The huge online aviation encyclopedia "Corner of the Sky" is a unique Internet resource of its kind, where you can find not only all the features of aviation that interest you, but also excellent articles, descriptions of aircraft with their history of creation, and a lot of necessary thematic materials.
Here, completely anyone can determine virtually everything about aviation, and the creators of the online encyclopedia touched not only on the current state of aviation, but also delved into its history, which allows us to draw conclusions about how the aviation business developed decades ago. In addition, users of the Corner of the Sky online portal will be able to determine the likely trends in aviation in the future, look, so to speak, a couple of decades ahead and determine what aircraft will be like in a couple of years.
On the pages of the online encyclopedia about aviation, it is possible to find a lot of entertaining articles that are both of simple interest to users and reveal the main highlights of certain air vehicles. If necessary, anyone can get acquainted with the drawings of helicopters and aircraft, and this applies to both historical aircraft models and modern aircraft, which are just starting their first flights. In addition, here it is also possible to find different three-dimensional models of aircraft, which allows you to visually and from all sides see one or another aircraft, and this can be done from different angles, which, for its part, allows you to compare aircraft models of both the same era and different time intervals, which is interesting in itself.
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It is worth noting that the information on the site "Corner of the Sky" is laid out in such a way that it can be easily understood, moreover, by an ignorant user. If necessary, you have the opportunity not only to gain additional knowledge in aviation, but also to successfully consolidate them with a number of beautiful examples, which the authors of the Corner of the Sky aviation encyclopedia obviously did not stint on.
Here, on the pages of the Corner of the Sky site, it is possible to get acquainted with virtually all models of air transport, in particular, this applies to gliders, unmanned aerial vehicles, helicopters, military and civil aviation aircraft, etc. However, the information is only scanned from books and other printed publications, which does not always allow you to comfortably navigate the data presented. As a rule, this satisfies, but does not always allow you to find what you really need.
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Fascinating entries:
They are divided into commercial, which carries out the transportation of passengers, baggage, cargo, mail, and other aviation work for a fee, and general aviation. In a number of states, general aviation includes administrative, personal, sports, agricultural, and other aircraft and helicopters. The fleet of civil aviation aircraft includes: mainline passenger aircraft, aircraft of local airlines, aircraft and helicopters for transporting goods, carrying out aviation chemical work, medical care for the population, aerial photography, and other works.
State aviation solves the problems of military, police, customs and other public services. Military aviation is an integral part of the armed forces of states. Its purpose is to strike at ground targets, fight air and sea enemies, carry out air transfers of troops, weapons and military equipment, conduct aerial reconnaissance, etc. The military aviation of large states, as a rule, includes the air force, and also army and naval aviation. Experimental aviation is used for scientific research, testing of aviation and other equipment.
The initial period of aviation development
The first attempts of man to fly himself with the help of artificial wings were based on imitation of the flight of birds. in manuscripts Leonardo da Vinci(1475) shows drawings of two flying machines with a muscular drive, one of which, as it were, is “screwed” into the air with the help of an Archimedean screw (a distant prototype of a helicopter), and the other uses flapping wings for flight ( flywheel). In the 17-18 centuries. studies of the resistance of bodies moving in a liquid or gas have been widely developed, which was caused by a number of topical problems (the movement of a pendulum, the free fall of bodies, ballistics, shipbuilding, etc.). I. Newton was the first to attempt to give a theoretical explanation of resistance, based on the concepts of the mechanical (impact) effect of liquid (gas) particles on the surface of a body. The fundamental equations of hydrodynamics were obtained by D. Bernoulli, L. Euler and J. Lagrange. The idea of a helicopter was developed and experimentally substantiated by M. V. Lomonosov, who in 1754 demonstrated to the meeting of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences a model of an “airfield machine” designed to lift meteorological instruments and equipped for this with two oppositely rotating wings (now they are called rotors) driven by a clock spring . The experiments clearly demonstrated the formation of lift (simplification of the model) during the rotation of the screws, and the principle of their counter-rotation (as one of the ways to balance the reactive torque) was subsequently used in real designs of coaxial helicopters (helicopters N. I. Kamov).
In 1783, the first flights of people took place on aircraft lighter than air - the balloons of the brothers Montgolfier and J. Charles. In 1799 J. Cayley put forward the concept of an airplane (aircraft) - an aircraft, which "relies" in the air on a fixed bearing surface (wing), and uses a separate propeller for movement. In 1853 he built a glider (an unpowered aircraft of an aircraft design). In 1843 U. Henson (Great Britain) received a patent for an aircraft project with a steam engine and two propellers as propellers. Bold innovative ideas were distinguished by the projects of N. A. Teleshova , who in 1864 patented in France and Great Britain a model of a multi-seat passenger aircraft with a steam engine and a pusher propeller, N. I. Kibalchich (rocket aircraft). FROM. K. Drzewiecki in 1892 he proposed a method for calculating a propeller, which formed the basis of the theory of a propeller he discovered. TO. E. Tsiolkovsky in 1897 built in Kalugawind tunnel ("blower") to study the air flow around bodies of various shapes. An outstanding role in the development of domestic A. belongs to A.F. Mozhaisky , who devoted more than 30 years of his life to the creation of the first aircraft in Russia. He built successfully flying models, conducted research on propellers, and developed an aircraft project. In 1883 he completed the construction of a full-scale aircraft and in 1885 (according to other sources, in the early autumn of 1884) he made an attempt to conduct flight tests, during which the wing broke. Later, steam-powered aircraft were tested by H.S. Maksim , French engineer K.Ader, however, their attempts to fly were unsuccessful. It was the era of the "jumps". The plane flew up with a headwind, but still could not make a steady flight.
