Classification is the division of the entire variety of living organisms into various groupings of one level or another, volume and subordination, which makes it possible to understand the indicated diversity and determine the kinship of various organisms. The discipline of taxonomy deals with the classification of organisms, as well as the description of the selected groups and the study of all related issues.
The foundations of taxonomy were laid several centuries ago - it is enough to recall the Swedish naturalist Karl Linnaeus, whose system of taxonomic ranks, created by him, continues to be used (of course, with additions) to this day. In contrast to the artificial systems originally created by man, grouping organisms according to an arbitrarily chosen characteristic (http://taxonomy.elgeran.ru).
Historically, five main kingdoms of living organisms have been distinguished: animals, plants, fungi, bacteria (or pellets) and viruses. Since 1977, two more kingdoms have also been added to them - protists and archaea. Since 1998, one more has been distinguished - chromists.
All kingdoms are united into four super kingdoms or domains: bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes and viruses. The bacterial domain includes the bacterial kingdom, the archaea domain - the archaea kingdom, the viruses domain - the virus kingdom, and the eukaryote domain - all other kingdoms (ru.wikipedia.org).
The main goals of taxonomy are:
- § name (including description) of taxa,
- § diagnostics (determining the place in the system),
- § extrapolation (that is, prediction of the features of an object) based on the fact that the object belongs to a particular taxon.
The main taxa are:
- § kingdom
- § type (department)
- § Class
- § detachment (order)
- § family
- § genus
- § view
Each previous group in this list unites several subsequent ones (for example, a family unites several genera and, in turn, belongs to some order or order). With the transition from the highest hierarchical group to the lowest, the degree of kinship increases. For a more detailed classification, auxiliary units are used, the names of which are formed by adding the prefixes "over-" and "under-" to the basic units.
Only a species can be given a relatively strict definition, all other taxonomic groups are defined rather arbitrarily
Kingdom- one of the highest taxonomic categories (ranks) in the system of the organic world.
Division (Section, Division) is one of the taxonomic categories used in plant taxonomy. Corresponds to the type in the taxonomy of animals.
Latin names of specific departments have standard endings - phyta.
Type (Typus or Phylum)- one of the largest taxonomic categories used in the taxonomy of animals, unites related classes.
The term "Type" was first proposed in 1825. A. Blainville. Types are often subdivided into subtypes. The number and volume of Types for different taxonomists ranges from 10 to 33.
Class (Class, Classis)- a taxonomic category or taxon of a rank below a division. Latin names of classes, like taxa, have a standard ending - psida.
Squad (Ordo)- in the taxonomy of animals, a taxonomic category that unites several families. Close units make up a class. In the taxonomy of plants, the order is equivalent to the order.
Suborder (Subordo)
Order One of the main categories of taxonomy, uniting related plant families. The Latin order name is usually formed by adding the ending ales to the stem of the family name. Large orders are sometimes divided into suborders (subordo). The number of orders in different phylogenetic systems is not the same (according to one system, all families of flowering plants are combined in 94 orders, according to the other - in 78).
Family- Systematic category in botany and zoology. The family brings together closely related genera with a common origin. Large families are sometimes subdivided into subfamilies. Close ones are combined into orders in animals, in orders in plants, in some cases in intermediate groups - superfamilies, suborders. Latin names of families, as taxa, have standard endings - aceae.
Genus- the main supraspecific taxonomic category, uniting phylogenetically closest to each other (closely related) species.
The scientific name of the genus is designated by one Latin word. Childbirths including only 1 species are called monotypic. Genera with several or many species are often divided into subgenera, combining species that are especially close to each other. Each genus is necessarily part of a family.
Species- the main structural unit in the system of living organisms. A species is a set of populations of individuals capable of interbreeding with the formation of fertile offspring and, as a result, giving transitional hybrid populations between local forms inhabiting a certain area, possessing a number of common morpho-physiological characteristics and types of relationships with the environment (http://cyclowiki.org/wiki ).
The main taxonomic groups of flowering
The flowering department is divided into 2 classes - dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous, the dicotyledonous class - into 8 subclasses, and the monocotyledonous - into 4 subclasses.
