Home Grape Austria. Austro-Hungarian Empire in the late 19th - early 20th centuries

Grape

Austria. Austro-Hungarian Empire in the late 19th - early 20th centuries

Austria in XX century

World War I.

The news of the outbreak of war was greeted with enthusiasm. The danger of an offensive by the Russian army rallied the Austrians, and even the Social Democrats supported the war. Official and unofficial propaganda inspired the will to win and largely dampened interethnic contradictions. The unity of the state was ensured by a harsh military dictatorship, the disaffected were forced to obey. Only in the Czech Republic, the war did not cause much enthusiasm. All the resources of the monarchy were mobilized to achieve victory, but the leadership acted extremely ineffectively.

Military failures at the beginning of the war undermined the morale of the army and the population. Streams of refugees rushed from the war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings have been converted into hospitals. Italy's entry into the war against the monarchy in May 1915 increased the fervor of war, especially among the Slovenes. When the territorial claims of Romania to Austria-Hungary were rejected, Bucharest went over to the side of the Entente.

It was at the very moment when the Romanian armies were retreating that the eighty-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph died. The new ruler, young Charles I, a disabled man, pushed aside the people on whom his predecessor relied. In 1917, Karl convened the Reichsrat. Representatives of national minorities demanded the reform of the empire. Some sought autonomy for their peoples, while others insisted on complete secession. Patriotic sentiments forced the Czechs to desert from the army, and the Czech rebel Karel Kramarz was sentenced to death on charges of high treason, but then pardoned. In July 1917, the emperor announced an amnesty for political prisoners. This gesture of reconciliation lowered his authority among the belligerent Austro-Germans: the monarch was reproached for being too soft.

Even before Charles's accession to the throne, the Austrian Social Democrats were divided into supporters and opponents of the war. The pacifist leader Friedrich Adler, son of Viktor Adler, assassinated the Austrian Prime Minister, Count Karl Stürgk, in October 1916. At the trial, Adler harshly criticized the government. Sentenced to a lengthy prison sentence, he was released after the revolution in November 1918.

End of the Hapsburg dynasty.

A low grain harvest, a decrease in food supplies to Austria from Hungary and a blockade by the Entente countries doomed ordinary Austrian townspeople to hardships and hardships. In January 1918, workers in the military factories went on strike and returned to work only after the government promised to improve their living and working conditions. In February, a riot broke out at the naval base in Kotor, in which the participants raised a red flag. The authorities brutally suppressed the riots and executed the ringleaders.

Sentiments of separatism grew among the peoples of the empire. At the beginning of the war, patriotic committees of Czecho-Slovaks (headed by Tomasz Masaryk), Poles and South Slavs were created abroad. These committees were campaigning in the countries of the Entente and America for the national independence of their peoples, seeking support from official and private circles. In 1919, the Entente states and the United States recognized these émigré groups as de facto governments. In October 1918, national councils within Austria, one after another, declared the independence of the lands and territories. The promise of Emperor Charles to reform the Austrian constitution on the basis of federalism accelerated the process of disintegration. In Vienna, Austro-German politicians created the provisional government of German Austria, and the Social Democrats campaigned for a republic. Charles I abdicated power on November 11, 1918. The Austrian Republic was proclaimed the next day.

First Austrian Republic (1918-1938).

Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint Germain (1919), the new Austrian state had a small territory and a German-speaking population. Areas with German populations in Bohemia and Moravia went to Czechoslovakia, and Austria was forbidden to unite with the newly created German (Weimar) Republic. Large areas in southern Tyrol inhabited by the Germans were taken over by Italy. Austria received from Hungary the eastern land of Burgenland.

The constitution of the Austrian Republic, adopted in 1920, provided for the introduction of the presidency with representative functions, a bicameral legislature, the lower house of which was to be elected by the entire adult population of the country. The government, headed by the chancellor, was responsible to parliament. New Austria was actually a federation, the population of the city of Vienna and eight states elected land assemblies (Landtags), which enjoyed broad rights of self-government.

Second republic.

Freed from the Nazi yoke, the Austrians strove for independence and the restoration of the original name of the country - Austria. With the permission of the occupying authorities, the Second Republic was created. Social Democracy veteran Karl Renner was appointed Chancellor of the Provisional Government to lead the process of restoring the democratic order. An experienced politician respected by all, Renner, as chancellor, and then president of the republic, contributed a lot to the establishment of order and stability in the country. In April 1945, he formed a provisional government, which included representatives of his own Socialist Party (formerly Social Democratic), the People's Party (as the Christian Social Party came to be called) and the communists. The constitutional order that existed before the dictatorship of Dollfuss was restored. The powers and legislative power of the new Austrian government expanded step by step. Mandatory participation in elections was introduced, and refusal to vote could be punishable by a fine or even imprisonment.

In the November 1945 elections, the Austrian People's Party (ANP) won 85 seats in parliament, the Socialist Party (SPA) - 76, and the Communists - 4 seats. Subsequently, this balance of forces changed little, the communists lost all their seats in 1959. In 1949, a right-wing extremist group, the Union of the Independent, was created (in 1955 it was transformed into the Austrian Freedom Party, APS).

Revival of the economy.

In 1945, the Austrian economy was in a state of chaos. The destruction and impoverishment caused by the war, the influx of refugees and displaced persons, the transition of military enterprises to the production of peaceful products, shifts in world trade and the existence of borders between the zones of occupation of the allies - all this created seemingly insurmountable obstacles to economic recovery. For three years, most of the inhabitants of Austrian cities fought desperately to survive. The occupation authorities helped in organizing the supply of food. Thanks to a good harvest in 1948, food rationing was relaxed, and two years later, all food restrictions were lifted.

In the western zones of occupation, aid under the Marshall Plan and other programs yielded rapid results. The nationalization of the three largest Austrian banks and nearly 70 industrial concerns (coal mining, steel, energy, engineering and river transport) in 1946-1947 gave significant economic advantages. Revenues from state-owned enterprises were used to further develop the industry. The ANP proposed allowing elements of private ownership in the nationalized sector of the economy by selling part of the shares to smallholders, while the socialists called for the expansion of the sphere of state ownership.

Radical monetary reform has stabilized and accelerated economic recovery. Foreign tourists have emerged - a vital source of government revenue. The railway stations destroyed during the bombing have been rebuilt. In 1954, the volume of products manufactured by factories and mines exceeded the level of 1938, harvests in fields and vineyards, logging practically returned to their previous level.

Revival of culture.

With the recovery of the economy, the revival of culture began. Theaters, musical performances and the development of the arts in the city and province were now funded by the state rather than wealthy patrons of the arts. In Vienna, the main efforts were focused on the restoration of the Cathedral of St. Stefan, and in 1955 the opera house and the Burgtheater were reopened. A second opera house, in Salzburg, opened in 1960.

Austrian schools of all levels resumed their activities, cleared of the influence of the Nazis. In addition to the universities in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck, the University of Salzburg was founded in 1964. Newspapers, magazines and books were published again.

State contract.

