Plan
Introduction
1 Events
1.1 Beginning of the century
1.2 Mid-century
1.3 End of the century
2 Persons
3 Discoveries
Bibliography
Introduction
The ninth (IX) century lasted from 801 to 900 according to the Gregorian calendar. The early Middle Ages reign in Europe. The presumable beginning of the medieval warming.
1. Events
Founded by Murom, Polotsk, Rostov, Smolensk, Uzhgorod, Zhitomir
The Vikings populate the Faroe Islands
· The Treaty of Verdun has been signed
· Unification of the kingdoms of Asturias and Galicia. Education of the County of Aragon.
· The disintegration of Caucasian Albania into feudal principalities.
· Construction of the city of Pagan in Burma.
· Ghana is attacked by the Berbers of Lemtun.
1.1. The beginning of the century
· Hegemony of Wessex in England.
· Accession of Transylvania to Bulgaria.
· Christianization of Croats.
· Formation of the Tao-Klarjet kingdom in the Chorokhi river basin and in Kartli.
· Opening the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
· The Russian army fought in the Crimea from Sudak to Kerch.
· The Pratiharas invaded the Doab (Jamna-Ganges interfluve) and took possession of Kanauj, and then extended their power to the entire territory from Kanauj to Benares.
· The emergence of Kashmir Shaivism.
1.2. Mid century
· Capture by the Danes of North-East England.
· Count of Anjou Fulk I the Red, founder of the Anjou dynasty.
· Formation of the Duchy of Brittany.
· The emergence of new centers of Christian offensive against Muslims: Navarre and Aragon.
· The whole Maverannahr was united under the rule of the Samanids.
· Long wars between Pratiharas and Bengali princes from the Pala clan.
· Falling away of Java from Srivijaya.
· The third quarter of a century - the Paulician movement.
1.3. End of the century
· Ademar (Aimar), 1st Duke of Bourbon.
· Fighting in Ireland between Norwegians and Danes from east England.
· Liberation of all Leon from the Arabs by King Alfonso III of Asturias.
· Until 1306 - the Přemyslid dynasty in Bohemia.
· The Tulunid dynasty subjugates Palestine and Syria.
· Pechenegs move from the Volga valley to the Dnieper valley.
· Alania in the central part of the North Caucasus separated from the Khazar Kaganate.
· Strengthening the Khitan tribal union in Western Mongolia and parts of Manchuria.
· 890 - evidence that the Chigil tribe had a state.
· The breakup of Korea into the states of Silla in the northeast, Second Baekje in the southwest, and Taebon in the north.
· The Mayan cities in the southern part of Yucatan ceased to exist.
2. Persons
· Prince of Travunia Falimer, son of Krajina.
· Charlemagne - King of the Franks and Lombards.
· Photius I - Patriarch of Constantinople.
· Nicholas I - Pope.
3. Discoveries
Discovery of Iceland by Viking Gardar Swavarson
First windmills
Bibliography:
1. Gumilev L. N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe. M .: Mysl, 1989. p. 685-755
In many educational and popular science materials, the idea is widespread that Kiev became the capital in 882, after the city was captured by Prince Oleg. This statement, as a rule, is based on a story from "The Tale of Bygone Years", which, under the year 882, says: "And Oleg the prince in Kiev, and Oleg's speech: behold, mother with the city of Russia." At first glance, everything is obvious, but recent studies by specialists in the history of Ancient Rus show that the formation of ideas about Kiev as a capital was a much more complex and lengthy process.
Examples of using
In 882, Rurik's successor, Prince of Novgorod, Oleg the Prophet, captured Kiev, which from that time became the capital of Russia... (Wikipedia, Capitals of Russia)
In 882 Kiev became the capital of Rus and since then received the honorary title of "mother of Russian cities"... (Material on the site "Because.Ru")
| V.M. Vasnetsov... Baptism of Russia. 1885-1896. |
Reality
A fairly detailed analysis of how the ideas about Kiev as a capital were formed was given in his article "Was there a capital in Ancient Rus" by A.V. Nazarenko.
The term "capital" itself, the researcher writes, is not recorded in the Old Russian language. Known for its analogue, "table", or "capital city". However, the "table" was not only Kiev, but also a number of other cities of Russia, which were owned by representatives of the ancient Russian princely family, for example, Novgorod. Kiev, being the capital, should at least be distinguished by some specific definition, or generally be called something else.