Department. Flowering, or angiosperms, - Magnoliophyta, or Angiospermae
Class I. Dicotyledons - Magnoliopsida, or Dicotyledones
- Subclass 1. Magnolia - Magnoliidae
- Subclass 2. Buttercup - Ranunculidae
- Subclass 3. Clove - Caryophyllidae
- Subclass 4. Witch hazel - Hamamelididae
- Subclass 5. Dilution - Dilleniidae
- Subclass 6. Rosaceae - Rosidae
- Subclass 7. Lipoids - Lamiidae
- Subclass 8. Compositae - Asteridae
Class II. Monocots - Liliopsida, or Monocotyledones
- Subclass 9. Chastukhivae - Alismatidae
- Subclass 10. Triuris - Triurididae
- Subclass 11. Liliaceae - Liliidae
- Subclass 12. Arecaceae - Arecidae
The classes of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous in the process of evolution did not differ too much, and it is difficult to clearly separate them according to any one characteristic. This is especially true of the most primitive orders of both classes, which show great similarity to each other and are probably the closest to the supposed ancestors of flowering plants. Despite this, representatives of dicotyledonous and monocotyledons usually differ without much difficulty in terms of a set of characters. Their main differences in comparative form are listed in the following table:
table 2
The main differences between representatives of dicotyledons and monocots
| Class dicotyledonous | Monocotyledonous class |
| The embryo usually has two cotyledons, which are carried above the ground during germination. | The embryo usually has one cotyledon, which remains underground when the seed germinates. |
| Leaves simple or complex, usually clearly divided into petiole and blade | Leaves are always simple, usually not clearly divided into petiole and blade |
| Leaf venation is usually pinnate or fingerlike. | Leaf veins are usually parallel or arcuate |
Continuation
| Class dicotyledonous | Monocotyledonous class |
| A secondary thickening of the stem (secondary growth) as a result of the activity of the cambium is characteristic; the conductive system of the stem in the form of a cylinder; there is a phloem parenchyma; bark and pith are well differentiated | Cambium in the axial organs and their secondary growth are absent; conducting system in the form of separate closed, diffusely located beams in the stem; phloem parenchyma is absent; there is no clearly defined bark and core |
| The primary root usually develops into a main root, from which lateral roots extend; the root system is often pivotal | The primary root dies off early, being replaced by adventitious roots; fibrous root system |
| Woody or herbaceous plants arising from woody plants on the basis of acquiring the opportunity for sexual reproduction at the early stages of individual development (neoteny) | Herbs or secondary tree-like forms that have arisen on the basis of lengthening the life span; no primary woody plants |
| Flowers are generally 5- or 4-membered at their core. | Flowers are basically 3-membered, very rarely 4- or 2-membered |
| The shell of pollen grains is predominantly 3 - furrowed | The shell of pollen grains is predominantly 1 - furrowed |
Both classes of flowering plants appear to have a common origin, but their immediate common ancestors are apparently completely extinct. Of the currently existing flowering features of both classes, representatives of the order of the nymphaean ( Nymphaeales), however, the high specialization of these aquatic plants does not allow considering them as a direct link between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILIES
CLASS SINGLE
4.1. Liliida subclass
4.1.1. Liliaceae family The Liliaceae family is the main and most primitive in the ancient order Liliales, in which the typical characters of the Monocotyledonous class are most pronounced. The taxonomy of lily flowers has not been brought to its logical conclusion. Therefore, in the scientific and educational literature there is no consensus about the species composition of the Liliaceae family. Liliaceae includes about 200 genera and up to 4000 species of perennial plants growing in different climatic zones of the globe. However, liliaceae are most widespread in the extratropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa and North America. They are especially numerous in the subtropics with periodic droughts, as well as in the steppes and semi-deserts. In mountainous regions, liliaceae reach the level of alpine meadows. In the natural flora of Belarus, there are 25 species from 15 genera, but many varieties of introduced species are used in vegetable growing and decorative gardening. The family is dominated by herbaceous plants. However, in the tropics, there are tree-like ones: Dracaena drago, Yucca carnerosana, Aloe bainesii, and the “herbaceous tree” - Australian kingia (Kingia australis) and others. Lianas (Mirziphyllum) are less common. Aloe arborescens (A. arborescens) is an indoor leaf succulent; in natural habitats, it forms the habit of a woody plant. For most liliaceae, the formation of underground bulbs characteristic of ephemeroids is characteristic (onion - Allium, lily - Lilium, tulip - Tulipa), corms (colchicum - Colchicum) or rhizomes (hellebore - Veratrum, lily of the valley - Convallaria, asparagus - Asparagus). These shoot modifications ensure that the buds of renewal are preserved during the summer heat and winter cold. Aboveground stem is straight, less often curly, leafy or leafless, called a flowering arrow. Leaves are more or less fleshy, sessile; narrow, rarely wide; whole-edged with parallel or arcuate venation. The arrangement is alternate, in the raven's eye (Paris) 4-10 leaves form a whorl on the stem. The