Allied occupation troops were stationed in Austria for 10 years. In 1943, at a meeting in Moscow, the leaders of the Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States announced their intention to re-establish Austria as an independent, sovereign and democratic state. Until 1948, when Yugoslavia was excluded from the Soviet bloc, Moscow supported Yugoslavia's claims to the border part of Austrian territory. In March 1955, the Kremlin changed its position and invited the Austrian government to send a delegation to Moscow to determine the timing of the conclusion of the State Treaty, which was signed already on May 15, 1955. The State Treaty was signed in Vienna in an atmosphere of great jubilation.

The state treaty restored the independence and full sovereignty of Austria. It entered into force on July 27, 1955, after which the Allied troops were withdrawn from the country. On October 26, 1955, following the withdrawal of the last foreign military units, the government approved a federal constitutional law proclaiming the permanent neutrality of Austria and excluding the possibility of joining any military alliances or the creation of foreign military bases in Austria.

Geography

83.8 thousand km2. Population 7.9 million (1993), 98% Austrians. Urban population 64.5% (1991). The official language is German. Most believers are Catholics. Austria is a federation of 9 states, including Vienna, the capital of Austria. The head of state is the president. The legislature is a bicameral parliament (National Council and Federal Council). Most of the territory is occupied by Vost. The Alps (the highest point is Mount Grossglockner, 3797 m) and their foothills; low-lying plain along the Danube. About half of the territory of Austria is made up of forests, mainly beech and oak in the lowlands and conifers in the mountains. Forests give way to alpine meadows only at an altitude of 2000 meters, where the kingdom of orchids, edelweiss and poppies begins. The beauty of the alpine flowers can be enjoyed from June to September. The main representatives of the alpine fauna are: the rock goat (mountain goat with screw horns), chamois and marmot. Butterflies are found in alpine meadows. The lowlands are home to the fauna typical of Central Europe, while Lake Neuseelder is home to a huge number of birds. The climate is temperate, continental, humid in the west; average January temperatures are from -1 to -4 ° C, in July 15-18 ° C. Annual precipitation is 500-900 mm, in the mountains up to 2000 mm. Rivers bass. Danube, lake Neusiedler See, Constance. Reserves: Neusiedlersee-Seewinkel, Karwendelbirge, etc.

History

In the 6-7 centuries. the territory of Austria was inhabited by Germanic and partly Slavic tribes. From 1156 Austria - a duchy (from 1453 an archduchy). In 1282 the Habsburgs established themselves in Austria. From the 16th century. Austria became the political center of the Ottoman Empire's offensive in the South-East. Europe of the multinational monarchy of the Habsburgs (in the 16th and 18th centuries the Czech Republic, Silesia, Hungary, part of the Polish, Western Ukrainian, South Slavic, Italian, and other lands entered). In the end. 18 - early. 19th centuries Austria (from 1804 - the Austrian Empire) participated in the wars with France, in the creation of the Holy Alliance in 1815. Austria fought with Prussia for hegemony in Germany, which ended in the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was transformed into a two-pronged monarchy - Austria-Hungary. The Social Democratic Party of Austria was formed in 1888. In World War I, Austria-Hungary took part in an alliance with Germany. Austria-Hungary at the end. 1918 disintegrated, states were created on its ruins - Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia; parts of the territory became part of Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania,. On November 12, 1918, Austria was proclaimed a republic. The 1919 Saint Germain Peace Treaty defined its present-day boundaries. In March 1938, fascist German troops occupied Austria; its accession to the (Anschluss) is proclaimed. In the spring of 1945 Austria was liberated from German fascist rule. It was temporarily occupied by the troops of the USSR, the USA, and; the end of the occupation was put by the State Treaty on the restoration of an independent and democratic Austria (1955). In October 1955, the Austrian parliament passed a law on the permanent neutrality of Austria. In 1945-66, the coalition governments of the Austrian People's Party (ANP; founded in 1945 on the basis of the Christian Social Party created in the 80s of the 19th century) and the Socialist Party of Austria (SPA) were in power, in 1966-1970 - the government of the ANP , in 1970-83 - the government of the SPA, in 1983-86 - the government of the SPA and the Austrian Freedom Party (founded in 1955), since January 1987 - the government of the SPA and the ANP.

Economy

Austria is one of the most economically developed countries in Europe. More than 20% of industrial production is created in the public sector (metallurgical, mining, energy). The role of the capital of the FRG is great. Share in GDP (1991,%): industry, including construction, 36.3, agriculture and forestry 2.8. Extraction of iron ore, magnesite, brown coal, oil, graphite, lead-zinc and tungsten ores. Electricity production 51.1 billion kWh (1992), including St. 2/3 at the hydroelectric power station.

The most developed are: mechanical engineering (transport, agricultural, electrical engineering), ferrous metallurgy (4.3 million tons of steel, 3.7 million tons of rolled products in 1990), aluminum production, chemical, pulp and paper, woodworking, textile, leather footwear, clothing industry.

Agriculture is intensive and highly commodity; large landholdings prevail. The leading industry is dairy farming. Livestock (1991, million) of cattle 2.6, pigs 3.7. Poultry keeping. Wheat, barley, sugar beets, fodder crops are grown. Fruit growing and viticulture.

The length (1992, thousand km) of railways is 6.7, of roads 125.

Main river ports: Linz, Vienna. Export: machinery and equipment, textiles and clothing, paper, timber, footwear, food, electricity. Main foreign trade partners: Germany and other EEC countries. Foreign tourism (approx. 15 million hours per year). The monetary unit is the Austrian schilling.

Transport

The transport system in Austria is well developed and efficient.

Austria is one of the most "railroad" states in Europe. The length of the railways is over 6,000 km. The Austrian Federal Railways prides themselves on the impeccable clarity and precision of train movements.

The Bundesbus network (public bus network) is no worse than the railway network and is often used for small trips between settlements and outings. Some ski resorts in Tyrol and Vorarlberg can only be reached by bus or car.

Car rental companies have branches in all major cities of the country. The roads here are in excellent condition, but care must be taken on mountain roads. Driving in Austria is right-hand.

In several large Austrian cities there is tram transport: in Vienna, Gmunden, Graz, Innsbruck, Linz. The previously existing tram system in Salzburg has been closed.

Bicycles can be rented at 160 train stations and returned to the rental office at another station. There are many cycling routes in Austria, in particular many of them run along the Danube River and from the Black Forest in Germany to Vienna.

Mountain modes of transport are: funiculars, ski lifts, cable cars and chair lifts.

Military establishment

The total number of the armed forces is about 49 thousand people (2004), it consists of the ground forces and the air force. The Armed Forces are headed by an Inspector General who reports to the Minister of National Defense (civilian, representative of the ruling party). In wartime, the president becomes the supreme commander in chief. The country has 9 military districts, territorially coinciding with the administrative division. The recruitment of the armed forces is carried out on the basis of the law on universal conscription and for hire. Draft age - 18 years, for hire - 16. Duration of military service since 2007 - 6 months, after which conscripts up to 50 years of age are involved in military exercises according to the plan of the Ministry of Defense (no more than 60 days). The total number of persons liable for military service, fit for military service - 1.9 million people (2004).