Research continued on the aircraft of the helicopter scheme, accompanied by the construction of a large number of flying models and the expansion of design studies. In Russia, the original designs of helicopters were developed by A. N. Lodygin, D. K. Chernov, P. D. Kuzminsky, S. S. Nezhdanovsky, and others. Russian scientists made a significant contribution to the development of the scientific foundations of aviation. M. A. Rykachev developed experimental methods for studying the rotors of an aircraft of a helicopter scheme (1871). An experimental approach to solving the many and complex problems that stood in the way of nascent aviation became more and more widespread. Of particular importance for science and practice was the creationwind tunnels , allowing to determine the characteristics of aircraft by testing their models. An important result of fundamental research in the 19th century. in the field of hydrodynamics was the development of the theoretical foundations for the motion of a viscous fluid and the flow around bodies with jet separation (A. Navier , J. Stokes , G. Helmholtz , G. Kirchhoff , J. Rayleigh and etc.). The experimentally established O. Reynolds the existence of two types of viscous fluid flow - laminar and turbulent - subsequently began to play a large role in the study and modeling of the flow around aircraft. In Russia, in 1880, a monograph by D. I. Mendeleev "On the resistance of liquids and on aeronautics", which became a fundamental guide for Russian researchers and engineers. In 1891–96 O. Lilienthal designed, created infrastructure and flew around several gliders (flight range reached 300 m).
Flights on airplanes became possible only after the installation of piston engines on them. internal combustion engines(PD), which were lighter than steam engines. On December 17, 1903, the brothers O. and W. Wright (USA) flew four flights on the Flyer 1 aircraft with a gasoline internal combustion engine (in the last flight, the aircraft flew 260 m in 59 s). In subsequent years, aviation begins to develop rapidly in European countries, where A. Santos-Dumont, G. Voisin, L. Blériot, R. Enot-Peltri, A. Farman, E. Nieuport (all from France), A. Ro, J. De Havilland, F. Handley Page (Great Britain), A. Fokker (Netherlands), G. Junkers (Germany), J. Caproni (Italy) and others. open (in the form of a farm) or with a closed fuselage skin, with pushing or pulling propellers, with wheeled landing gear or with floats for taking off from the water and landing on it. The power structure (frame) of the aircraft was made of wood, the wings were covered with fabric. Aviation rapidly entered life: the speed, altitude and range of flights constantly increased, record achievements began to be recorded International Aviation Federation(FAI), founded in 1905. The development of helicopters went with a noticeable lag behind aircraft, although the first helicopters that climbed to a low altitude were demonstrated in France as early as 1907 (one of the helicopters was built by C. Richet and the brothers L. and J. Breguet, the other - P. Cornu).
Interest in aviation swept Russia as well. The All-Russian Flying Club was founded in 1908. In 1910, the first flights of domestic aircraft designed by A. S. Kudashev, I. I. Sikorsky, and Ya. M. Gakkel took place. In 1911 B. N. Yuriev published the classic scheme of a single-rotor helicopter with a main rotor swashplate. In 1912– 13, under the leadership of Sikorsky, the world's first multi-engine aircraft "Russian Knight" and "Ilya Muromets" were built. A great contribution to the popularization of aviation was made by M.N. Efimov, N. E. Popov, S. I. Utochkin , A. A. Vasiliev, G. V. Alekhnovich, P. N. Nesterov, E. N. Kruten , K. K. Artseulov and other Russian pilots. Since 1909, lectures on aviation were introduced in a number of higher educational institutions. In 1910, the training of Russian military pilots began in France, as well as in domestic flight schools. In 1909–11 in Russia, the production of aircraft began to be mastered by the Duks factories (Moscow), the First Russian Aeronautics Association S.S. Shchetinin and K about "and the Russian-Baltic Carriage Works (St. Petersburg).
Propeller aviation
In the beginning. 20th century the ever-increasing demands of developing aviation led to the creation of a new science - aerodynamics, the foundation of which was the fundamental works of N.E. Zhukovsky and S.A. Chaplygin (Russia), L. Prandtl and T. von Karman (Germany) and other scientists. Under the leadership of Zhukovsky, aerodynamic laboratories were organized at Moscow University (1902) and the Moscow Imperial Technical School (1910, see Fig.Moscow State Technical University them. N. E. Bauman), in Kuchino (near Moscow) the Aerodynamic Institute was founded in 1904– one of the world's first research organizations of this profile.