flowers are single, like those of the crocus, or numerous, for example, in the lily of the valley. Inflorescences are very diverse: paniculate (hellebore), racemose (eremurus - Eremurus), sometimes an umbrella (onion). Flowers are actinomorphic, bisexual. The perianth is simple, usually of six loose leaves or fused into a long tube. The perianth is usually corolla-shaped, less often, like in a variegated eye, four of the eight tepals form an outer calyx-shaped circle. Androeus consists of 6, sometimes 4 or 8 stamens arranged in two circles. Gynoecium syncarpous of three carpels. The stigma is usually sessile, like that of a tulip. Ovary superior, very rarely semi-inferior; three-celled, less often one- or four-celled, with numerous ovules. Flower formula: P 3 + 3 A 3 + 3 G (3) or P (3 + 3) A 3 + 3 G (3). The fruit is a 3-compartment capsule (onion) or a berry (lily of the valley). Seeds with endosperm. Plants are pollinated in most cases by insects, rarely by wind, and in the tropics by birds. Liliaceae are of great economic importance. Numerous types of onions and asparagus are valuable vegetable crops. The genus Onion (Allium) is represented by bulbous or rhizome plants. Bulbs are simple (onion - A. cepa) and complex (garlic - A. sativum). The leaves are either flat, like A. porrum and garlic, or tubular, like A. fistulosum. Inflorescence - an umbrella covered with a membranous wrapper before blooming, is located on a flowering arrow and includes up to 2000 flowers. Flowers are small, bisexual on long stalks; greenish, white, purple, pink, yellow and other colors. Sometimes bulbs develop in the inflorescence - brood buds. The fruit is a triangular, three-celled capsule. Pollinated by bees and flies. There are 6 wild species in Belarus. In culture, the most widespread onion is from Central Asia. Bulbs contain 2 - 15% sugars, 12 - 16 mg% essential onion oil, which has a bactericidal effect, inulin, phytin, saponins, vitamin C, potassium, phosphorus, and iron salts. Leaves differ in a large set of vitamins. The varieties are subdivided into spicy (Bessonovsky), peninsular (Strigunovsky) and sweet (Kata, etc.). Among the numerous varieties in Belarus, Vetraz, Dyament and Supra are recommended for production. Garlic is cultivated everywhere in central and central Europe, in the Caucasus, in the Asian region. The bulb consists of numerous kidney-cloves sitting on a flat bottom. The leaves are flat. Each subsequent leaf grows inside the tube of the previous one and comes out above it. As a result, a false stem up to 50 cm high is formed. Kidney buds are often formed in the inflorescence. Fruits and seeds are usually not formed. Chives contain about 35% dry matter, up to 27% carbohydrates, 8% protein, up to 30 mg% vitamin C, inulin and phytoncides. Along with onions, it is widely used in folk medicine. The winter variety Vitazhenets is valuable in Belarus. Nutritional value is also played by porrey (A. porrum), batun onion (A. fistulosum), shallot onion (A. ascalonicum), slime onion (A. nutans). Of the wild species, the victory onion (Allium victorialis) and the bear onion or wild garlic (Allium ursinum) are used. Asparagus (Asparagus) is a delicacy vegetable crop. These are rhizome plants with a highly branched stem. The leaves are very small, scaly-scaly, with small spines at the base. From the axils of the leaves, usually numerous green, mostly needle-shaped twigs - cladodia, replacing the leaves, emerge. Plants are dioecious dioecious. Perianth of 6 fused leaves, 6 stamens, fruit - berry. Boiled young tender etiolated shoots rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, amino acids are used for food. It is impossible to overestimate the decorative value of liliaceae. The most important of them are lilies (Lilium): white lily (L. candidum), yellow-flowered lily one-brother (L. monodelphum), royal lily (L. regale), curly lily, or martagon (L. martagon). They have large, elegant flowers with a persistent pleasant scent. Tulips are grown not only in gardens and parks. They are the subject of the flower industry in the Netherlands and other countries around the world. More than 10 thousand varieties have been created, many of which belong to the species Tulipa gesneriana. Spectacular ornamental plants are Eremurus, in which the arrow reaches 2 m in height and up to 800 flowers of red and other colors are collected in one racemose inflorescence. Other decorative liliaceae include magnificent colchicum (Colchicum speciosum), yellow redwood (Hemerocallis flava), Edward's hazel grouse (Fritillaria eduardii), Siberian kandyk (Erythronium sibiricum), hyacinths (Hyacinthus), miniature spring trees ... Medicinal products include medicinal (Polygonatum officinale), May lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), tree aloe (Aloe arborescens), etc. Colchicine, obtained from autumn colchicum (Colchicum autumnale), is used in genetics to double the number of chromosomes. In the forests and among shrubs, rhizome poisonous plants are quite often found, at the same time medicinal: lily of the valley, kupena, raven eye and others. Poisonous also includes meadow onion (A. angulossum) and Lobel's hellebore (V. lobelianum). They cause nervous excitement and cardiac dysfunction. The Red Book of the Republic of Belarus includes 8 species of protected plants of the Liliaceae family. These are tofieldia calyx (Tofieldia calyculata), bear onion (Allium ursinum), fast onion (Allium schoenoprasum), autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale), meadow goose onion (Gagea pratensis), black goose onion (Gagea spathacea) ), curly lily (Lilium martagon).