In service: Leopard 2 tanks, transport aircraft - C-130 Hercules, UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters, Eurofighter Typhoon multipurpose fighters.

Defense spending about (2005) 1.5 billion (0.9% of GDP).

Special services

The Austrian intelligence system includes : Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and the Fight against Terrorism - Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung (BVT);
Military Intelligence - Heeresnachrichtenamt (HNA)
Military counterintelligence - Heeresabwehramt (HAA).

Religion

According to the 2001 census, 73.6% of Austrians are Catholics, 4.7% are Lutherans, 6.5% of the population belongs to other religious denominations (Islam - 4.2%, Orthodox Church - 2.2%, Judaism - 0, 1%; in total, 12 confessions are registered, including 3 thousand Sikhs (2009), 12% of the population do not consider themselves to be any of the confessions (in 1991 there were only 8.6% of them).

Religious organizations

The largest religious organization in Austria is the Roman Catholic Church. The state supports the Church: there is a 1% church tax in the country, which all citizens of the country are obliged to pay. The Roman Catholic Church in 2000 had 5,651,479 adherents (72.1% of the population). The second largest is the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg and Helvetian Confessions (ECAiGI), which unites two Churches autonomous from each other (Lutherans and Reformed). Lutherans and reformists finally received the right to freely profess their faiths only in 1781, and fully equal in rights with Catholics - a century later.

According to the relevant organizations' own data, there are 299 communities of Jehovah's Witnesses in Austria with 33,099 witnesses who attended their meetings in 1999 (20577 of them were baptized according to the rite of Jehovah's Witnesses), 5,000 Greek Catholics (2000), 3,889 Mormons (2000). ), 47 Seventh-day Adventist congregations with 3596 believers, 19 Baptist congregations with 1130 active adherents (2000; the total number of Baptists is 1.5-2 times more), 8 Mennonite congregations with 360 believers.

Education

The legal basis for primary and secondary education in Austria was established in 1962. The Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for funding and overseeing primary, secondary and, since 2000, higher education. Primary and secondary education is managed at the level of the respective Länder authorities.

Kindergartens in Austria are free in most states. Parents can send their children, if they wish, to this institution at the age of 3 to 6 years. The maximum group size is about 30 people, each group is usually under the care of one qualified teacher and one assistant.

Primary education lasts for 4 years, starting at six years. Typically, during this time, the class is led by one teacher in order to develop a stable teacher-student bond that is considered important for children's well-being. Lessons begin at 8 am and run until noon with hourly 5 or 10 minute breaks. At school, children receive their homework every day.

Public schooling in Austria is free and compulsory. Basic school - 2 levels, up to grade 9. Secondary schools then offer students various vocational education programs and university preparatory courses - an additional 4 years of study.

Universities have a high degree of freedom and offer a wide range of educational programs. Education in Austrian universities was free until 2001, the same year the accreditation of private universities began. The largest universities are Vienna (the oldest university in Austria, founded in 1367), Vienna University of Economics, Graz, Innsbruck, Salzburg universities. Since 2009, tuition at public universities in Austria is free. In accordance with the law on higher education of September 24, 2008, the following rates for studying at public universities apply:
Tuition fees per semester: € 363.36 (2010)
ÖH Student Organization Contributions: € 16.86 (2010)

Students with a long-term visa (Daueraufenthalt) and students of the University of Vienna who are citizens of the following countries are exempted from payment: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan.

The science

Austria has given the world a large number of famous scientists, including such famous minds of the 19th century as Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler. In the 1920s and 1930s, the contributions of such scientists as Lisa Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli became key to the development of atomic physics and quantum mechanics.

In addition to physicists, two of the greatest philosophers of the 20th century were also born in Austria - Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. Biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz, as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and designers Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Markus, were also Austrians.

Beginning with the famous medieval scientist Paracelsus, the main areas of research of Austrian scientists have always been medicine and psychology. Prominent physicians such as Theodor Billroth, Clemens Pirquet and Anton Eiselsberg were representatives of the Vienna Medical School in the 19th century. Also widely known are the Austrian psychologists Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Paul Vaclavik, Hans Asperger and the psychiatrist Viktor Frankl.

Economists such as Joseph Schumpeter, Eigen von Boehm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich von Hayek contributed to the development of the Austrian School of Economics, which is one of the competing areas of modern economic theory.

Currently, the Austrian Academy of Sciences, founded in 1847, is engaged in fundamental research. It includes the Institute for Comparative Research of Behavior. K. Lorenz, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and others. In total, there are about 2,200 scientific institutions in Austria, which employ about 25 thousand people. Austria actively participates in international scientific cooperation: on its account more than 1000 research projects of the EU framework program.

Over 20 daily newspapers are published in Austria. Their one-time circulation is about 3 million copies. TV and radio broadcasting is carried out by the state-owned ORF company. National News Agency - Austrian Press Agency (APA). Since January 1996, the Russian-language edition "New Vienna Journal" has been published monthly in Vienna. Such Russian-language editions are known as the newspaper "Compatriot" - a monthly Russian-language newspaper that publishes detailed information about the life of the Russian-speaking diaspora in Austria.

Argumenty i Fakty Evropa is the leading Russian weekly newspaper and the absolute leader among the Russian press abroad. "AiF" in Austria is published in Russian, has regional supplements, a wide correspondent network and representative offices abroad.

The culture

All major cities of the country have their own theaters. The Vienna State Opera was opened on May 25, 1869. It was led by G. Mahler, R. Strauss, K. Boehm, G. von Karajan. Music festivals are held throughout the year in various cities of Austria (primarily in Vienna and Salzburg). The most famous theaters in Vienna are the Vienna State Opera, Burgtheater and Volksoper.

The most famous museums in the country are Cultural and Historical (Vienna), Kunsthistorisches, Natural History, Vienna Historical Museum, Albertina Museum. There are numerous house-museums associated with the life and work of great people - house-museums of W. Mozart, L. Beethoven, J. Haydn, F. Schubert, I. Strauss, I. Kalman.

The main national holiday on October 26 is the day of the adoption of the law on permanent neutrality, formed in 1955.

Literature

The overwhelming majority of works that are usually attributed to Austrian literature are written in German, although, of course, authors who wrote in other languages also lived on the territory of the Holy Roman and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Frau Ava was the first poet to write in German in the early Middle Ages. Minnesang and the heroic epic are usually attributed to German medieval literature, although many famous authors, such as Walter von der Vogelweide, were directly related to Austria. In the 15th century, as in the whole of Europe, the literature of humanism became defining in Austria, the most prominent representative of which in Austria is Nicholas of Cusan, Bishop of Brixen. Baroque literature in the 17th century and the Enlightenment in the 18th century were not given world-famous names. The representative of romanticism, which was also influenced by Biedermeier and classicism, in Austrian literature in the first half of the 19th century was Franz Grillparzer. The largest figure in the literature of the Austrian Biedermeier was Adalbert Stifter. Realism and naturalism in Austrian literature are represented by the names of Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Ferdinand von Saar, Ludwig Anzengruber and Peter Rosegger. However, Austrian literature really entered the world level at the beginning of the 20th century. Among the most famous writers of this period are Franz Kafka, Robert Musil, Stefan Zweig, Joseph Roth. Despite its rich and glorious history, Austrian literature can boast of only one Nobel laureate, or rather a laureate. She was named Elfriede Jelinek in 2004. According to the Nobel Committee, she received her "For musical play of voices and echoes in novels and plays that, with extraordinary linguistic zeal, reveal the absurdity of social clichés and their enslaving power."

art
The Kiss by Gustav Klimt is one of the most famous works of Austrian painting.