Such epithets do appear in sources, but only in the XI-XII centuries. One of them, "the oldest city", is recorded in the "Tale of Bygone Years", in the story about the events of 1096: about the invitation of the Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich and Pereyaslavsky, Vladimir Vsevolodovich (Monomakh), their cousin Oleg Svyatoslavovich, to Kiev, for the conclusion contract. In another text, "The Word for the Renewal of the Church of the Tithes," dating from the middle of the 12th century, Kiev is called "the elder in the city", the Kiev prince - "the elder of the princes", and the local metropolitan - "the elder of the saints."
Another definition, the very “mother of cities”, is a direct tracing-paper from the Greek mHtropolis, from one of the epithets of Constantinople and is used to “equalize” the status of Kiev with that of Tsargrad, Nazarenko notes. According to him, this expression is not so common anymore; in addition to the chronicle story about the capture of Kiev by Oleg, attention is drawn only to its use in the service to commemorate the illumination in 1051/3 of the church of St. George in Kiev; here the city is also called "the first capital".
The concept of an all-Russian capital was formed in the XI-XIII centuries, the author of the article notes. The very idea of a single, main “capital city”, according to A.V. Nazarenko, organically belongs to the complex of imperial political ideas; attempts to form and implement it have been repeatedly undertaken in the Western, Latin world. Plans for a united capital were repeatedly undertaken by Frankish and later German rulers, he writes. So, Charlemagne tried to create a nationwide center parallel to Rome with elements of sacralization in Aachen. Otto III tried to embody the same, essentially "rimocentric" idea, trying to organize an empire centered in Rome according to the late antique model. An apologist for the empire ruled from Rome was Frederick I Barbarossa. However, a number of such important factors as the fragmentation of the feudal period, political and ecclesiastical polycentricity (as well as the opposition of these centers) did not allow this idea to be embodied in the West.
In Russia, where such a concept could have developed based on the Constantinople, and not on the Roman model, its formation was greatly facilitated by the era of autocracy of Vladimir the Saint and Yaroslav the Wise, during which a rather developed metropolitan ideological complex was formed around Kiev, which contributed, according to A. V. Nazarenko, further, more distinct crystallization of the idea of the eldership of Kiev. In addition, the researcher notes, the fundamental connection that existed between the ecclesiastical-administrative unity of the country and the idea of the political sovereignty of its ruler made the existence of the all-Russian Kiev Metropolis an important prerequisite for the formation of the idea of the state unity of Russia and its preservation in conditions of political particularism, which, in turn, , stabilized the idea of Kiev as the capital of Rus as a whole. Together, this formed a solid ideological complex, which determined the amazing historical survival of the idea and feeling of all-Russian unity, A.V. Nazarenko.
Sources and Literature
A.V. Nazarenko Was there a capital in Ancient Russia? Some comparative historical and terminological observations // A.V. Nazarenko. Ancient Russia and the Slavs (historical and philological research). Ancient Russia and the Slavs (The most ancient states of Eastern Europe, 2007). M., 2009.S. 103-113.
From the VIII century. under the Abbasids, the Arabs, seeking to expand their trade, penetrated into eastern Europe. They had two main routes: one on ships across the Caspian Sea from the northern edge of Persia, the other on camels from Kho-Varezm (Khiva) along the present Kyrgyz steppes.
On this and the other way, they reached the large state of the Khazars, occupying the lower reaches of the Volga and Don and the eastern Ciscaucasia. The Khazars, representing a mixture of Finnish and Turkish tribes, combined a wandering and sedentary life; residents of the capital, Etc., located on both sides of the Volga (slightly higher
Arabic dirgem (from Russian treasures).
present Astrakhan), lived in city houses only in winter, and in spring and summer they went to the steppe for nomadic camps. The Khazars obeyed two rulers: the kagan, who received divine honors, but also answered with his life for the misfortunes of the country, and the begu, who was a real ruler, commanded troops, collected taxes, and ruled cities. Sailing up the Volga, the Arab merchants reached the city of Bolga, not far from the confluence of the Kama, where they entered into trade relations with the people akin to the Danube Bulgarians. The Arabs were brought to the Volga markets by Slavs and Finns of all kinds of goods from today's central and northern Russia; Arab silver dirgems reached the Baltic Sea and penetrated Scandinavia.
