЧУДіц ° жИзЈ¬ФЧУДіц ° жИзіц ° ЖЈ¬Т "ІнєєїЖјјґК" гуИ ". - 920s.
Bibliography
3. Gorelov V.I. Lexicology of the Chinese language M .: Education, 1984.- 143 p.
4. Ivanov V.V. Terminology and borrowings in modern Chinese language M .: Nauka, 1973. - p. 3-14, 42-48.
5. Klenin I. D. On some features of the Chinese military vocabulary (theoretical basis for the "Sino-Russian military and technical dictionary"). Moscow: Military Publishing, 1968 .-- p. 557-564.
7. Proceedings of the Military Academy of Foreign Languages V.8. 1955
8. The Chinese-Russian military and technical dictionary, ed. I. D. Klenin. 1970
9. "¶нєєїЖјјґуґКµд" Ј¬YMOSUЎKy№ЭЈ¬ ± mon ѕ © 1990Dk
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WORD EDUCATIONAL MODELS OF BORROWING IN MODERN CHINESE LANGUAGE (on the example of technical terminology)
N.V. Torchakova
WORD-FORMATION MODELS OF LOANWORDS IN THE CONTEMPORARY CHINESE LANGUAGE (case study of technical terms)
N. V. Torchakova
This article examines word-formation models in modern Chinese, in particular borrowing models, based on technical terminology. An overview of works on the types of borrowings is given, theoretical aspects of word formation in modern Chinese in Russian Sinology, as well as in the works of leading Chinese linguists, are highlighted. The word-formation models are described in detail within the framework of the structural-semantic approach.
This article deals with problems of word formation in the contemporary Chinese language, particularly the formation of technical loanwords. A review of the works on types of loanwords is presented in the article. Theoretical aspects of word formation in the contemporary Chinese language in the works of Russian and Chinese sinologists are reviewed. A detailed description of word-formation models based on the structural and semantic approach is given.
Key words: borrowings, technical terminology, word formation, word-formation models.
Keywords: loanwords, technical terminology, word formation, word formation models.
The active development of science and technology contributes to a wider interaction of cultures in various spheres of life, be it science, technology, culture, religion or tourism, etc. As one of the largest centers of industry, China is expanding contacts, exchanging experience not only in the field of culture, but also in the field of industrial technology. It is this kind of intercultural interaction that promotes the introduction and adaptation of borrowed words from the source language (most often English) into the recipient language (Chinese) of a special layer of vocabulary - technical terminology.
The process of adaptation of new loan words into the Chinese language is more complicated and time-consuming than into other languages, which is due to the specifics of the language itself: the use of hieroglyphic
letters and a special phonetic system. Nevertheless, according to statistics, about 1000 new words are borrowed into Chinese every year.
The types of borrowings in the Chinese language have been repeatedly described by various scholars. For example, Russian Sinologists V.G.Burova and A.L.Semenas, as well as a number of foreign scientists (Rui-qin Miao, Carsten Mende, Feng Chzhiwei, etc.) distinguish four main types of borrowings in the Chinese language. Phonetic borrowings, in which the formation of new words occurs according to the principle of sound transmission, for example, ampere (ampere). Semantic borrowing presupposes the emergence and functioning of new concepts in the language, the transmission of which is carried out by translating its constituent parts, for example, ^ SHSH intelligence machine (intelligent machine). Semi-semantic, semi-phonetic borrowings are characterized by the fact that part of the term is translated into Chinese using the lexical units existing in it, and the other part of the term conveys a sound similar to the sound
eat in the original language, for example f [ânpéiji]
ampere meter Hybrid borrowings include elements of both languages. Here the sound and meaning are transmitted in translation, for example X-RAY (X-ray). Another commonly used form of hybrid transmission of loan words is the direct use of elements of both languages, for example, if in the original language the term consists of an abbreviation and the word itself, then when transmitted into Chinese, the use of the English abbreviation is preserved, and only the word is translated, for example, MPA ^ mfMPA flow instrument.
Carsten Mende instead of the fourth hybrid type of borrowing writes about the so-called "borrowing without changes." In this case, we are talking
about common English words used in Chinese, for example, T-shirt (T-shirt), E-mail (e-mail). However, it should be noted that this trend is more typical for spoken Chinese. An adapted version of the borrowed word (Tf & (t-shirt), (e-mail)) is used in state media, print media.