Until the 18th century, Austrian art is rarely separated from German art in literature, especially since highly developed Bohemia was part of the Austrian Empire. In the 18th century, Austria was dominated by the Baroque, famous representatives of which were Johann-Michael Rottmayr, Martin van Meitens and Franz Anton Maulberch. In the first half of the 19th century, portraits and landscapes of Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, a representative of the Biedermeier style, gained wide popularity in Europe. Later, the landscapes of Adalbert Stifter and the historical canvases of Hans Makart stand out. Nevertheless, Austrian art gained worldwide fame at the turn of the 20th century, when Vienna, thanks in part to the activities of the Vienna Secession, became one of the main centers of Jugendstil. The three greatest Austrian artists of this period - Gustav Klimt (Art Nouveau, Jugendstil), Egon Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka (Expressionism), each of whom opened a new direction in the visual arts. After the Anschluss of Austria in 1938, their work, along with other artists of the early 20th century, was declared "degenerate" and persecuted. Other Austrian artists of the first half of the 20th century are also widely known, for example, Koloman Moser and Albin Egger-Linz, the sculptor Fritz Wotruba. In the second half of the 20th century, the Vienna School of Fantastic Realism (close to Surrealism) appeared. Its founder was Albert Paris Gutersloh, and one of the most prominent representatives was Edgar Hene. Contemporary artists include Gottfried Helnwein and Arnulf Rainer. The work of Friedensreich Hundertwasser is widely known with his abstract decorative works. Hundertwasser also made significant contributions to architecture, decorating many of the most common buildings in bright colors.

Music

Austria is home to many famous composers such as Joseph Haydn, Michael Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss Sr., Johann Strauss Jr. and Gustav Mahler. Also known are members of the Second Vienna School, such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg. Most of Mozart's career was spent in Vienna.

Composer Ludwig van Beethoven spent most of his life in Vienna.

The current Austrian national anthem was written by Mozart and selected after World War II, replacing the previous anthem written by Joseph Haydn.

Austria is also home to the notable jazz musician, keyboardist Josef Zawinul.

Pop and rock musician Falco, world famous in the 1980s, was also Austrian. He was glorified by the song "Rock Me Amadeus", dedicated to Mozart.

Drummer Thomas Lang was born in Vienna in 1967. He has collaborated with artists such as Jeri Halliwell and Robbie Williams.

Ballet

Ballet art in Austria originated in the 16th century, when court performances with dances were staged. The first dance masters at the Viennese court were the Italians F. Legnano and C. Negri, as well as C. Beccaria, S. and D. Ventura. Equestrian ballets, masquerades were staged, dances were included in drama and opera performances. At the same time, itinerant troupes developed folk dance traditions. Composer J. Schmelzer wrote music for many dance performances from the middle of the 17th century. In the 1670s. professional dancers appeared in the Viennese court troupe, headed by the composer A. Draghi.

In the beginning. In the 20th century, rhythmoplastic dance spread in Austria, which acquired its national forms here, in particular, in the art of the sisters G., E., and B. Wiesenthal, who performed waltzes. Among the representatives of this direction are also G. Bodenwieser, R. Hladek. In the 20-30s. choreographers worked at the Vienna State Opera: G. Kröller, M. Valman, who staged the popular ballet "Austrian Peasant Wedding". W. Frenzl, who revived traditional Viennese ballets. The most famous artists of the 20-30s: G. Pichler, H. Pfundmayr, M. Buchinger, R. Rab, A. Krausenecker, representatives of the Frenzl and Birkmeier families.

In 1942-58, the choreographer of the Vienna State. opera was E. Hanka. Under her leadership, the troupe survived the hardships of the war years. She formed the repertoire of the first post-war decade, which mainly included her productions: over 60 ballets, many with music by Austrian and German composers: Joan of Tsarissa by Egka, The Venetian Moor by Blacher, Hotel Sacher by Helmesberger in arr. Schönherr and von Einem's Medusa).

In the 40-50s. the leading dancers were Y. Drapal, L. Templer, E. Brexner, L. Breuer, M. Bauer, dancer R. Novotny. Troupe of the Vienna State. the operas were directed by D. Parlich (1958-61), A. Millos (1963-66 and 1971-74) and V. Orlikovsky (1966-71). In Vienna, ballets are staged both at the Volks-Opera (in 1955-72, ballet by D. Luca) and at Teatro an der Wien (in 1967-74, ballet by A. Mitterhuber). Ballet companies also work in the cities of Graz, Linz, Klagenfurt, Salzburg, and others. The main ballet school functions at the Vienna State Opera (since the 1760s). Luke also had her own school. In Laxenburg at hand. R. Chladek operates a branch of the dance school of E. Jacques-Dalcroze.

Among the researchers of ballet are F. Derra de Moroda, the author of books and textbooks on dance (in 1952-67 she had her own school); among critics G. Brunner, L. G. Schüller, A. Oberhauser.

Theatre

From the 11th to 12th centuries, mysteries and liturgical dramas were staged in Austrian monasteries and abbeys. The Austrian theater began to take shape in the 16th century with the formation of the multinational Austrian state. In the 16th century, countless itinerant theater companies roamed Austria, performing comic, acrobatic and dance performances. The sketches for the artists' numbers were written by V. Schmelzl. At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, theaters arose in Austria under the Jesuit colleges, promoting obedience to the church and the emperor. The performances often used the technique of Italian theater. In the 17th century, the art of Italy had a great influence on the Austrian theater. The scripts by Italian masters helped to perfect the creations of the actors of itinerant theaters. Avancinus' play "Conquering Piety" was presented in Vienna in 1659. The performance was distinguished by the abundance of external effects and the brilliance of the spectacle. At the beginning of the 18th century, in 1712, the first permanent theater was created in Vienna. The experience of German folk theater and Italian comedy was used to stage the performances, consolidating the principle of improvisation on the stage. At the end of the 18th century, new theaters were opened on the outskirts of Vienna: the Leopoldstadttheater in 1781, the Josefstadttheater in 1788, the Wiedenertheater in 1787. Operas by W.A. Mozart and I. Haydn, knightly dramas, children's ballets were staged in these theaters ... In 1741, the Royal Theater at the Palace opened in Vienna, which was named the Burgtheater. At the beginning of the 19th century, the development of theaters began in small towns in Austria. F. Raimund and I. Nestroy made a huge contribution to this. They created their own genre of national comedy and began to further advance the development of the traditions of democratic theater. In the 20s of the XX century in the creative activity of "Burgtheater" there is an upsurge. The theater is directed by the actor and director A. Heine. During the Nazi occupation, former figures of Austrian culture were persecuted. Most of the theaters were closed and destroyed. After the liberation of Austria by Soviet troops, the struggle for cultural independence began. Most theaters stage works of foreign classics, including Russian. In "Burgtheater" were staged "Woe from Wit", "Calypso", "Egor Bulychev and others", "Nathan the Wise".

