First cards
Geographic maps have a long history.
Once upon a time, travelers on a long journey did not have maps or navigation devices - nothing that would allow them to determine their location. I had to rely on my memory, the Sun, the Moon and the stars. People made sketches of places they managed to visit - this is how the first maps appeared.
Since ancient times, maps have been one of the most important documents for any state. The rulers of many countries organized expeditions to explore unknown lands and the main goal of all travelers was, first of all, the compilation of detailed geographical maps with drawing on them the most important landmarks: rivers, mountains, villages and cities.
The modern name “Card” comes from the Latin “charte” meaning “letter”. Translated, "chartes" means "a sheet or scroll of papyrus for writing."
It is difficult to determine when the first cartographic images appeared. Among the archaeological finds on all continents, one can see primitive drawings of the area made on stones, bone plates, birch bark, a tree, the age of which scientists determine at about 15 thousand years.
The simplest cartographic drawings were already known in the conditions of primitive society, even before the birth of writing (appendix). This is evidenced by primitive cartographic images of peoples who, at the time of their discovery or study, were at low levels of social development and did not have a written language (Eskimos of North America, Nanai of the Lower Amur, Chukchi and Oduls of northeastern Asia, Micronesians of Oceania, etc.) ).
These drawings, made on wood, bark, etc. and often distinguished by great likelihood, they served to satisfy the needs arising from the conditions of the general labor of people: to indicate the paths of migrations, hunting places, etc.
Preserved cartographic images, carved on the rocks in the era of primitive society. Particularly remarkable are the Bronze Age rock paintings in the Camonica Valley (Northern Italy), and among them is a plan showing cultivated fields, paths, streams and irrigation canals. This plan is one of the oldest cadastral plans.
Before their appearance, oral stories were the main source of information about the location of a particular object. But as people began to travel more and more distant distances frequently, it became necessary to store information for a long time.
The earliest surviving cartographic images include, for example, a city plan on the wall of Chatal-Huyuk (Turkey), dating from about 6200 BC. e., map-like image on a silver vase from Maikop (about 3000 BC), cartographic images on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (about 2300 BC), numerous petroglyph maps of the Valcamonica in Italy (1900 –1200 BC), the Egyptian map of gold mines (1400 BC), etc. From Babylon, through the Greeks, the Western world inherited the sixagesimal numeral system, based on the number 60, in which geographic coordinates are expressed today.
Early cartographers themselves were collecting descriptions of various parts of the world known by that time, interviewing sailors, soldiers and adventurers and displaying the data obtained on a single map, and filling the missing places with their imagination or honestly leaving unpainted blank spots.
The first maps contained a huge number of inaccuracies: at first, no one even thought about the severity of measurements, scales, topographic signs. But even such cards were highly valued. With their help, it was possible to repeat the path traversed by the discoverer, and avoid the troubles that many travelers lay in wait for.
Since the VI century. BC BC, the main contribution to the technology of creating maps in the ancient world was made by the Greeks, Romans and Chinese.
Unfortunately, Greek maps of that time have not survived, and the contribution of the Greeks to the development of cartography can be estimated only from textual sources - the works of Homer, Herodotus, Aristotle, Strabo and other ancient Greeks - and subsequent cartographic reconstructions.
Greek contributions to cartography consisted in the use of geometry to create maps, in the development of cartographic projections, and in the measurement of the earth.
It is believed that the ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the Creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water.
The ancient Greeks were well aware of the spherical shape of the Earth, since they observed its rounded shadow during periods of lunar eclipses, saw ships emerge from the horizon and disappear behind it.
The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes (circa 276-194 BC) as early as the 3rd century BC. NS. quite accurately calculated the size of the globe. Eratosthenes wrote Geography, first using the terms geography, latitude and longitude. The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphraged are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.
As noted above, Eratosthenes proved the sphericity of the Earth and measured the radius of the globe, and Hipparchus (about 190–125 BC) invented and used a system of meridians and parallels for cartographic projections.