Increasing the speed, altitude and range of aircraft flight made it possible to start using them for practical purposes, and at the turn of the 1st decade of the 20th century. military aviation is organized in a number of countries. For the first time, aviation was used for military purposes in Libya by the Italians during the war with Turkey (1911), and then in the Balkans in the war of Greece and Bulgaria with Turkey (1912), moreover, a Russian volunteer aviation detachment operated as part of the Bulgarian army. In Russia, a number of original successful models of aircraft were created, but the military department preferred to purchase them abroad and ordered aircraft of foreign models at domestic factories. Among the novelties was the cantilever (i.e. without external wing attachment elements) all-metal Junkers monoplane. Naval aviation also took part in hostilities, incl. ship-based aircraft (see aircraft carrier). But the most widespread fuselage biplanes with pulling propellers, since the maneuverability and carrying capacity of biplanes were then given preference over the higher speed qualities of monoplanes.
The 1st World War gave a significant impetus to the development of aviation. In 1914, the belligerents had a total of approx. 1000 aircraft (Russia - 206), during the war they were released by St. 200 thousand (aircraft losses in France, Great Britain and Germany exceeded 116 thousand). The flight performance of aircraft has significantly improved: the speed has increased from 100-120 to 200-220 km / h, the ceiling height from 2000-3000 to 6000-7000 m, engine power from 60-95 to 300 kW, load capacity up to 2-3, 5 v. 1920s passed under the sign of the formation of air transport. The most famous were the aircraft of the French firms "Nieuport", "SPAD", "Farman", English "Sopwith", German "Fokker", "Albatros". After the end of the war, air transport companies appeared in almost all economically developed countries of the world to transport passengers, mail, cargo, for which special passenger aircraft were created, and the military was also converted. Junkers and Fokker passenger planes built in Germany were widely used on European lines. In 1919, Boeing (USA), which later became the largest manufacturer of aircraft, produced its first aircraft, the B-1 flying boat. In 1923 H. de la Sierva (Spain) built a successfully flying C-4 autogyro.
Already in the course of the Civil War of 1917–22, Russia began to restore and strengthen its aviation. In 1918, the nationalization of the aviation industry began. At the same time, the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI, see), was founded, designed to ensure the development of aviation science and technology. In 1920, the first higher aviation educational institution in the country was opened - the Institute of Engineers of the Red Air Fleet (later the Air Force Engineering Academy named after Professor N. E. Zhukovsky, since 2008 the Air Force Academy named after Professor N. E. Zhukovsky and Yu. A . Gagarin). The first head of these institutions was Zhukovsky, who is rightfully recognized as the "father of Russian aviation." He rallied a large group of students and followers around him (A. A. Arkhangelsky, V. P. Vetchinkin, A. A. Mikulin, B. S. Stechkin, A. N. Tupolev, Yuryev and others). On May 1, 1922, flights began on the Moscow-Königsberg international airline (pilot I.F. Voedilo flew on a five-seater Fokker F. III passenger plane). On March 17, 1923, the Joint Stock Company of the Russian Voluntary Air Fleet Dobrolyot was established (renamed Aeroflot in 1932). The commercial company performed the tasks of creating domestic civil aviation, developing the domestic aviation industry and the needs of the national economy - domestic and international transportation of passengers, mail, cargo, and other works. On July 15, 1923, the first regular airline Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod was opened in Russia. Pilot Ya. N. Moiseev took off from Moscow at 11:00 from the Khodynka field, and about 4 hours later the first Prombank (Junkers-13) scheduled flight with four passengers on board landed. The first domestic passenger aircraft was the AK-1 [high-wing (monoplane, the wing of which passes through the upper part of the fuselage) of a wooden structure, with a piston engine with a power of 125 kW, developed a speed of up to 147 km / h], designed to carry 2-3 passengers, created in TsAGI (1924) under the direction of V. L. Alexandrov and V. V. Kalinin. In the 1920s design bureaus (KB) of N. N. Polikarpov, A. N. Tupolev, D. P. Grigorovich, K. A. Kalinin are organized. In 1922, the first samples of a domestic aluminum alloy, chain-aluminum, were obtained, which marked the beginning of the development of all-metal structures in the Soviet aircraft industry. On February 9, 1923, the Council for Civil Aviation was established (the official date of birth of civil aviation in the USSR).
The first domestic serial reconnaissance aircraft - R-1 Polikarpov (1923). His training aircraft U-2 (Po-2), thanks to its excellent flight qualities and unique scale of production (in 1928–59, more than 40 thousand aircraft were built), became one of the outstanding aircraft in the history of aviation. The first large-scale domestic aircraft engine was installed on the U-2 air-cooled M 11 with a power of 73.5 kW designed by A. D. Shvetsov, which later found wide application in light aircraft. In the Design Bureau of A. N. Tupolev, which was part of TsAGI in 1922–36, for the first time in the country they began to develop all-metal aircraft. The heavy bombers created in the Design Bureau - the twin-engine TB-1 (ANT-4) and the four-engine TB-3 (ANT-6) - are the first heavy aircraft in the world made according to the scheme of a cantilever (without external wing attachment elements) monoplane. The I-2bis aircraft of Grigorovich is the first domestic fighter put into service, which made it possible in 1925 to exclude foreign aircraft from the military aviation fleet. In the 1920s the activity of A.S. Yakovlev to an aircraft designer. On his sports aircraft AIR-1, the first (unofficial) world records were achieved in the USSR in 1927 (pilot Yu. I. Piontkovsky). In 1929 N.I. Kamov and N.K. Skrzhinsky built the country's first autogyro KASKR-1.