Cinema

In 2009, Vienna hosted the Russian Cinema Festival “Days of Russian Cinema in Austria and Slovakia”. The President of the Golden Knight Foundation, Nikolai Burlyaev, led the Russian delegation. The films "Ivan's Childhood", "Andrei Rublev", "Lermontov" were presented in Vienna, as well as creative thematic meetings.

The circus

In Austria, the family circus "Pikard" has become widely known, in 2009 it celebrated its twentieth anniversary. The troupe is run by Elisabeth Schneller, a former equilibrist.

The history of the circus in Austria begins earlier, with the artistic families of the Schnellers and Picards, hereditary artists, comedians and equestrians. In the 30s of the XX century, Ene Schneller founded his own circus, in which his children grow up and acquire a profession. During the Second World War, the circus business had to be abandoned, but with the accession of peace, the troupe again began to travel around the country. However, the circus did not last long: soon the government seized their modest property from the family, leaving the Schnellers only a couple of carriages and two horses.

Pikard is reborn in 1989. Under the direction of Erne Schneller, the circus operates until 2004. After the care of the circus was transferred to his wife Elizabeth. Now the heirs of the circus dynasty perform in the circus - Roman Schneller, Alexander Schneller and Ilona Schneller.

Architecture

Of the Romanesque buildings in Austria, only temples have survived (for example, the Ruprechtskirche church in Vienna). Gothic forms are embodied in the buildings of the Cistercian Order, the fountain pavilion in the Heiligenkreuz monastery. Among the masterpieces of the Gothic is St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna. The Renaissance in Austria is associated with the activities of Emperor Maximilian I, the patron saint of artists, including Albrecht Durer, who created sketches of bronze figures at the tomb of Maximilian in Innsbruck. Renaissance secular buildings - houses in Klagenfurt, Portia Castle in Spittal, Hochosterwitz Fortress in Carinthia. Many palaces and temples in Vienna, Salzburg, Graz were built in the classical Baroque style. The most famous representatives of the Baroque are Josef Mungenast (monastery church in Dürnstein), Jacob Prandtauer (monastery in Melk), Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (National Library in Vienna) and Lucas von Hildebrandt (Mirabell castles in Salzburg and Belvedere in Vienna).

The whole town of Baden near Vienna has retained the individuality of the style of the master of classicism Josef Kornhäusel. The historicist style was an attempt, after the upheavals of 1848, to build on the past and demonstrate the strength of the empire through monumental structures such as the Ringstrasse in Vienna. Half a century later, adherents of the Secession under the motto “Time is his art. Art - its freedom ”advocated a disengagement from conservative academic circles. In this Austrian manifestation of the Art Nouveau style, representatives of various fields of art worked closely with each other. The leaders of the movement were the painter Gustav Klimt and the architects Otto Wagner and Josef-Maria Olbrich. The buildings of the postmodern style, which are rich in the central part of Vienna, create a special flavor. Among the structures of modern architecture - the building of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Viena International Center in Vienna.

Kitchen

Austrian cuisine has for centuries adhered to the traditions of the noble cuisine ("Hofküche"), which is famous for its well-balanced dishes of beef and pork with various vegetables. There is also a Mehlspeisen bakery that bakes cream cakes and all kinds of pastries.

Traditional dishes are donuts filled with apricot marmalade or cream and apple strudel. Their neighbors - Hungary, Czech Republic, Italy, and the Balkans - had a particular influence on the development of Austrian cuisine. The favorite drink of the Austrians is beer.

Sport

The Austrian Football Championship has been held since 1912. The Austrian Cup has been held since 1913. The governing body for football in Austria is the Austrian Football Association. The first official world chess champion was a citizen of the Austrian Empire, Wilhelm Steinitz. In addition, Vienna is famous for its Spanish riding school.

Highlighting its internal problems, primarily the national question and the problem of state structure. The empire was a conglomerate of states, united only by the person of the monarch and the Habsburg dynasty, but had no economic ties with each other. During the revolution, attempts were made to modernize the existing system on the basis of the principles of equality of nations and constitutionalism.

This was reflected in the activities of the constitutional assembly, which operated in Moravia and proposed its own version of the constitution. Similar claims were made by the Hungarians, but the Austrian elite held on to their power and refused to make serious concessions. The uprisings that broke out in different parts of the empire were not interconnected and were rather easily suppressed. In addition, the national liberation movements had serious contradictions among themselves.

As a result of these events, Austria gained significant political experience - it was the first movement in the history of Austria for constitutional councils of freedom and liberal principles.

Franz Joseph was not initially considered a candidate for the throne, he received a military education, as a result of which he was ascetic, disciplined, adhered to conservative views, he called himself "the last monarch of the old school." The emperor did not like technical innovations; he refused to use a car, telephone, or electricity. In the early years, Franz Joseph ruled with the help of a well-organized bureaucratic apparatus by Metternich and Austrian Minister-President Schwarzenberg.

In 1849, the constitutional assembly was dissolved, the rules of the constitution were rejected by the emperor, and in 1850 a new constitution was adopted: the empire was proclaimed a unitary state, the emperor was endowed with absolute power, it was planned to create a bicameral representative body and a legislative council under the emperor. But the constitution began to operate only after the lifting of the state of emergency on the territory of Austria, and as a result, the constitution never worked. By this, the consequences of the revolution were overcome, but the national question was not resolved.

The Austrian Empire did not have a key ethnos that could unite all the peoples of the empire. Hungary remained the main hotbed of discontent, despite the fact that the main leaders of Hungary were repressed, but part of the nationalists, including Kossuth, managed to escape. After the suppression of the uprising, Hungary found itself in the position of an occupied country - it was deprived of self-government, all privileges, there were Austrian troops in the country, Hungary was in a state of war for 3 years. Fermentation continued in Bohemia and the German lands; in Italy, the emperor's power was held only by the bayonets of Radetzky's army. In fact, the emperor had no social support. Liberal and Conservatives continued to be fragmented along ethnic lines. The emperor could only rely on the army, the bureaucracy and the church.

The Hungarian army was also multinational, but had one-man command and a German command language. The officers in the army consisted of ordinary nobles and the bourgeoisie, who treasured their status and shared the ideas of Franz Joseph. The same applied to the bureaucratic apparatus, which embodied the idea of the integrity of the state. The church became the main pillar of the monarchy, in 1855 a new concordat was concluded with the Vatican, after which Austria became the most clerical state in Europe.

Foreign policy became the main direction of the external government of Austria in the first post-revolutionary decade, becoming a brake on the unification of Germany and Italy. In 1848, rivalry with Prussia began, which intensified after 1850. Austria opposed Prussia and was able to revive the German Confederation with the support of Russia, but this only delayed the problem. The key event that changed the position of Austria was the Crimean War, which became a diplomatic defeat for Austria.