In the Roman Empire, cartography was put at the service of practice. Roadmaps were created for military, commercial and administrative needs. The most famous of them is the so-called Peitinger's table (copy of a map of the 4th century), which is a scroll of 11 glued sheets of parchment 6 m 75 cm long and 34 cm wide.It shows the road network of the Roman Empire from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges, which is about 104,000 km, with rivers, mountains, settlements.
The culmination of the cartographic works of the Roman period was the eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography" by Claudius Ptolemy (90–168), where he generalized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe; indicating the coordinates of many geographic points in latitude and longitude; which sets out the basic principles of creating maps and provides the geographical coordinates of 8000 points. And, which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.
Ptolemy's "Geography" contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available at that time. The maps attached to it were very accurate. They have a degree grid.
Ptolemy made a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas.
The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time were quite accurately depicted, which cannot be said about the lesser-known regions of Asia, recreated by dream on the basis of fragmentary, often contradictory geographical information and data.
8000 (eight thousand) points from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted according to coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and most were plotted along the routes.
The map is stretched out towards the east. Half of the map is allocated to famous countries. In its southern part, a huge continent is depicted, called the Unknown Land.
Cartography in China developed independently of European traditions. The oldest surviving documents from the country's official surveying and mapping dates back to the Zhou Dynasty (1027–221 BC). And the most ancient Chinese maps that have survived are considered to be maps on bamboo plates, silk and paper, found in the Fanmatan graves of the Qin (221–207 BC) and Western Han (206 BC - 25 g) graves. AD) dynasties, as well as in the Mawandu graves of the Western Han Dynasty.
These maps are comparable to topographic maps in terms of their image and detail. In terms of accuracy, they significantly exceeded even later European maps.
The main Chinese contribution to the creation of maps consisted in the invention no later than the 2nd century. BC NS. the paper on which the maps began to be compiled, and the rectangular grid of coordinates, which was first used by the great Chinese astronomer and mathematician Zhang Heng (78–139 AD). In the future, Chinese cartographers invariably used a rectangular grid of coordinates.
A century later, the Chinese cartographer Pei Xiu (224–271) developed mapping principles based on the use of a rectangular grid of coordinates, as well as principles for measuring distances based on the laws of geometry.
Invention by the Chinese in the VIII century. typography allowed them to be the first in world history to start printing maps. The first surviving printed Chinese map dates from 1155.
Medieval maps
In the early Middle Ages, cartography declined.
After the collapse in the IV century. In the Roman Empire, the scientific and cartographic achievements of Ancient Greece and Rome were forgotten in Europe for several centuries. Until the X century. some revival in the creation of maps was observed only in monasteries, where, to illustrate theological works, small schematic maps of the world were placed - mappae mundi, depicting the Earth in the form of a circle divided into five heat zones.
The question of the shape of the Earth ceased to be important for the philosophy of that time; many again began to consider the Earth flat. The so-called T and O maps became widespread, on which the surface of the Earth was depicted as consisting of a disc-shaped land surrounded by the ocean (letter O).
The land was depicted as divided into three parts Europe, Asia and Africa. Europe from Africa was separated by the Mediterranean Sea (the lower part of the letter T), Africa from Asia by the Nile River (the right side of the T crossbar), and Europe from Asia by the Don River (Tanais) (the left side of the T crossbar).
Cartographers of that time, hiding their geographical ignorance, filled the map with various artistic drawings: deserts and forests were "populated" by wild animals, habitable places were filled with figures of people, the seas were decorated with drawings of ships and sea animals.
Against the background of the decline of geography and cartography in Europe during the early Middle Ages, Arab cartography developed successfully (in general, Greek culture reached the Europeans mainly thanks to the Arabs). The Arabs improved the methods of determining the latitude of Ptolemy, they learned to use observations of the stars instead of the Sun. This has improved the accuracy. Here in Baghdad, in the IX century. was translated into Aramaic and then into Arabic "Geography" by Ptolemy.
The flourishing of Arab cartography is associated with the name of the Arab geographer and cartographer Idrisi (1100 - c. 1165), who created a map of the then known part of the world on a silver plate measuring 3.5 x 1.5 m, as well as on 70 sheets of paper. An interesting feature of the Idrisi map, like other maps drawn by the Arabs, is that the south was depicted at the top of the map.