The main trend in the development of world aviation in the 1930s. associated with an increase in flight speed, mainly as a result of a decrease in the aerodynamic drag of the aircraft. Aircraft began to be built mainly according to a monoplane scheme with retractable landing gear in flight, streamlined engine hoods, closed cockpits, and smooth (instead of corrugated) metal skin. More powerful aircraft engines were developed, superchargers for engine pressurization (in order to maintain its power at altitude), propellers with variable pitch in flight (for more efficient use of engine power in various flight modes), radio navigation systems, autopilots, anti-icing systems and etc. The first all-metal monoplane passenger aircraft were created (Boeing 247 and DC-3, USA). The Boeing 307 was the first aircraft to have a pressurized cabin for passengers, allowing passenger planes to fly at high altitudes; however, such aircraft became more common later. Airworthy helicopters were demonstrated in Germany (FA 61 by G. Focke) and the USA (VS-300 by I. I. Sikorsky).
The armament of combat aircraft underwent a significant improvement - aircraft guns began to be widely used, the rate of fire of machine-gun and cannon weapons increased, and the number of firing points on the aircraft increased. Received further development of work on rotary-wing aircraft. The experience gained in the construction, testing and development of autogyros played a certain role in solving the problems of creating helicopters. In a number of countries, experimental designs of helicopters were developed with a consistent increase in speed, altitude and duration of flight, stability of the device and flight performance. Reached to con. 1930s the level of flight performance ensured the transition to the subsequent development of the helicopter for practical purposes.
In the 1930s in the USSR, the network of flying clubs, which played an important role in the training of flight personnel, was actively expanding, new educational institutions, design bureaus and aviation research organizations were organized. New aircraft-building and aircraft-engine plants were put into operation, experimental and experimental aircraft were built, on which new scientific and technical ideas and designs were tested. During this period, under the leadership of A.N. Tupolev, the giant for that time aircraft ANT-14 "Pravda" (first flight in 1931) and ANT-20 "Maxim Gorky" were created (the first flight on 17.6.1934 lasting 35 minutes was made by a crew led by test pilot M. M. Gromov; crew 20 people, personnel 8 people, passengers 72 people; speed 220-260 km/h; flight range 1200 km; practical ceiling 7500 m; power 8 × 900 l. With. = 8 × 662 kW = 5296 kW). Aircraft built according to the designs of G. I. Bakshaev, R. L. Bartini, V. N. Belyaev, P. D. Grushin, K. A. Kalinin, A. S. Moskalev, I. V. Chetverikov differed in original technical solutions , B. I. Cheranovsky, V. A. Chizhevsky and others. TsAGI began work on autogyros and helicopters. I. P. Bratukhin, B. N. Yuryev, N. I. Kamov, M. L. Mil, V. A. Kuznetsov, N. K. Skrzhinsky, A. M. Cheryomukhin and others took part in the creation of these aircraft. In the USSR, the first experimental helicopter (TsAGI 1-EA) was built in 1930. In 1932, Cheryomukhin reached a height of 605 m on it, significantly exceeding the official world record, then equal to 18 m. To strengthen the country's defense capability, the USSR began large-scale production of I-15 fighters, I-16, I-153 (Polikarpov), TB-3 and SB bombers (Tupolev), MBR-2 seaplanes (G. M. Beriev) and other aircraft. The industry constantly replenished the fleet of passenger aircraft with new machines: ANT-9 and ANT-35 by A. N. Tupolev, Kalinin’s K-5, Steel-2 and Steel-3 by A. I. Putilov, KhAI-1 I. G Neman, Li-2 (licensed DC-3) and others. 1930s serial production of newly created combat aircraft began: bombers TB-7 (Pe-8) and Pe-2 V. M. Petlyakov, bomber DB-3F (Il-4), LaGG-3 fighters S. A. Lavochkin, V. P Gorbunov and M. I. Gudkov, MiG-1 and MiG-3 A. I. Mikoyan and M. I. Gurevich, Yak-1 A. S. Yakovlev, Su-2 multi-purpose aircraft P. O. Sukhoi, Ar bombers -2 A. A. Arkhangelsky and Yer-2 V. G. Ermolaev, attack aircraft IL-2"Flying tank" S. V. Ilyushin (the most massive combat aircraft in the history of Azerbaijan; began operation in 1941, one piston engine, produced in single - pilot, and double versions - pilot and air gunner, speed up to 414 km / h, practical ceiling 5500 m, built about 36180 aircraft of various modifications). At the Institute of Aviation Motors, in the Design Bureau of V. Ya. Klimov, A. A. Mikulin, A. S. Nazarov, A. D. Shvetsov, aircraft engines of increased power and reliability were created. 1930s were marked by many remarkable achievements of Soviet pilots, including the rescue of the Chelyuskinites (its participants are pilots A. V. Lyapidevsky, S. A. Levanevsky, V. S. Molokov, N. P. Kamanin, M. T. Slepnev, M. V Vodopyanov, I. V. Doronin became the first Heroes of the Soviet Union in the country), the first Arctic air expedition, outstanding flights of the crews of V. P. Chkalov, M. M. Gromov, V. S. Grizodubova, record flights of V. K. Kokkinaki, A. B. Yumashev and others aviators.