Austria made the mistake of putting pressure on Russia on the Turkish issue, which led to the breakdown of the alliance between Russia and Austria, after which it turned out that Austria had lost its only ally. Already in 1859, Austria was involved in a war with France and Italy, in which she lost Lombardy. In 1862, Bismarck became Chancellor of Germany, the war of 1866 led to the complete loss of Austria's positions in German lands, the Venetian region in Italy was lost. The prestige of Austria and the emperor of Bl has been seriously damaged. But Vienna relinquished the task of retaining power in Germany and Italy and focused on internal problems.

Already during the war with France, Hungarian nationalism re-emerged. It got to the point of desecrating state symbols. The empire was on the verge of a new uprising, which forced Vienna to make certain concessions. The emperor in 1860 begins a dialogue with the liberals and develops the "October diploma" - a new constitution. It confirmed the unity of the empire, and the Reichsrat was approved - the imperial council under the emperor, which included 100 people. Self-government and language returned to Hungary.

But the concessions did not suit anyone - neither liberals, nor conservatives, nor nationalists. Therefore, already in February 1861, but was supplemented by the "February patent", which introduced an all-imperial bicameral parliament with legislative power, the powers of the Landtags were reduced in favor of the Reichsrat. This reform was approved by the main political forces, but did not suit the Hungarians and Slavs, who refused to participate in the elections. In 1862 the Reichsrat was formed and set to work. Already in the first year, censorship was weakened, a number of liberal laws were adopted.

By this time, representatives of the moderate course Deak and Andrássy, who strove for a dialogue, came out on top among the nationalists. The main requirement of all Hungarians was the restoration of the Constitution of 1848, the sovereignty of Hungary while maintaining the dynastic union. In 1865, secret negotiations began, Ferenc Deak agreed to abandon some of the requirements, including the requirement of the Constitution of 1848, and as a result, a compromise was reached.

At the negotiations, after the war of 1866, Hungary was already represented by Gyula Andrássy. On March 15, 1867, the official Austro-Hungarian agreement was concluded, which transformed the entire structure of the state - Austria-Hungary was formed. The whole of a single unitary state, the empire was divided into two equal parts Cisleitania (Austria) and Transliteania (Hungary), connected only by a common monarch. The legislative and executive branches were divided into two parts, completely independent from each other.

They were connected only by the head - the emperor and the council, which coordinated the budget. 70% of the costs were to be covered by Austria, 30% - by Hungary, and this ratio was revised every 10 years. In Austria, the "December Constitution" was adopted in 1867, which consisted of several constitutional laws. The Reichsrat consisted of the House of Lords - 178 people: 3 archdukes, 53 hereditary members, 10 archbishops, 7 bishops, 105 members appointed by the emperor and the Chambers of Deputies - 353 deputies, elected by the Landtags, and since 1873 by the curia. Hungary had a similar Chamber of Magnates with 403 members and a Chamber of Deputies with 444 members elected by open ballot.

Geographically, Austria was divided into 17 "crown lands": the kingdoms of Bohemia, Dalmatia, Galicia and Lodomeria, the Archduchy of Upper and Lower Austria,

Hungary was divided into Hungary proper and the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia.

Germans accounted for 24% of the population, Hungarians - 17%., Czechs and Slovaks accounted for 16%, in addition, Poles, Rusyns, Serbs, Romanians lived in the empire.

The Germans lived mainly in the north and north-west of the country, the Hungarians actually lived in Hungary, the Slavs lived in places of compact residence.

The majority of the population - 76% were Catholics, 9% were Protestants, the same number were Orthodox. In Bosnia, the majority were Orthodox and Muslims.

Agriculture employed 52% in Austria, 68% in Hungary, and 20% and 14%, respectively, in industry. This predetermined the conservative nature of the country's society.

The major cities were Vienna, Budapest, created in 1873 after the confluence of Buda, Pest and Obuda, and Prague. This was followed by Lviv, Trieste, Krakow, Graz, Brno and Szeged - the capitals of the regions.

The main feature of economic development is territorial specialization. The most industrialized were Bohemia, Moravia and Austria. Hungary remained the country's agrarian appendage. 80% of coal was mined in the Czech Republic, 80% of all industrial enterprises were located there. The Czech Republic became one of the main regions where social development took place.

The machine-building company "Skoda" was developing, which was engaged in the production of metal products, weapons, steam locomotives, cars, turbines; "Tatra", enterprises of the coal and chemical industries. In Vienna, electrical equipment was produced, there was mechanical engineering. But in Austria there was not a large share of large-scale production, 94% of all enterprises were small. Austria, however, remained an agricultural country. Hungary had a powerful food industry. At the turn of the century, foreign investments from Germany and France began to penetrate into the empire, and by 1913 35% of all capitals were investment, 60% of investments were from Germany, gradually gaining control over Austrian industry.

France actively invested in railways, Vienna became the most important transport hub in Europe, which was also facilitated by control over the Danube almost along its entire length. The only ones of the empire were just supported by economic specialization, internal customs barriers prevented the creation of a single economic space. Austria-Hungary was highly dependent on Germany. Austria-Hungary continued to be a backward power, it provided 3% of world trade, 6% of industrial production in Europe.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was formed in 1867 on the basis of an agreement between the ruling elite of the two countries.

The Austrian Empire included the Czech Republic, Moravia, Galicia and Bukovina, and Hungary - Slovakia, Croatia and Transylvania.

In the same year, a new constitution for the empire was adopted. According to her, the general ruler of the empire was the emperor of Austria. The emperor was a representative of the Habsburg dynasty. This dynasty led the empire from 1867 to 1918. During the formation of the empire, the emperor was Franz Joseph II.

In Austria, imperial power was officially limited by the Reichstag, and in Hungary - by the Seim. Consequently, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was a constitutional monarchy.

After the creation of the empire, 3 general imperial ministries were formed: 1. Foreign Affairs. 2. Naval. 3. Financial. The rest of the ministries functioned independently for each of the two parts of the empire. Hungary had its own parliament, executive power, political and administrative autonomy. The majority of the empire's population consisted of the conquered Slavic peoples.

Economic development of Austria-Hungary

In the last quarter of the 19th century, Austria-Hungary was one of the most backward countries in Europe. The preserved vestiges of feudalism in the country led to a slowdown in the rate of industrial progress in comparison with the advanced countries of Europe.

In the 90s, the urban population accounted for only one third of the total population of Austria-Hungary. Even in Austria, the most developed part of the empire, the majority of the population was rural.

The Austro-Hungarian agreement, concluded in 1867, became a certain impetus for the economic development of Hungary. On the basis of the coal base of Hungary, the metallurgical industry began to develop. But the main industry in Hungary was still the food industry. In 1898, Hungary produced half of the empire's food products.

In the industrial regions of the country - Lower Austria and the Czech Republic - the process of concentration of production and the formation of monopolies proceeded rapidly.
By the beginning of the 20th century, loan capital was concentrated mainly in a few large banks in Vienna. The role of the financial oligarchy in the life of the country has grown.

Another characteristic feature of the empire's progress was its growing dependence on foreign capital. Banks in France, Belgium, Germany have flooded Austria with their capital by investing in industry. Such industries of Austria-Hungary as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, etc., were financially supported by German firms. The position of German capital in textile and machine-building enterprises was very strong. German capital also burst into agriculture. 200,000 hectares of land in Austria belonged to German landowners.