The spread of the compass in the Mediterranean from the X-XI centuries and the needs of merchant shipping caused the appearance here at the end of the XIII century. the first navigational charts - portolan charts, or compass charts. Catalonia is considered their homeland. Portolan maps depicted in detail the coastline of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, indicated many geographical names, and at a number of points were drawn compass grids indicating the position of the cardinal points and intermediate directions.
In addition, some of them depicted the Atlantic coast from Denmark to Morocco and the British Isles. In the second half of the 15th century. numerous images of compass roses began to be placed on portolan maps. The oldest surviving Portolan map is the Pisa Map, dating from around the end of the 13th century.
A certain revolution in European cartography was arranged by the introduction of the magnetic compass in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. A new type of maps has appeared - detailed compass maps of the portolan shores (portolans). A detailed depiction of the coastline on the Portolans was often combined with the simplest division into the cardinal points of the T and O maps. The first Portolan that has come down to us dates back to 1296. The Portolans served purely practical purposes, and as such cared little about the shape of the Earth.
In the middle of the XIV century, the era of the great geographical discoveries began.
Because of this, interest in cartography has also intensified. Important advances in cartography of the pre-Columbian period are Fra Mauro's map (1459, this map, in a sense, adhered to the concept of a flat earth) and "Earth's apple" - the first globe compiled by the German geographer Martin Beheim.
After the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, new advances in cartography - a whole new continent for exploration and representation appeared. The outlines of the American continent became clear already by the 1530s.
The invention of book printing greatly helped the development of cartographic business.
The next revolution in cartography was the creation of the first atlases of the Globe by Gerhardt Mercator and Abraham Ortelius. At the same time, Mercator had to create cartography as a science: he developed the theory of cartographic projections and a notation system. And the name "atlas" was introduced for the collection of maps by the Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator, who published "Atlas" in 1955.
Ortelius' atlas, entitled Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, was printed in 1570; the entire atlas of Mercator was not printed until after his death. All navigators of the 16th and early 17th centuries. used this atlas, which consisted of 70 (seventy) large-format maps, accompanied by an explanatory text.
Each map of his atlas is meticulously engraved on copper and provided with a degree grid. On the map of the hemispheres, the continents of the Old and New Worlds were depicted in full detail, but their outlines did not yet correspond to reality. One of the maps is dedicated to the Southern continent (Magellania), which stretched from the South Pole to 40-50 ° S, crossed the Tropic of Capricorn twice and was distant from South America by the Strait of Magellan. Tierra del Fuego and New Guinea were depicted as its peninsulas.
More accurate methods of determining latitudes and longitudes, the discovery of triangulation by Snell in 1615, and the improvement of instruments - geodetic, astronomical and clocks (chronometers) contribute to the increase in the accuracy of maps. Although some rather successful attempts to draw up large maps (Germany, Switzerland, etc.) were made at the end of the XIV and in the XVII centuries, but only in the XVIII century. we see great success in this regard, as well as a significant expansion of more accurate cartographic information in relation to Vost. and North. Asia, Australia, North. America, etc.
An important technical achievement of the 18th century was the development of methods for measuring heights above sea level and methods for depicting heights on maps. Thus, it became possible to take topographic maps. The first topographic maps were taken in the 18th century in France.
The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists suggest, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Big Drawing", and its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have not reached us. Only the appendix to the map has survived - "The Book of the Big Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activities of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.
Thus, the geographical map is the greatest creation of humanity. It serves as a wonderful means of cognition and transformation of the surrounding world. It is approached by engineers and researchers, geologists and agronomists, scientists and the military, and everyone finds the right answers to their questions.
When working with a map, it is possible to simultaneously survey a significant surface area or the entire surface of the Earth.
Only a map allows you to see and study the relative position of continents and city quarters, traffic flows between countries and bird flight routes.
Using the map, you can draw conclusions about many processes, processes and patterns of our planet. On some maps, you can see the ocean floor, the structure of the earth's crust, ice sheets of the past, and even look into the future.