Before the start of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet military aviation withstood tests in battles near Lake Khasan and on the Karelian Isthmus, as well as near the Khalkhin-Gol River (here, Soviet aviation successfully used air-to-air missile weapons for the first time). Soviet pilots bravely fought in the skies of Spain and China. During the years of the 2nd World War, the total production of aircraft in the world amounted to more than 750 thousand. The main German combat aircraft were Me 109 (Messerschmitt) and FW 190 (Focke-Wulf) fighters, He.111 (Heinkel) bombers , Ju87 and Ju88 ("Junkers"). For the bombing of English cities, V-1 projectiles with a pulsating air-jet engine and V-2 ballistic missiles were used (see Fau). In the initial period of the war, despite the extremely difficult conditions associated with the relocation of many aircraft factories to the eastern regions of the country, the aviation industry increased the production of combat vehicles, and already in 1942 the USSR surpassed Germany in annual production of aircraft.
The allies of the USSR used bombers: Handley Page "Halifax" (started operation in 1939, four PDs, 6176 aircraft built), Avro Lancaster (started operation in 1942, four PDs, built approx. 7400 aircraft) and De Havilland "Mosquito" ( start of operation in 1941, two PDs with supercharging compressors, built about 7780 aircraft) - all Great Britain; Boeing B-17 "Flying Fortress" (commissioned from 1938, all-metal heavy bomber, four APs, built c. the most massive bomber in the history of aviation) and the B-29 Superfortress (started operation in 1944, four PDs, about 4000 aircraft of all modifications were built; in August 1945 these aircraft dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) - all of the USA. Allied fighter aviation consisted of aircraft: the Hurricane Hawker (started operation in 1937, single-engine, single-seat, maximum speed at an altitude of 5486 m - 526 km / h, practical ceiling 10970 m, built approx. 14500 aircraft of various modifications), Supermarine Spitfire (beginning of operation in 1937, single-engine, single-seat, maximum speed at an altitude of 5669 m - 582 km / h, practical ceiling 10485 m, built approx. 20351 aircraft of various modifications) - all Great Britain; Lockheed P-38 "Lightning" (beginning of operation since 1941, two PDs, single-seat, maximum speed at an altitude of 7620 m - 660 km / h, practical ceiling 13410 m, built approx. 10,000 aircraft), Bell P-39 "Airacobra » , the engine was located behind the cockpit and was connected to the propeller with a long shaft (beginning of operation since 1941, one PD, single, cruising speed 528 km / h, practical ceiling 9600 m, built approx. 9580 aircraft), R-40, R- 47, North American P-51 "Mustang", the first aircraft that had a laminar wing, which gave it additional lift, reduced fuel consumption and increased flight range (beginning of operation from 1942, one PD, single, cruising speed 580 km / h , practical ceiling 12741 m, built about 17000 aircraft) - all the USA and others. The USA, Great Britain, Japan also used carrier-based aviation.
During the war years, new types of combat aircraft entered service in the USSR: Yak-7 fighters - the most massive Soviet fighter (started operation in 1941, one PD, single-seat, cruising speed 590 km / h, practical ceiling 10,000 m, 6,400 aircraft of various modifications were built), the Yak-9 is the most massive Soviet fighter of the Great Patriotic War ( start of operation in 1942, one PD, single-seat, cruising speed 570 km/h, service ceiling up to 10,750 m, 16,769 aircraft of various modifications were built), Yak-3 - Yakovlev Design Bureau; La-5 (started operation in 1942, one PD, single-seat, speed 580–648 km/h, service ceiling up to 11,200 m, about 9,900 aircraft of various modifications were built) and La-7– one of the best serial front-line fighters of the end of the 2nd World War (started operation in 1944, one PD, single-seat, speed 599-670 km / h, practical ceiling up to 11,100 m, about 5900 aircraft of various modifications were built) - Lavochkin Design Bureau; Il-10 attack aircraft, created by a deep modernization of the Il-2 attack aircraft (started operation in 1945, one PD, single-seat, speed up to 551 km / h, practical ceiling up to 7250 m, 6160 aircraft built) - Ilyushin Design Bureau; Tu-2 bomber (A. N. Tupolev). Under the leadership of A. Ya. Bereznyak and A. M. Isaev an experimental BI-1 fighter-interceptor with a liquid-propellant rocket engine was created (first flight in 1942, pilot G. Ya. Bakhchivandzhi). The need for a significant increase in the production of aviation equipment required the use of in-line and in-line assembly of aircraft and engines, as well as other high-performance technological processes. During the Great Patriotic War, the aviation industry of the USSR produced St. 125600 aircraft. During the war, St. 3 million combat sorties, as a result of which the enemy suffered heavy losses in manpower and equipment. In air battles and air strikes on airfields, 57 thousand enemy aircraft were destroyed. 2420 aviators were awarded the high title of Hero of the Soviet Union, 65 of them twice, and A. I. Pokryshkin and I. N. Kozhedub became three times Heroes of the Soviet Union.
In the same years, jet aviation began to develop, since the possibilities for a significant increase in the speed of an aircraft with a piston engine and a propeller (which reached 700–750 km / h during the war years) were practically exhausted. A further increase in speed is accompanied by a sharp increase in the aerodynamic resistance of the aircraft and a drop in the efficiency of the propeller due to the significant influence of air compressibility. Accordingly, the required power of the power plant increases, but it could not be provided with acceptable dimensions and weight of the piston engine. A qualitative leap could be provided by jet engines, which compare favorably with propeller-driven installations in smaller dimensions and weight, and a favorable dependence of thrust on flight speed.