Social movement

The working people of the empire fought for their rights. For example, in 1869, a mass demonstration of workers was held in the capital of the empire, Vienna. The demonstrators demanded the granting of democratic freedoms.
In response, the government accused the leaders of the labor movement of betrayal. The court sentenced them to lengthy imprisonment.
The Austrian government, following the example of Bismarck, in 1884 introduced an "emergency law" against the labor movement. The law permitted an increase in police terror against the labor movement. By the end of the 1980s, trade unions were disbanded, and the publication of workers' newspapers was suspended. Despite this, the workers continued to fight. For example, in 1889 the Austrian Social Democratic Party (ASDP) was created. The party's program included provisions such as the provision of political freedoms, the adoption of a law on the election of parliament by general, equal, direct and secret ballot, separation of church from state, school from church, and shorter working hours.
Due to the intensification of the labor movement in 1907, the government was forced to pass a law on electoral reform. Men from the age of 24 have received voting rights.

National liberation movement

Chauvinistic forces, striving to preserve the colonial position of the Slavic peoples, created their own political parties. One of these parties was called the Pan-German Union, and the other was called the Christian Socialist Party.

The Christian Socialist Party, most of whom were Austrian Catholics, propagated the idea of "Greater Germany" along with the agitation of class peace, a call for the solution of all social contradictions "in the spirit of commonwealth and love" and the propaganda of anti-Semitism. But the ruling circles were unable to stop the national liberation movement of the Slavic people.

The Czech opposition demanded that the Czech Republic be granted political rights. The government responded by stepping up its repression. In 1868, a blockade was even introduced in the Czech Republic. But this did not break the Czech opposition. The struggle continued, and finally, in 1880, bilingualism was introduced in the Czech Republic for the conduct of judicial and administrative matters. In 1882, studies in two languages (German and Czech) began at the University of Prague.

The Ukrainian population in Galicia was also under national oppression. The Austrian government, having concluded an agreement with the ruling classes of Galicia, provided them with the leadership of the region.

In the last decades of the 19th century, national oppression increased even more. The Ukrainian population in Transcarpathia was "Hungarian". Croatia was constantly under martial law or a state of emergency, and popular discontent was suppressed.

The government responded to the Croatian national liberation movement in 1912 by dissolving the Croatian Sejm and suspending the constitution.

Economic crisis

In 1912, a severe economic crisis began in Austria-Hungary. As a result, large industrial and commercial enterprises went bankrupt. The export potential of the empire sharply decreased. The ruling circles of the empire further intensified national oppression, as a result of which the economic and national liberation struggle intensified.
Despite the difficult situation, the ruling circles of the empire began to actively participate in the aggressive policy of Austria in the Balkans. The army was reformed. This meant that the empire was preparing for war. In the capital of Hungary - Budapest, a demonstration of many thousands was held against the unification of the country, national oppression and preparations for war.

General discontent led to massive workers' strikes. Police forces were sent against the demonstrators. As a result, Budapest was filled with barricades. But the forces were not equal, and the workers were forced to suspend the strike.

The social movement and the national liberation struggle of the Slavic peoples that were part of the empire marked the entry of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into a deep crisis period.

In the ruling circles of the country and in political organizations, the idea of trialism began to spread widely. The idea of trials meant the transformation of the empire into a federation that included Austria, Hungary and the lands of the Slavic peoples that were part of the empire, uniting all three countries on an equal basis. But the ruling circles, fearing the strengthening of the Slavic part of the federation, rejected the idea of trialism.

This became the reason for the aggravation of the internal contradictions of the empire on the eve of the First World War.

Federation (lat. Foederatio - union, association) is a single union state, consisting of state formations that have a certain and political independence in territorial terms.
Loan - the provision of something on the terms of the guarantor, return of the provided and payment

Austria in the 20th century

World War I.

End of the Hapsburg dynasty.

First Austrian Republic (1918-1938).

Second republic.

Revival of the economy.

Revival of culture.

State contract.

Austria has taken on heavy economic obligations. The most valuable "Nazi property" was oil fields and refineries, the volume of production of which increased significantly under Soviet rule. Although the equipment and facilities were transferred to Austria under the terms of the agreement, it was obliged to send one million tons of oil to the Soviet Union annually until 1965. Austria also agreed to restore the pre-war positions of British and American firms that they held in the oil industry before the arrival of the Nazis. In addition, Austria was supposed to supply the Soviet Union with goods worth $ 150 million within six years.

Since military forces were needed to maintain Austrian neutrality, an army was created, numbering just over 20 thousand soldiers. In December 1955 Austria was admitted to the UN. Two years later, Vienna was chosen as the permanent seat of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The economic growth.

At the time of the signing of the State Treaty, Austria was experiencing an economic upswing. Between 1954 and 1955, the gross national product — the monetary value of all goods and services produced — increased by almost 20%; subsequently, the growth rates decreased, but the general trend continued. In addition to the already developed hydropower resources, a number of new long-term projects were developed with the attraction of funds from abroad. These projects made it possible to export electricity to neighboring countries. The electrification of railways and the improvement of the quality of roads, such as the magnificent Vienna-Salzburg autobahn, have accelerated the connection between the regions of the republic.

Record exports and tourism have kept Austria's balance of payments in balance. The financial obligations in favor of the USSR, in accordance with the 1955 agreement, turned out to be less burdensome than it seemed at first. The USSR gradually went to reduce the volume of payments. Austria sent the last batch of its reparations shipments in 1963.

Maintaining a neutral status for political reasons, Austria decided in 1960 to join the European Free Trade Association, rather than its competitor, the Common Market. However, since more than half of all trade was in the Common Market countries, Austria became an associate member in 1973.

Foreign policy problems.

When Soviet troops suppressed the Hungarian uprising in 1956, almost 170,000 refugees arrived from Hungary to Austria. Most of the Hungarian refugees have actually found permanent residence here. The same situation followed after the invasion of the Warsaw Pact countries into Czechoslovakia, when in 1968-1969 almost 40 thousand Czechs fled across the Austrian border and approx. 8 thousand of them found refuge in Austria.

Illegal immigrants from Yugoslavia constantly entered Austria. From time to time, the Yugoslav government protested against violations of the rights of the Slovenian and Croatian minorities living in southern Austria.

South Tyrol problem.

This problem, painful for Austria, was the subject of constant dispute with Italy. It was about people of Austrian nationality living in a small alpine region, which the Austrians called South Tyrol, and the Italians called Trentino Alto Adige. The roots of the problem go back to the 1915 agreement, which promised Italy this region in exchange for her entry into World War I on the side of the Entente and declaring war on Austria.

Under the Treaty of Saint-Germain, this territory with 250 thousand inhabitants, speaking German, was included in Italy. 78 thousand inhabitants left the region after 1938.