The primitive drawings of the area found by archaeologists on stones, birch bark, wood, and even on a piece of mammoth tusk, whose age reaches about 15 thousand years, indicate that the origin of the map goes back to the distant past.
So, the map is not just the most important source of geographical knowledge, but a special means of information, it cannot be replaced by either text or a living word.
Heading:It is impossible to determine when they appeared. Among the archaeological finds on all continents, one can see primitive drawings on stones, on bone plates, on birch bark, on a tree - these are maps of the immediate surroundings. The maps of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians have come down to us. In the past and present centuries, travelers have constantly turned to the cartographic art of the indigenous population. Their maps were invaluable to those who discovered and mapped unexplored lands.
The French traveler Henri Duveyrier in 1859 visited the central Sahara, in the areas where the Tuaregs lived. He was unable to explore the Ahaggar Highlands, and he plotted it on his map according to the data provided to him by Sheikh Otkhan, who fashioned the entire relief of the Highlands from wet sand. Other sources speak of the same relief maps of the Tuareg.
The southern neighbors of the Tuareg, the Fulbe, also mastered the art of cartography. The ruler of Sokoto, Sultan Belo, painted on the sand for the English major Hugh Clapperton the Quorra River along its entire course, with all the bends, bends, tributaries, and allowed his map to be redrawn on paper. The French traveler Victor Largeau wrote in 1876 that a Fulbian blacksmith drew a schematic map for him on the sand from Tripoli to Timbuktu (the difference in latitude between these points is as much as 16 degrees).
Professor K. Whale at the beginning of this century, crossing from the village of Lindi to Massassi, received from the negro Pesa Mbili a primitive map of his path. Lindy was depicted in the lower right corner, Massassi in the upper left. Individual huts and even the house of the traveler himself with its internal location were marked on the map. Edward Robert Flegel showed the leader Abdulrahman a map of a part of Africa - the land of the Fulbe people and neighboring tribes. The chief, together with one of his advisers, corrected this map by making a blueprint in the sand.
When in 1840-1843 the English geographer C. T. Bik studied the sources of the Nile, he received from the Muslim Omar-ibn-Neji, a resident of these places, a simple, small map of the Sobat River basin, a tributary of the White Nile.
Russian scientist Alexander Fedorovich Middendorf (1815-1894) argued that most Siberian Tungus can quickly draw a map of their surroundings on the sand or snow.
Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin, a Russian revolutionary and geographer, in the 70s of the XIX century, traveling across Transbaikalia, was guided by a map that was cut out for him on a birch bark by one tungus.
For the remarkable Russian geographer, ethnographer and anthropologist Dmitry Nikolaevich Anuchin, when he traveled across Siberia in 1906, a local resident Shigal drew a map of the area of the Yenisei River and its tributary, which is below the village of Lebedev.
He depicted the direction of the flow of the Yenisei with the help of a silhouette of a duck flying in a spring flight, and the south with a drawing of the sun as its symbol. At first Shigal drew the sun not exactly in the south, but then he corrected his mistake. He marked the forest with two fir. Anuchin recognized the map as very good.
The evidence of V. Yokhelson has survived, who at the end of the 9th century carried out a geographical and ethnographic study of the Kolyma region. He received from local residents two small maps made on birch bark. The maps depicted the Kolyma with its tributaries Korkodon and Rassokha, and next to them - villages and hunting grounds.
When L. Shtrenberg traveled across Sakhalin, one Nivkh was his guide, who made a map of the southern part of Sakhalin for him. He drew the path of the vessel "Baikal" from the village of Korsakovskaya to Aleksandrovsk and those protrusions of the mainland, past which they sailed.
Australian aborigines especially amazed travelers with their maps. There were tribes who lived, perhaps, at the lowest stage of social development, almost at the level of the Stone Age, and many of these people were able to draw on a stone or on a piece of tree bark a surprisingly accurate plan of the surroundings.
In South Australia, there are drawings made on truncheons. These drawings have the meaning of possessive and tribal symbols, but, in fact, depict the area in which the tribe lives. So, for example, in the drawing here, the native depicted the Broken River and the swamp in New South Wells. This is a map of the territory that his tribe occupies - between the swamp and the river.