The era of jet aviation
All R. 1940s the formation of the first generation of jet subsonic aviation began, the main type of aircraft engine became gas turbine engine(GTE). Starting from the end of the war, the first jet fighters appeared that entered service: the German Me-163V Schwalbe (entered service in 1944) - a single-seat fighter with a liquid-propellant rocket engine (LRE), Me262 (1944) with turbojet engine(TRD), He.162 (1945); British "Meteor" (1944), "Vampire" (De Havilland, 1945), "Venom" (De Havilland, 1952); American F-80s (1945) and F-84s (1947); Soviet MiG-9 (1946) and Yak-15 (1946), French MD.450 Uragan (Dassault) (1952). The speed of the aircraft reached 840–1000 km/h at altitudes from 3000 to 9000 m.
They were equipped with small arms and cannon aviation weapons, on underwing pylons they could carry aerial bombs, unguided aircraft rockets, external fuel tanks weighing up to 1000 kg. Radars were installed only on night / all-weather fighters. A characteristic feature of these aircraft is the direct wing of the glider. Aircraft belonging to the 2nd generation of subsonic aviation were created in con. 1940s - early. 1950s The most famous of them are: Soviet MiG-15 (1949) and MiG-17 (1951), American F-86 (1949), French MD.452 Mister-II (Dassault, 1952) and MD.454 Mister- IV (Dassault, 1953) and the British Hunter (Hawker, 1954). The 2nd generation fighters had a high subsonic speed. Armament and equipment remained unchanged.
Turbojet engines installed on aircraft (a type of gas turbine engine) in combination with swept and delta wings of the aircraft, providing less aerodynamic resistance, made it possible to first master transonic flight speeds, and then overcome the sound barrier (see Mach number) and reach speeds of 2000 km / h or more (M>1). In the USSR, the first serial jet fighters were the MiG-9 and Yak-15 (1946). In October 1947, pilot C. Yeager on a Bell X-1 rocket plane broke the sound barrier. In December 1948, Soviet test pilot O. V. Sokolovsky for the first time reached the speed of sound on a La-176 jet fighter (a maximum speed of 1105 km / h was reached). The first supersonic fighters - F-100 (USA, 1953) and MiG-19 (USSR, 1954), among the aircraft that overcame the speed limit of 2000 km / h - fighters F-104 (USA), Su-7 and MiG-21 (USSR). Along with jet fighters, the construction of jet (long-range and strategic) bombers began, for example, in the USA - B-47, B-52; in the UK - "Valient", "Volcano", "Victor"; in the USSR - Tu-16 (Design Bureau of A.N. Tupolev), M-4, 3M (Design Bureau of V.M. Myasishchev).
In the 1950s civil aviation also developed actively. For turboprop passenger aircraft, the flight speed exceeded 600 km / h, for jet aircraft - 800 km / h. The first jet passenger aircraft - D.H.106 "Kometa" (Great Britain, first flight 1949), Boeing 707 (USA, 1954), Tu-104 (USSR, 1955; in September 1956, the Soviet airline Aeroflot became the first airline in the world to operate regular transportation on jet aircraft), Caravel (France, 1955).
The first turboprop passenger aircraft include Vycount (UK, 1948), Fokker F.27 (Netherlands, 1955), Il-18, Tu-114, An-12 (USSR, 1957–58). Design Bureau A.M. made a great contribution to the development of gas turbine (turbojet and turboprop) engines of the first generations in the USSR. cradles , V. Ya. Klimov, A. A. Mikulin (and his successor S. K. Tumansky ), V. A. Dobrynina, A. G. Ivchenko , N. D. Kuznetsova , P. A. Solovyova .
A.'s successes in the 1950s and 60s. largely due to the fundamental research of Soviet scientists (M. V. Keldysh, S. A. Khristianovich, A. A. Dorodnitsyn, V. V. Struminsky, G. P. Svishchev, G. S. Byushgens, B. S. Stechkin, G. I. Petrov, A. I. Makarevsky, S. T. Kishkin, A. F. Belov and many others) in the field of aerodynamics, stability and controllability of aircraft, gas dynamics of air-breathing engines, new structural materials, strength of aircraft structures , flutter . In the 1960s In connection with the increase in engine power in subsonic jet aircraft, it became necessary to solve problems of reducing the noise of aircraft to levels that ensure the normal life of people, the performance of systems and equipment. This led to the intensive development of an independent branch of science - aviation acoustics .
In the 1950s serial production of helicopters began, which were widely used in civil and military aviation. In 1946, the Bell 47 helicopter (USA) received a certificate of airworthiness. In the USSR, the first serial helicopters were the Mi-1, Mi-4, Mi-6 (design bureau of M. L. Mil), Ka-15 and Ka-18 (design bureau of N. I. Kamov).