In the classification of Ruiqin Miao, borrowings are divided into phonetic, semantic, hybrid and graphic. The author does not single out separately such a type of borrowing as "semi-phonetic, semi-semantic", calling it hybrid. While borrowing terms containing letters of the Latin alphabet, he calls graphic. Recently, due to the increase in the number of this type of borrowing, many works have appeared, the authors of which use a different terminology, calling this type of borrowing "letter words". The graphic recording of words in letters of the Latin alphabet makes borrowings of this type separate in relation to
a change to borrowings that appeared in the Chinese language earlier in the previous stages and in writing hieroglyphs. Letter words as a new layer of vocabulary have begun to appear actively in the Chinese language in recent decades due to the widespread introduction of the latest information technologies, the rapid spread of the Internet and an increase in the number of its users.
A more detailed and somewhat different classification of loan words is presented by the Chinese linguist Tsai Mei. She distinguishes a separate type of borrowings, which is not found in the classifications of other authors, these are borrowing words that came to the Chinese language from the Japanese language. A distinctive feature of this type of borrowing is that both languages - both the donor language and the recipient language - use hieroglyphic writing. In order to become a full-fledged member of the language, a word that came into the language from the outside must obey the laws of word formation of the modern Chinese language and comply with the norms and standards of the lexical composition of the modern Chinese language. Tsai Mei believes that five types of borrowings can be distinguished in modern Chinese, some of them have long been described by linguists, while others have appeared in the last 10 to 20 years. Accordingly, Tsai Mei highlights:
1. Phonetic borrowings.
2. Phonetic-semantic borrowings (semi-semantic, semi-phonetic borrowings in other classifications).
3. Mixed or hybrid borrowing. According to Tsai Mei, this type of borrowing is characterized by both phonetic similarity with the donor language and the semantic significance of Chinese characters. In this case, the hieroglyphs not only convey a sound close to the original, but their meaning also allows a deeper understanding of the meaning of the word or gives it a certain semantic connotation. For example, # F [from English "shampoo" shampoo:
(fragrant, fragrant) F (wave, swell, ripples)].
4. Borrowed word forms. This group
words includes loanwords that came from the Japanese language. At the same time, both the word form (the same hieroglyphs are used) and the semantics of the word, which was inherent in this word in Japanese, is preserved. Only the phonetic component is subject to change: the hieroglyphs are read in the Chinese manner, since they were originally read in the Chinese language. For example, .
Regardless of the type and method of borrowing, the formation of new word-terms in the Chinese language occurs in accordance with the basic derivational models of the Chinese language. "The problem of term formation in modern Chinese
This is part of the problem of word formation as a whole, since term formation is built on the foundation of term formation. "
For the first time, much attention to the issues of word formation of terminology in Chinese linguistics began to be paid in the 50s. last century, which is associated with the reforms of the standardization of the Chinese language. Liu Zexiang in his work researched chemical terminology and drew attention to the importance and necessity of uniformity and ease of use of terms. Subsequently, another Chinese linguist Lu Zhiwai wrote a large work devoted to the problems of word formation in the Chinese language, in his work a classification of the models of complex words of nouns, adjectives, etc. is presented.
Of particular interest is the work of Gao Minkai and Liu Zhengtang, where the authors consider foreign language borrowings, focusing on termin education. In their work, they bring the classification of borrowing terms closer to the methods of word formation in the Chinese language. The authors are of the opinion that the borrowed terms obey the general derivational norms of the language.
In Soviet and later Russian Sinology, V. M. Solntsev made a significant contribution to the theory of Chinese word formation. VM Solntsev introduced the concepts of a root, affixes, semi-affixes, word-formation models and methods of word formation in the Chinese language. Further in his works, he also writes about the activation of the process of the formation of complex words, the transition of semi-affixes to the category of pure affixes, the transition of some words and terms to the category of prefixes and affixes.
N.N. Korotkov examined the main ways of word formation from the morphological and syntactic points of view, highlighting six basic models of word formation: compositional (copulative,
or repetition of synonymous components that duplicate each other), attributive (determinative), verb-object, subject-predicative, resultative and verb-prepositional.
A. L. Semenas and V. G. Burov, in the preface to the "Chinese-Russian Dictionary of New Words and Expressions," write that in the modern Chinese language, two-syllable words can no longer solve the problem of the formation of new terms and concepts. Because of this, neologisms appear in the form of three-syllable and four-syllable formations. Educational data in quantitative terms already surpass two-syllable new words. According to the calculations of Chinese scholars, two-syllables make up no more than one third of new words. With this in mind, a classification of derivational models of terms was developed, based on morphological and syntactic principles, depending on the number of syllables in a term-word or term-word combination.
A.A. Khamatova, summarizing the points of view of domestic and Chinese linguists, suggests highlighting the following ways of forming new words: composition (basic composition), morphological method, semi-affixation, morphemic contraction, lexical-semantic method, conversion (or morphological-syntactic way of word formation), phonetic word formation ... According to the proposed
A. A. Khamatova's classification for borrowing words in modern Chinese is most characteristic of such word formation methods as semi-affixation, phonetic word formation, lexico-semantic method.