Quite different and highly original maps were created by the inhabitants of the Marshall Islands and Polynesia - cards from sticks The natives used them in their voyages between the islands of the archipelago. The first news of these maps was brought to Europe by the German consul F. Gernsheim. There are now about 50 such cards in European collections. They are made of thin sticks located in different directions to each other - straight, at an angle, and shells or pebbles are attached to them. All this is connected by threads of palm fibers. The sticks show the direction of sea currents and the most convenient routes in navigation. Pebbles or shells represent islands.
Augustine Cramer, traveling in the South Pacific in 1897-1899, saw a map of the Marshall Islands drawn in a notebook from one of the native leaders - in shape and outlines it resembled stick maps.
One of the first news about the maps of the Polynesians was brought by James Cook (1728-1779). His guide in the voyage of 1776 was the Polynesian leader Tupaya. Naturally quick-witted, Tupaya knew Polynesia very well. According to his information, a map was drawn up of the area located between 130 ° -170 ° west longitude and 7 ° -27 ° south latitude. The map depicted an area of 9,200 km2 and 80 islands were marked on it. The map has not survived to our time, but there are two copies of it.
Travelers left very interesting information about the cartographic abilities of the Eskimos - both from the north of Canada and Alaska, and from Greenland. The English explorer of the Arctic, William Edward Parry, studied the Hudson Bay area in 1821-1823. The Eskimo Iliglyuk made a sketch for him, with which in July 1822 Parry discovered the strait between Melville Peninsula and Baffin Island. The Eskimos helped Frederick William Beeche on his journey through the Bering Strait to Kotzebue Bay: they drew a map for him on the ground, marking mountains and islands with stones, and fishing villages with sticks stuck in the ground.
In 1848-1859, English captain Francis Leopold McClintock took part in the expedition to rescue polar explorer John Franklin. Valuable information was given to McClintock by the Eskimos: they drew maps of the coast of Elio Bay and other places of the coast, even indicated the position of the skeletons of both of Franklin's ships that were lost. McClintock especially appreciated the maps drawn for him by the Eskimos A-Wah-Lah and Ov-Wang-Noot.
Beginning in 1883, F. Boa conducted research in the Hudson Bay area. Many Eskimos and Eskimos made various outline maps for him. The most interesting of these is the one that depicts the Bechler Islands in Hudson Bay. The islands are drawn with amazing accuracy, the image almost completely coincides with the then map of the British navy.
Many travelers noted that the Eskimos, who for the first time in their lives took a pencil in their hands, could very accurately and in detail depict the outlines of their coast. The extraordinary abilities of the Eskimos for orientation were also described by the American geographer Boise. In 1898, the Eskimo Nuktan, a resident of North Greenland, drew him a map of Smith Bay, marking areas with and without eternal glaciers on it. Later data showed that this is a very accurate drawing.
Danish ethnologist Kai Birketsmith talks about maps of a very special kind. These are relief maps that the East Greenlandic Eskimos carved out of wood. One of these maps is kept in the National Museum of Copenhagen. The map consists of two parts that are not connected with each other: the left part shows the east coast of Greenland, on the right, narrower, a chain of islands located in front of the coast.
Canadian polar explorer Villalmoor Stefanson noted an interesting feature in the Eskimo maps: they depict everything that they consider important to themselves, for example, boat docks. And the mountains along the coast are not important to them, they do not depict them.
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
"KHARKOV POLYTECHNICAL INSTITUTE"
DEPARTMENT "INFORMATION SYSTEMS"
abstract
on the topic: "The history of the creation of geographical maps"
on the course "Cartography"
Completed:
1st year student Afonina Ekaterina Viktorovna group VK-345 _______ Date of completion ____________________________
Checked by: ____________________________
Valday - 3
INTRODUCTION
Cartography is the science of mapping and understanding natural and socio-economic geosystems through maps as models. Cartography also exists as a field of technology and technology for the creation and use of cartographic products and as a branch of production that produces cartographic products (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). The development of computerization has expanded the understanding of cartography; its interests also include technologies for creating electronic maps, databases and banks of digital cartographic information.