In the 1960s and 70s aviation developed in the direction of improving the flight performance of aircraft and helicopters, as well as the development of new types of aircraft. The first serial combat aircraft, the speed of which reached 3000 km/h, was the MiG-25 (USSR, 1964). Some supersonic combat aircraft were built with in-flight swept wings to obtain optimal aerodynamic characteristics over a wide range of flight speeds. The first production aircraft of this type were the F-111 fighter-bomber (USA, 1964) and the MiG-23 fighter (1967). The desire to expand the possibilities of basing combat aviation predetermined the creation of vertical takeoff and landing aircraft "Harrier" (Great Britain, 1966) and Yak-38 (1970). Turbojet engines provided the fighters with a thrust-to-weight ratio (the ratio of engine thrust to aircraft takeoff weight) of more than 1, increasing their maneuverability. Such a high thrust-to-weight ratio is also typical for aircraft with conventional takeoff and landing and was implemented in the creation of the F-14 and F-15 aircraft (USA), as well as domestic Su-27 and MiG-29. In 1967, pilot W. Knight set a speed record of Mach 6.7 (7,273 km/h) in an experimental X-15 rocket plane (USA) equipped with rocket engines. Flight altitude up to 107 km. It was the first and for 40 years the only manned hypersonic aircraft in history to perform suborbital manned space flights. In 2004, an experimental unmanned vehicle X-43A set a new aircraft speed record of 11,230 km/h.
The ancestor of heavy-duty aircraft was the wide-body (with a fuselage diameter of 6 m) An-22 Antey (O.K. Antonova), designed to carry 60 tons of cargo (he lifted over 100 tons in a record flight). On February 9, 1969, the world's first long-range double-deck wide-body passenger aircraft Boeing 747 (before the appearance of the A380, the largest, heaviest and most spacious airliner), which is still one of the most common passenger aircraft, flew. The 1st generation of wide-body aircraft also includes the DC-10, L-1011 (USA), A300 (of the Western European consortium Airbus Industrie), Il-86 (USSR). The significant capacity of wide-body aircraft (up to 400 people and more) makes it possible to reduce congestion at large airports and increase the profitability of air transportation. 12/31/1968 [two months before the takeoff of a similar supersonic British-French aircraft "Concorde" (French concorde - consent)] the first flight of the Soviet supersonic passenger aircraft Tu-144 took place (it was performed by the test engineer of the Design Bureau A. N. Tupoleva E. V. Yelyan); The Tu-144 is also the first passenger airliner in history to break the sound barrier (June 5, 1969) at an altitude of 11,000 m. /h For high-speed service of certain routes, the UK and France jointly created the Concorde supersonic passenger aircraft, which was operated in 1976–2003. The Tu-144 supersonic passenger aircraft developed in the USSR was in trial operation in 1977–78. An-72 (1977) became the first short takeoff and landing transport aircraft in the USSR. Seaplanes and amphibians, such as Be-200, Be-103, A-40, formed an independent niche in the aircraft industry.
The improvement of rotorcraft continued. The experimental Mi-12 helicopter had no equal in terms of carrying capacity (design load 25 tons, record - more than 40 tons), which made its first flight in 1967. Among the serial helicopters in terms of carrying capacity, the best was the Mi-26 (20 tons). 8 world records were set on the Ka-22 experimental rotorcraft. Specialized combat helicopters AN-1 (USA), K-25 (USSR) were created. In 1982, the first flight was made by the Soviet / Russian single-seat attack helicopter Ka-50 (known as the "Black Shark"; began operation in 1995), designed to destroy armored and mechanized vehicles, air targets and manpower on the battlefield. Its further development was the Russian reconnaissance and attack helicopter of the new generation Ka-52 Alligator (first flight in 1997, start of operation in 2011). The machine is capable of hitting armored and unarmored vehicles, manpower and air targets on the battlefield. In the USSR, the new leaders of the leading design teams successfully continued the creative traditions of the domestic school of aircraft construction (G. V. Aviasalon). In 1981–2003, improved models of a new generation were created in almost all classes of aircraft. The carrying capacity of transport aircraft has radically increased, the Antonov Design Bureau created the An-124 Ruslan aircraft (with a carrying capacity of 150 tons) and the An-225 Mriya (250 tons). In the United States, a V-22 transport aircraft of a convertible (convertible) scheme has been developed - with propellers that turn in flight (with takeoff and landing “like a helicopter”). In 1988–90, the world's first experiments on the use of cryogenic fuel (liquid hydrogen and methane) were carried out on a Tu-155 aircraft. In 1986, D. Rutan and J. Yeager (USA) made the first non-stop round-the-world flight without in-flight refueling on the Voyager experimental aircraft. To overcome air defense systems, some samples of combat aircraft began to be manufactured using the Stealth technique, making them hardly noticeable to ground-based radar stations. The first such aircraft were the F-117 fighter and the B-2 strategic bomber (USA). In 1997, in Russia, the Design Bureau of P. O. Sukhoi created an aircraft with a reverse-swept wing Su-47 "Berkut" - a prototype of the 5th generation fighter capable of maintaining stability and controllability at high angles of attack, conducting all-aspect shelling in close air combat, and also multi-channel missile firing at long range. For studying the atmosphere and other scientific research, conducting intelligence and military operations in the USA, Russia, Israel, etc. countries apply unmanned aerial vehicles(UAV) and unmanned remotely piloted aerial vehicles (RPV), in which power plants use internal combustion engines, turbojet engines, as well as solar energy (electricity generated by solar panels served to drive propellers). Achievements in aviation technology largely contributed to the development of astronautics. The combination of the advantages of aviation and space technology is embodied in reusable manned transport spacecraft, the first representatives of which were in the 1980s. Space Shuttle (USA) and Buran (USSR).