Daylily krasodnev
RYABCHIK RUSSKY Red Book of the Chelyabinsk region
Fritillaria ruthenica Wikstr. Family Liliaceae Liliaceae.
Lily of the valley
Daffodils
Daffodils 
^
Yellow onion
Lily
Raven eye 
4.1.2. Sedge family The Sedge family (Suregaseae) is the only representative of the order Cyperales. It includes about 100 genera and over 4000 species. The Sedge family is cosmopolitan. It is widespread from the equator to the high latitudes of both hemispheres. Although most sedge species are concentrated in the tropical zone, many sedges in the cold and temperate zones are an integral component of meadow and marsh vegetation. There are 93 species from 15 genera in the flora of Belarus. The overwhelming majority of sedges are hygrophytes that grow in excessively humid places (forest reed - Scirpus sylvaticus). At the same time, sedges are found in moderately humid forests (forest sedge - Carex sylvatica, hairy sedge - C. pilosa), in steppes and on dry slopes (low sedge - C. humilis), sandy deserts (swollen sedge - C. physodes). Sedges are mostly perennial rhizome, often very large grasses (reeds - Scirpus, papyrus - Cyperus papirus) up to 1.5 - 5 m high and up to 7 cm in diameter.In equatorial West Africa, there is an almost arboreal scaly microdracoides (Microdracoides squamosa). On rocks and rocks near waterfalls, and even like epiphytes on the bark of trees, shrub cephalocarpus (Cephalocarpus) grow in South America. Among sedges, there are also vines, such as the scleria cutting (Scleria secans) growing in tropical rainforests. Relatively few representatives of the genus Fat and Reed are annuals. The root system is formed by adventitious roots extending from the lower part of the stem or from the nodes of the rhizomes. Stems are triangular (sedges), less often cylindrical (reeds) or almost flat, usually made of parenchymal tissue and poorly differentiated into nodes and internodes. The nodes are usually very close at the base of the stem, sometimes located along its entire length (scleria, sword-grass - Cladium). The stems are usually leafy, but some plants (marsh - Eleocharis) have a leafless stem, closed at the base by a leafy sheath. Leaves linear or linear-lanceolate with a long, closed and rarely open (coleochloa - Coleochloa) sheath. At the place of transition of the vagina into the leaf blade, there can be (sedge, coleochloa) a tongue in the form of a narrow plate or cilia. In most sedges, leaf blades are bilateral in diameter, triangular or nearly cylindrical; with rough or sharp edges due to the presence of denticles mineralized with calcium salts and silica. Leaf arrangement, as a rule, is alternate three-row, less often two-row. Sedge flowers are collected in a variety of spikelets located in the axils of leafy bracts. Spikelets form complex inflorescences - spike-shaped, paniculate, umbellate, racemose or capitate. The flowers are small, inconspicuous, bisexual or unisexual. Based on the structure of spikelets and flowers, the Sedge family is divided into 3 subfamilies - Cyperoideae, Rhynchosporoideae and actually Sedge (Caricoideae). The florets are characterized by bisexual flowers, with or without a perianth; spikelets are usually multi-flowered. Rhynchosporous - inhabitants of warm countries, usually have bisexual flowers, spikelets are small, 1-3-flowered. The Sedge subfamily is distinguished by unisexual flowers without a perianth. The perianth is either completely atrophied (wet, sedge), or strongly reduced and consists of 6 (in reeds, 3) scales, or 3-14 (usually 6) finely toothed setae, or 6 or more silky hairs. Bisexual and male flowers have 3 stamens, very rarely 1 - 2, 6, 12, located in one circle. The stamens have long drooping filaments and elongated, opening anthers. In the process of microsporogenesis, the tetrad of microspores is reduced. It contains only one pollen grain, covered, in addition to intine and exine, by the membrane of the tetrad's mother cell. In the bisexual and female flower, the gynoecium consists of 2 - 3 accrete carpels. The gynoecium can be enclosed in a sac, consisting of 2 accrete bracts. Ovary superior, unilocular, with one ovule. The pistil column is long, with 2 - 3 long stigma branches. Flower formulas are varied. For example, in a bisexual flower of cotton grass vaginalis - P ∞ A 3 G (3). In the bubbly sedge, the