Cartography originated in ancient times; there are even references to maps in the Bible. The first guides to cartography were compiled by ancient Greek. the scientist K. Ptolemy. Ancient cartographers created geographical maps that took into account the sphericity of the Earth and provided with a degree grid. The heyday of cartography falls on the era of the Renaissance and the great geographical discoveries. The authors of the famous world maps and the first atlases were the Dutch cartographers G. Mercator and A. Ortelius. In Russia, the development of cartography is associated with the names of S. U. Remezov, V. N. Tatishchev, F. F. Schubert, A. I. Mende, I. A. Strelbitsky, A. A. Ilyin, A. A. Tillo. In the 19th century. active differentiation of earth sciences contributed to the formation of thematic cartography. A significant contribution to domestic science was made by the works of F.N. Krasovsky, V.V. Kavraisky, N.A. Urmaev, G.A.Ginzburg on mathematical cartography, K.A. Aslanikashvili, A.A. Lyutoy on cartography, cartographic semiotics and general theory of cartography, and Yu.M. Shokalsky on marine cartography, N.N. Baransky and A.I. Preobrazhensky on economic and geographical mapping, M.I. s.-kh. mapping, I.P. Zarutskaya on thematic cartography, A.M.Berlyant on the theory and cartographic method of research, L.A. Goldenberg, A.V. Postnikov on the history of cartography, etc.
Part of the Roman road map (4th century). A scroll map showing the roads of the Roman Empire from Britain to India
There are several concepts that interpret the subject and method of cartography in different ways. The model-cognitive concept considers it as the science of cognizing reality through cartographic modeling, and the map itself as a model of reality. According to the communicative concept, cartography is considered the science of transmitting spatial information, and the map is a channel of information, a means of communication. The concept of cartosemiotics considers cartography as the science of the language of the map, and the map itself as a special text composed using conventional symbols (written in the language of the map). In the 1980s. an integral geoinformation concept began to form, according to which cartography is considered as a science of information and cartographic modeling and knowledge of geosystems, closely linking it with geoinformatics, earth sciences and society.
Map of Transylvania from "Atlas" by G. Mercator - Y. Hondius (1607)
Modern cartography is an extensive system of scientific disciplines and technical branches. The general theory of cartography examines the subject and method of cartography, questions of the methodology of creating and using maps. Main theoretical developments are carried out within the framework of cartography - a general study of the map. The history of cartography studies the history of ideas, concepts, methods of science, the development of cartographic production, as well as old cartographic works. Mathematical cartography is a discipline within which cartographic projections are developed; Such a branch of cartography as the design and compilation of maps studies and develops methods and technologies for the cameral production and editing of maps of general geographic, nature, socio-economic, environmental, etc. Cartographic semiotics is a discipline dealing with systems of cartographic signs, the rules for their use. The design of maps (cartographic design) studies the theory and methods of artistic design of cartographic works, their line and color design, including by means of computer graphics. Map publishing is a technical branch dealing with the preparation of maps and atlases for publication, their reproduction and printing design. The use of maps develops the theory and methods of using cartographic products (maps, atlases, globes, etc.) in practical, scientific, cultural, educational activities. Cartographic source studies develops methods for assessing and systematizing cartographic sources, and cartographic toponymy studies geographical names, their semantic meaning from the point of view of correct transmission on maps. The objectives of this discipline include the normalization and standardization of names and terms shown on maps.
Fragment of a hypsometric map of European Russia, compiled by A.A. Tillo in 1889.
Many thematic branches have developed in cartography, such as general geographic, geological, soil, ethnographic mapping, etc. According to the method, they belong to cartography, and according to the subject, to specific sciences (geology, soil science, ethnography). With the emergence of new branches of knowledge, new sections of thematic cartography appear - for example, geoecological, geopolitical, and electoral cartography have appeared relatively recently. In terms of purpose and practical orientation, such industries as educational, scientific, tourism, navigation (sea, air navigation), engineering mapping, etc. are clearly distinguished.