In the beginning. 21st century aviation is capable of solving a wide range of transport, economic and military tasks. Air transport covers almost all regions of the world with its routes. Civil aviation has become a powerful sector of the economy, providing 2.2 trillion. dollars of world GDP and employment of 56 million people. around the world (2014 data). Every year, air transport companies of the countries participating in the International Civil Aviation Organization transport St. 2600 million passengers, the world fleet (as of 2015) has more than 23600 mainline and regional aircraft. A huge achievement of civil aviation in the 21st century was the creation of a concern"Airbus" (formerly "Airbus Industrie" ) wide-body double-deck four-engine jet passenger aircraft Airbus A380 (first flight in 2005, start of operation - 2007). This is the largest serial airliner in the world (height 24.08 m, length 72.75 m, wingspan 79.75 m). The capacity is 525 passengers in the cabin of three classes, 853 passengers– in a single class configuration. It can make non-stop flights up to 15,400 km.
In military aviation, along with its traditional types (kinds) - fighter, bomber, military transport, reconnaissance - special aviation is gaining more and more development, whose tasks include early warning of air and ground targets, combat operations management, electronic warfare and etc. Combat aircraft year by year receive more and more advanced electronics, more powerful means of combat, their speed increases, their visibility on the radar screens decreases. With the advent of new high-precision munitions, new communication systems and satellite navigation and target designation, the role and power of the air force has increased many times over.
Now the leading aviation powers are engaged in the creation of a 5th generation fighter. Such an aircraft should have low visibility in all wavelength ranges, primarily in the radar and infrared, be multifunctional, extremely maneuverable, have supersonic cruising speed and achieve it without afterburner (see Fig. Afterburner), be able to conduct an all-angle close combat and carry out multi-channel firing of missiles at a long range. The 5th generation aircraft must have such avionics that would greatly facilitate the work of the pilot. The United States is armed with the F-22 Raptor fighters (a prototype was tested in 1997) and the F-35 Lightning. The aircraft passed the testing stage, put into production and put into service. A new generation aircraft has already been created in Russia - PAK-FA (promising aviation complex of front-line aviation), aka T-50. The aircraft fully meets all the requirements for 5th generation fighters: it is hardly noticeable (including thanks to a combination of stealth technologies and electronic warfare), has supersonic cruising speed, is capable of maneuvering with high Gs, is equipped with advanced electronics, and is multifunctional. The T-50 has an integrated airframe, made according to the normal aerodynamic scheme with a high-lying trapezoidal wing in plan, smoothly connected to the fuselage. The aircraft first took to the air in 2010, in 2011 it was first shown to the general public at the MAKS air show, the start of operation is scheduled for 2017. The Tupolev company is developing a promising long-range aviation complex (PAK DA, first flight in 2019, start of operation in 2025). In 2016, tests of the MiG-35 multifunctional fighter of the “4++” generation were carried out (first flight 11/24/2016; start of operation– 2018) . Work is underway to create a promising deck helicopter Ka-40. The helicopter is made according to the traditional for the company"Kamov" coaxial scheme with two rotors of opposite rotation. The use of a coaxial scheme allows to reduce the overall dimensions, which is very important for ship-based helicopters. It is planned to supply two new gas turbine engines TVa-3000 with a take-off power of 1864 kW each to the Ka-40.
Now the Russian state has set a strategic task to return the Russian aviation industry to the frontiers lost in recent years, occupying 10–15% of the global civil aircraft sales market in 2020-2025 and once again bring Russia to the leaders of the world aircraft industry. For this purpose, since 2011, the Russian short-haul passenger aircraft Sukhoi Superjet 100 developed by Sukhoi Civil Aircraft (with the participation of a number of foreign companies) has been operated. Sukhoi Superjet 100» ), which in the domestic market should replace the obsolete Tu-134 and Yak-42. The development of a medium-range wide-body aircraft Tu-204SM is underway, which is an improved version of the Tu-204 and is designed to replace the outdated Tu-154. One of the important civil aviation projects for 2010-16 is the construction of short- and medium-haul aircraft MS-21 (“main aircraft of the 21st century”) with a flight range of up to 6.4 thousand km and a capacity of 130 to 212 passengers (first flight - 28.5 .2017). In 2019, it is planned to start operating a light transport aircraft of the new generation Il-112 to replace An-26 aircraft and others.
And, well. 1. Theory and practice of movement in near-Earth airspace on aircraft heavier than air. Aviation development. 2. The totality of aircraft; air fleet. Civil Aviation. Military aviation. [French] aviation] Small Academic Dictionary
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This publication provides complete information about the aviation of the USSR during the Second World War - bombers, attack aircraft, fighters and reconnaissance aircraft, as well as seaplanes of that time. The publication contains facts from the history of the creation of aircraft, their flight characteristics are given, their design and armament are shown, accompanied by a large number of drawings, photographs and diagrams. It is intended both for those who are interested in military equipment and for a wide range of readers.... Further
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