A prominent place in the derivation of borrowed words belongs to affixes. They can appear at the beginning of a word and serve as a prefix (prefixoid). Here the following structure takes place: prefix (d, #, W, I, I, ^, J) + primary lexeme, etc., for example, dF ^ (physical) antineutron (antineutron),
supersonic wave
Another widely used method of forming borrowed words is phonetic word formation. For example, IZHE amoeba (amoeba), SCL léishè laser (laser).
The lexico-semantic method is also distinguished by great productivity in the field of the formation of new borrowed words. It takes place when existing words or already existing borrowing words are used to convey a borrowed word: dF ^ (physical) antineutron antineutron, -ShIII [èrjiguan] diode (diode), ^^^ ® ^ light-emitting diode (Light-emitting diode).
An interesting and rather detailed description of word-formation models is presented in the work of a prominent Russian Sinologist O. P. Frolova. In her work, O. P. Frolova uses a structural-semantic approach in the study of biological terminology. Along with the generally accepted methods of word formation, highlighted by domestic and Chinese sinologists (compounding, affixation, conversion, and less often phonetic word formation), O. P. Frolova speaks about the effectiveness of modeling as a method for studying vocabulary and offers a more detailed classification, dividing word formation models into basic and particular ones. It should be noted that these models should be considered primarily for lexico-semantic borrowings. Basic models are typical for the entire system as a whole. Private models
These are analogs of units of any level of the noun word formation system. O.P. Frolova identifies 4 basic models, the product of which is nominal compound words (ISS) (hereinafter abbreviations
O. P. Frolova):
ISC ^ = IKss +> IKss (1)
KKss +> IKss (2)
GKss +> IKss (3)
ICss< + >IKss (4),
i is the ordinal number of the level of word formation products;
Kcc is a component of compound words;
+> - attributive relations, the arrow is directed towards the determined;
< + >- copulative (compositional) relationships;
I, K, G - symbols indicating, respectively, the nominal, qualitative and verbal character of the units. Therefore, the higher the order of the level, the longer these rows.
In order to obtain particular word composition models for complex words, it is sufficient to replace the conditional symbol of the Kcc component with the corresponding root morpheme (KM). In this case, the private models for named components of the 1st level will be written as follows:
ISS-1 = Ikm +> Ikm (1 ')
Kkm +> Ikm (2 ')
Gkm +> Ikm (3 ')
Ikm< + >Ikm (4 ').
The author also highlights auxiliary basic models that are used to create complex components of nominal complex words. In this case, instead of nominal components, verb and qualitative components can be used. Word-building models are as follows:
rCC-i = ГКСС = ГКСС< + >ГКСС (5)
IKss +> GKss (6)
KKss +> GKss (7)
GKss ^ IKss (8)
ГКСС __ ККСС (9)
ГКСС __ ГКСС (10),
GSS is a verbal compound word,
^ - verb-object relations,
A productive relationship.
rcC-i = KKss = IKssKKss> (11), where> - subjective-predicative relations.
As an example, here are some technical borrowing terms. hôuqiao rear axle
(of a car) The basic model is model (2). The first morpheme hôu is translated as "back". It is a quality ingredient with a root morpheme. With the component Ш qiao (bridge), the first component is in an attributive relation. The private model is as follows: ISS-1 = Kkm +> Ikm.
Another example is YSh wôjië vortex street (vortex street). The basic model is model (1). The first morpheme wô is translated as “whirlpool; abyss, whirlpool ". It is a named component with a root morpheme. With the component Ш jie (street; city highway), it is in an attributive relation. The private model looks like this: ISS-1 = Ikm +> Ikm.
An example with a more complex model: liûliàngyi flow instrument. The basic model is model (1). The first two morphemes i ^ rnliùliàng are translated as water flow (air, current) and which, in turn, individually have the following meanings ^ liù: flow, drain,
flow, w liang (measure, weight, volume; capacity; quantity, size; number) and are attributively with each other. With the word yi (instrument, device), the first two morphemes are also attributive. The private model looks like this:
ISS-2 = I [I (Gkm +> Ikm) +> Ikm].
Thus, the main ways of word formation in modern Chinese are word composition, affixation, conversion, and, more rarely, background.
Literature
1. Burov, V. G. Chinese-Russian dictionary of new words and expressions / V. G. Burov, A. L. Semenas. - M .: Vostochnaya kniga, 2007 - 735 p.
2. Korotkov, NN Main features of the morphological structure of the Chinese language / NN Korotkov. -M., 1968 - 397 p.
3. Solntsev, V. M. Essays on modern Chinese language / V. M. Solntsev. - M., 1957 - 204 p.
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