There are two directions (scientific schools) in domestic cartography: geographical and engineering cartography. The geographic direction is primarily concerned with the mapping and study of geosystems and their components. At the same time, priority is given to interaction with geosciences and socio-economic disciplines. The School of Engineering Cartography focuses on technical aspects and links to the geodetic sciences. Both schools closely cooperate in the cartographic and geodetic study of the country, in the creation of large works - maps and atlases.
Cartography has two-way contacts with many philosophical, natural and technical sciences, mathematics, geodesy and in particular with remote sensing. She takes advantage of their achievements, ideas and technologies, while providing them with the field to develop their theory and methodology. Since ancient times, there have been strong contacts between cartography and art. Drawing and engraving maps has always been akin to art, and the graphics and color on maps have been influenced by different artistic styles. The design decisions of modern cards are also influenced by trends in artistic design and machine graphics.
The most fruitful modern cartography interacts with geoinformatics and computer modeling. On the basis of the integration of the two sciences, a promising direction has been formed - geoinformation mapping. At the junction with telecommunications, Internet mapping has developed, that is, the creation and placement of maps, atlases in the worldwide electronic network.
The most significant advances in cartography are considered to be comprehensive scientific reference atlases. The Great Soviet Atlas of the World in 2 volumes is world famous. (1937-1940), Marine atlas in 3 vols. (1950-1953), Physical and geographical atlas of the world (1964), Atlas of the peoples of the world (1964), Atlas of Antarctica (1966), Atlas of the oceans in 5 volumes. (1977–95), Atlas of the World (1st ed. 1954, 2nd - 1967, 3rd - 1999), Atlas of the World's Snow and Ice Resources (1997), Atlas "Nature and Resources of the Earth" in 2 vols. (1999). All rub. the country is covered with topographic maps at a scale of 1: 25,000 and 1: 100,000 - these are the largest single blocks of maps of this scale in the world. Important achievements in the field of thematic mapping are series of maps of the nature of the USSR at scales of 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 2,500,000, maps for higher education (1st series - 1950–59, 2nd series started in 1974. ), Ecological-geographical map of the Russian Federation on a scale of 1: 4,000,000 (1996), etc.
HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT
The ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water.
In the III century. BC. the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", for the first time using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude". The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphraged are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.
In the II century. AD the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy generalized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe in his eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography", which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.
Ptolemy's "geography" contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available at that time. The maps attached to it were very accurate. They have a degree grid. Ptolemy made a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time were quite accurately depicted, which cannot be said about the lesser-known regions of Asia, recreated by dream on the basis of fragmentary, often contradictory geographical information and data. 8000 (eight thousand) points of the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted by coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and most were plotted along the routes. The map is stretched out towards the east. Half of the map is allocated to famous countries. In its southern part, a huge continent is depicted, called the Unknown Land.
The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists assume, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Big Drawing", and its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have reached us. Only the supplement to the map has survived - "The Book of the Large Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activity of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.
The first globe was created by the German scientist Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in I492, the year when Christopher Columbus went to the shores of fabulous India by the western route. The globe depicted Europe, Asia, Africa, which occupy about half of the entire surface of the Earth, and there are no North and South America, Antarctica, Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans are represented as a single water basin, and in place of the Indian Ocean there are the East Indian Ocean and the Stormy South Sea, separated by a vast archielago of islands. The outlines of the oceans and continents are far from real, since the basis for the creation of the globe was based on information based on the ideas of ancient geographers and data from Arab and other travelers who visited the countries of the East, India and China.
Tasks To study additional literature on this topic To get acquainted with the role, meaning of the map, paying special attention to what impact it has on the development of the country Trace the "fate" of the geographical map from "birth" to the present. Purpose: to get acquainted with the history of the creation of a geographical map
Introduction. Cartography is the science of mapping and understanding natural and socio-economic geosystems through maps as models. Cartography originated in ancient times; there are even references to maps in the Bible. The first guides to cartography were compiled by ancient Greek. the scientist K. Ptolemy. The heyday of cartography falls on the era of the Renaissance and the great geographical discoveries. The authors of the famous world maps and the first atlases were the Dutch cartographers G. Mercator and A. Ortelius. In Russia, the development of cartography is associated with the names of S. U. Remezov, V. N. Tatishchev, F. F. Schubert,
The ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water. In the III century. BC. the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", for the first time using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude". The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphraged are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.