At the end of the war, the Austrians spoke out in favor of including the territory of South Tyrol into the Second Republic. The victorious powers rejected this demand, although a special Italian-Austrian agreement of 1946 provided for the introduction of internal self-government in this territory. Austria said that the German minority is discriminated against. Demonstrations and riots broke out there from time to time. Italy responded by accusing Austria of supporting pan-German and Nazi elements. Terrorist attacks, which Italy claimed were organized on Austrian territory, continued in South Tyrol throughout the 1960s. At the end of 1969, Italy and Austria reached an agreement, according to which the region received the rights of extended autonomy, the influence of the Tyroleans on the national policy in the province increased, the German language received the corresponding status and the German name of the territory - South Tyrol - was recognized.

Coalition Governments, 1945-1966.

The ANP and SPA formed a coalition cabinet after the 1945 elections. The brutal experience of the First Republic prompted both parties that compromise is the price to be paid for a democratic revival. The labor coalition disintegrated after the 1966 elections, and a new government was formed exclusively from ANP members. The SPA, run by Bruno Kreisky, the former foreign minister, has gone over to the opposition.

During these years, the post of president was invariably held by the socialists. The mayor of Vienna, the "red" General Theodor Körner, was President of Austria from 1951-1957. He was succeeded by the experienced manager Adolf Scherf (1957-1965). Another former burgomaster of the capital, Franz Jonas, held the presidency from 1965-1974, Rudolf Kirchschläger held this post for two six-year terms. The post of chancellor was held by members of the ANP: Julius Raab, a moderate supporter of the development of private enterprise, held it from 1953-1961, he was replaced by Alfons Gorbach, who resigned in 1964. The next chancellor was Josef Klaus, who then headed the one-party cabinet of the ANP in 1966, until in 1970 did not give way to Bruno Kreisky. Ministerial and political posts during the coalition years were distributed between the two main parties.

Socialist government in the 1970s.

The 1970 elections gave the SPA the majority of the vote, and Kreisky formed the first purely socialist cabinet in Austrian history. The socialist government took a course, first of all, towards the creation of new jobs and the allocation of subsidies. GDP grew at an average annual rate of 4.3%, which outstripped the rates of the most developed countries; inflation and unemployment rates were well below world levels. This policy caused a rapid rise in public debt, but Austria was able to avoid the impact of high debt repayment costs through record-breaking export growth and large tourism receipts.

1980s.

The far right has re-established itself on the political scene as the third force in Austrian politics. In 1983, the SPA received 48% of the vote in the federal election; APS gained 5%, and SPA invited her to participate in the formation of the government.

In 1986, the ANP nominated Kurt Waldheim, who was Secretary General of the United Nations from 1972-1982. The investigation revealed that in 1942-1945 he, as a lieutenant in the German army, took part in the Nazi atrocities in the Balkans, and then hid the facts about his past. In the November 1986 elections, the APS's votes doubled to 10%; SPA and ANP together scored 84%, and Franz Vranicki formed a "grand coalition", reminiscent of the 1945-1966 coalition.

Tax reform and partial denationalization gave impetus to the further development of the economy. This was also facilitated by the increase in trade with the former communist countries after 1989.

1990s.

Despite the scandals in which many prominent socialists were implicated, the SPA, which again adopted the name of the Social Democratic Party, received a relative majority of the votes in the 1990 elections. APS increased to 17%. The Grand Coalition headed by Vranitsky continued its work. With the unification of Germany in 1990, Austria began to move away from the policy of neutrality, making amendments to the State Treaty, which made it possible to develop cooperation with the German armed forces. Austria was the only neutral state to allow Allied aircraft to fly over its territory during the Gulf War. She officially approved the decision on the division of Yugoslavia and was one of the first to recognize the new states - Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. With the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe, Austria faced increasing immigration from the region and imposed entry restrictions on foreign workers in 1990, which primarily affected Romanian immigrants. Fearing a new wave of immigration from the former Soviet Union and spurred on by agitation from APS leader Jörg Haider, the government tightened its asylum legislation in 1993. The new policy was criticized by international human rights organizations and Austrian liberals.

In 1992, a long-standing dispute over the autonomy of the German-speaking population in South Tyrol was resolved. The governments of Austria and Italy adopted and implemented a package of measures to ensure autonomy.

Internationally isolated, Waldheim was persuaded to refuse re-election after his term expired in 1992. In the ensuing elections, Thomas Klestil (ANP), with support from the APS, won 57% of the vote, defeating Social Democratic candidate Rudolf Streicher.

German reunification, increased emigration from eastern and southeastern Europe, and propaganda by right-wing extremists backed by APS leader Haider have all contributed to the rise of xenophobia. In late 1993, neo-Nazis mailed bombs to politicians and other prominent personalities involved in the "foreigner controversy." At the same time, Helmut Zilck, the popular mayor of Vienna, was seriously wounded. The violence reached its climax when a bomb explosion killed five people, including four gypsies. Left-wing extremists responded with a series of attacks on right-wing leaders in early 1995.

In June 1994, in a popular referendum, two-thirds of voters voted to join the EU, despite opposition from Haider and the Greens. On January 1, 1995, Austria, along with Finland and Sweden, became a member of the EU.

In the 1994 parliamentary elections, the polarization of political forces became open. It marked a radical change in the policy of post-war Austria. The APS received 22.5% of the vote, the ANP only 27.7% of the vote, practically losing its traditional position as the country's second largest party. Together, SPA and ANP received only 62.6% of the vote. The number of votes cast for the Greens has more than doubled since 1990: they collected 7.3%. A new political party, the Liberal Forum (LF), which broke away from the APS, was supported by 5.5% of voters.

The SPA and the ANP re-formed a coalition after the 1994 elections, but their union almost immediately fell apart due to disagreements over economic policy. The two parties disagreed on how to achieve a reduction in the state budget deficit and meet the criteria necessary for Austria to join the European Economic and Monetary Union. The ANP has advocated a sharp cut in social spending, while the SPA has proposed raising taxes. The disagreement eventually led to the collapse of the coalition, and new general elections were held in December 1995. Their results again showed that the population supported the leading historical parties: the SPA and the ANP achieved better results than 1994, while the position of the APS, renamed by Haider in 1995 to the Svobodnikov party, weakened somewhat.

In early 1996, a new coalition government between the SPA and the ANP was formed. Both parties agreed to adopt austerity plans that include cuts in social spending and further privatization of state-owned enterprises. The midterm elections reflected growing discontent among the population: the anti-EU Freemen won the 1996 elections to the European Parliament and the Vienna City Parliament.

In January 1997, Chancellor Vranitsky abruptly resigned, citing age and fatigue after 11 years as head of government. Finance Minister Viktor Klima became the new Federal Chancellor and Chairman of the SPA Party.

SPA won the parliamentary elections in October 1999 by a small margin. "Svobodniki" and NPA got approximately equal number of votes.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site europa.km.ru/

Funds were often used unproductively, lived without thinking about the future. TOPIC 48. RUSSIAN DOMESTIC POLICY IN THE II QUARTER OF THE XIX CENTURY. 1. Basic political principles of the Nikolaev reign Second quarter of the XIX century. went down in the history of Russia as the "Nikolaev era" or even "the era of the Nikolaev reaction." The most important slogan of Nicholas I, who spent ...