The main goods exported by the Arabs from Eastern Europe were the skins of fur-bearing animals: sables, ermines, beavers, martens, etc .; of these, not a single fur was as prized as the black-and-brown fox. Arab geographer and traveler Masudi says: “dark fox fur is the most fashionable in the east; from it they make hats, caftans, fur coats and capes for the kings and princes of Arab and Persia, interrupting each other with their luxury. One of the caliphs wanted to determine which fur was the warmest: for this he ordered to wrap bottles of water in various skins on a cold winter night; it turned out that the only thing under the silver fox the water did not freeze. "
Crossing from the Volga to the Don and further along the left tributaries of the Dnieper, Arab merchants reached Kiev; further to the west, the intermediaries in the fur trade and slaves were the Jews, who delivered the furs to Muslim Spain and Ma-mushroom (northwestern Africa, now Morocco and Algeria), and slaves from Bohemia to the market in Itil. In the IX century. trade relations of the Arabs began to cover, as it were, the Christian countries of the old Roman Empire, Italy and Byzantium. Byzantium itself was at this time, thanks to severe internal unrest and external failures, in frustration and weakness.
Following Nicephorus, who overthrew the rule of Irene, three emperors, one after the other, reached power by force, relying either on rebellious soldiers or on the capital's population, among which were the masters of art crafts, who worked for the courtyard and for churches, foundry workers, jewelers, sculptors, icon painters, draperies, perfumers, and especially silk fabric manufacturers, the main pride of Byzantium since the time of Justinian, who obtained from the Chinese the secret of silkworm breeding. In Constantinople, two extremes coexisted side by side: on the one hand, to doubt the correctness of the decisions of the divine power of the emperor was considered blasphemy, on the other, the people of Constantinople and the army, following the example of the proletarians and legions of ancient Rome, awarded purple to the people of their election.
Proclaimed by the Paulician army, Leo V the Armenian renewed the war against the icons. “You see - he told his supporters - that all the sovereigns who recognized the icons and worshiped them, died either in exile or in the war. Only the iconoclasts died a natural death on the throne and were buried with honor in the temple of the Apostles. I also want to imitate them, so that after a long life of mine and my son, our kingdom will be retained until the fourth and fifth generations. " At his insistence, the council of 815 forbade lighting candles and smoking incense in front of a "soulless tree" and condemned the "useless and disagreeing with the traditions of the church" the production of icons. Sleep began the persecution of the monks, the destruction of churches. However, iconoclasm was held up only by the threat posed by the heretical army. As soon as the soldiers were removed from the capital, Empress Theodora, who ruled during the childhood of Michael III, in 843 restored the veneration of icons; the new council established the feast of Orthodoxy to commemorate the deliverance from iconoclastic and all other heresies.
The controversy over icons greatly weakened Byzantium and lowered her mental life. While the iconoclasts were destroying works of art, the monks, for their part, wanting to strengthen the faith, destroyed books and smashed science for the fact that it feeds the spirit of doubt and criticism. The most talented and courageous defender of icons, Fyodor Studit (that is, a monk of the Studite, strict community) called on the Pope, a foreign ruler: “Hear us, the apostolic head, God's chosen shepherd of Christian sheep, the key bearer of heaven, the rock of faith on which the Catholic ( universal) church; you are Peter, who adorns the throne of Peter. Conquer the heretical beasts with the magic of the enchanting sounds of the word of God. " After such appeals, the popes really began to interfere in the affairs of the Byzantine Church, and it seemed to have lost its independence.
Outside, Byzantium suffered one setback after another. The Spanish Saracens took possession of the island of Crete on the threshold of the Aegean Sea: its new name, Candia, comes from the Arab khandak, a deep ditch with which the conquerors surrounded the fortress they had built. At the same time, attacks by Muslim sailors began on Sicily and southern Italy. Byzantine trade in the Mediterranean fell into decay. From the north, the empire also had no rest. The Bulgarian Khan Krum, the victor of the Emperor Niki-fora, took Sardiku (now Sofia) from the Byzantines and approached the capital, wishing to "thrust a spear into the Golden Gate." Although this successor made peace with the empire, the border line passed already near Constantinople. In the northwest, Byzantium had a new enemy - Rus: they harassed the Greek Xerso-es in the Crimea, attacked the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea. In 860, on 200 ships, the Russians sailed to Constantinople, plundered and burned the outskirts of the capital; it was with difficulty that they managed to repulse this "terrible northern thunderstorm", "a rude barbarian people." as the Byzantines expressed it.