In the II century. AD the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy generalized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe in his eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography", which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.
Ptolemy made a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa, known at that time, were quite accurately depicted.
The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists assume, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Big Drawing", and its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have reached us. Only the supplement to the map has survived - "The Book of the Large Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activity of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.
Peter I considered it a matter of state importance to draw up a map of Russia, which would help in the development of little-known regions of the country, in particular in the study of the sea route from Novaya Zemlya to the "Tatar Sea" (obviously, the Pacific Ocean), where he wanted to establish shipyards for the construction of ships, so that send them to China, Japan and other countries.
Conclusion. Geographic maps don't just help us get from point A to point B. They can serve as a political tool and a snapshot of history, and can reflect the fears and prejudices of their era, says historian Jerry Brotton. One of the amazing things about geographic maps is that people are reluctant to agree with the most basic fact of cartography, which is that a map cannot be a 100% objective, accurate representation of our world. Talk to any cartographer - and he will tell you that the algorithm for turning the globe into a flat image always leads to certain distortions, to manipulation and selectivity. Simply because you cannot turn a circle into a square. But for most people who use maps day in and day out - whether it's satellite navigation, online cartography, a mobile app, or even a plain old paper map - the idea that a map is just a partial, selective snapshot of the Earth is simply unbearable.
History of the geographical map. completed: student of grade 8 and MBOU "Gymnasium" No. 5 Krezhkov Nikita
Purpose: to get acquainted with the history of the creation of a geographical map
Introduction. Cartography is the science of mapping and understanding natural and socio-economic geosystems through maps as models. Cartography originated in ancient times; there are even references to maps in the Bible. The first guides to cartography were compiled by ancient Greek. the scientist K. Ptolemy. The heyday of cartography falls on the era of the Renaissance and the great geographical discoveries. The authors of the famous world maps and the first atlases were the Dutch cartographers G. Mercator and A. Ortelius. In Russia, the development of cartography is associated with the names of S. U. Remezov, V. N. Tatishchev, F. F. Schubert,
"MAP - THE LANGUAGE OF GEOGRAPHY" tells about objects; you can find out the location; you can measure the distance; shows the state of objects.
A map is a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built according to mathematical laws using special designations.
First acquaintance with the map.
The image of the earth's surface in antiquity Drawing on a rock Drawing of the Ancient Egyptians
Paintings on old maps It is clearly seen that the area was shown with the help of well-understood sketches.
Map of Transylvania from "Atlas" by G. Mercator - Y. Hondius (1607)
The ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water. In the III century. BC. the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", for the first time using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude". The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphraged are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.
In the II century. AD the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy generalized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe in his eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography", which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.
Ptolemy made a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa, known at that time, were quite accurately depicted.
The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists assume, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Big Drawing", and its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have reached us. Only the supplement to the map has survived - "The Book of the Large Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activity of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.
Peter I considered it a matter of state importance to draw up a map of Russia, which would help in the development of little-known regions of the country, in particular in the study of the sea route from Novaya Zemlya to the "Tatar Sea" (obviously, the Pacific Ocean), where he wanted to establish shipyards for the construction of ships, so that send them to China, Japan and other countries.
Conclusion. Geographic maps don't just help us get from point A to point B. They can serve as a political tool and a snapshot of history, and can reflect the fears and prejudices of their era, says historian Jerry Brotton. One of the amazing things about geographic maps is that people are reluctant to agree with the most basic fact of cartography, which is that a map cannot be a 100% objective, accurate representation of our world. Talk to any cartographer - and he will tell you that the algorithm for turning the globe into a flat image always leads to certain distortions, to manipulation and selectivity. Simply because you cannot turn a circle into a square. But for most people who use maps day in and day out - whether it's satellite navigation, online cartography, a mobile app, or even a plain old paper map - the idea that a map is just a partial, selective snapshot of the Earth is simply unbearable.