female flower has the formula P 0 A 0 G (3), and the male flower has the formula P 0 A 3 G 0. The fruit is nutty, non-expanding, triangular, slightly biconvex or spherical with a hard pericarp. Seeds with a small embryo surrounded by a well-developed starchy or oily endosperm. The structure of the inflorescence is an important systematic feature, according to which sedges are subdivided into equal-ear and unequal-ear. In equine-spiked (fox sedge - C. vulpina), there are male flowers in the upper part of the ear, and female flowers in the lower part, or vice versa (spread sedge - C. remota). Sedges of different heads have separate male and female spike-shaped inflorescences. At the same time, plants are monoecious (low-flowered sedge - C. pauciflora), when male and female ears are on the same plant, and rarely dioecious (dioecious sedge - C. dioica), when different ears are located on different plants. Sedges are wind-pollinated plants. Their reproduction is carried out by seeds, which are spread by wind, water, birds, as well as vegetatively - by rhizomes. In natural phytocenoses, sedges are a nesting place for birds and a habitat for wild animals (reeds, cotton grass, sedge, saty, sword-grass), a place of accumulation of fresh water (coastal sedge - C. riparia). Vaginal fluffy (Eriophorum vaginatum), lake reed (Scirpus lacustris), along with other species, are involved in peat formation. Long-rhizome species, such as sand sedge (C. arenaria), are good sand fixers. The economic value of sedges is relatively small. In ancient Egypt, the pith of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) stems was used to make writing material. It was cut into longitudinal strips, folded in two layers - one across the other and squeezed until they naturally stick together. The dried strips were polished with pieces of ivory and glued into scrolls 20 - 30 cm wide and up to 40 m long. succulent rhizomes of tropical reeds and papyrus are used for food. In particular, chufa is cultivated in Spain and Italy for the sake of small tubers up to 3 cm long, which contain up to 50% carbohydrates, 25% oil, 9% protein. The quality of oil is almost as good as olive and nut oil. Reeds, Fimbristyllis, papyrus, Rhynchospora are used as building materials and for the manufacture of wickerwork. Forest reeds, cotton grass vaginalis, swollen sedge and others, types of cobresia (Kobresia) are used for food for domestic and wild animals. Antibiotics of sweet marsh and other sedges are of medicinal value. Poisonous cotton grass (Eriophorum angustifolium), which causes diarrhea in animals, belongs to the poisonous. Indoor and greenhouse ornamental plant is alternate-leaved (Cyperus alternifollius). The flora of Belarus is rich in sedges. Of the 68 species, the most common are sod sedge (C. cespitosa), grayish sedge (C. cinerea), hare sedge (C. ovalis), swollen sedge (C. rostpata), bubbly sedge (C. vesicaria), etc. white grass (Eleocharis) - 6 species, cotton grass (Eriophorum) - 4 species. Among the reeds (Scirpus), lake reeds (S. lacustris) and forest reeds (S. sylvaticus) are widespread. Rare and endangered sedge species grow on the territory of Belarus. Sword grass (Cladium mariscus), Dewell's sedge (C. davalliana), Buxbaum's sedge (C. buxbaumii), hairy sedge (C. capillaris), poultry sedge (C. ornithopoda), squat sedge ( C. supina), silver sedge (C. flacca), sedge Cuts (C. otrubae), low-flowered sedge (C. pauciflora), aspic sedge (C. paupercula), rhizome sedge (C. rhizina), shady sedge (C. umbrosa) ... Literature: 1, 5 (p. 292 - 310), 6 (p. 508 - 510), 8 - 12, 14 (p. 443 - 447), 15 (p. 477 - 483), 17. ^ 4.1.3. Family Bluegrass The family Roaceae, or Gramineae, belongs to the order Poales. It is one of the largest families of flowering plants with up to 700 genera and 10,000 species. The natural flora of Belarus contains about 150 species from 70 genera. Bluegrass are evenly distributed throughout the land of the globe. In the tropical zone, about the same number of their species grow as in countries with a temperate climate, and in the Arctic latitudes, they rank first among other families in terms of species composition. Bluegrass plants play an important role in the formation of the vegetation cover of meadows, steppes, prairies and savannas. Plain meadows are characterized by bluegrass (Poa), fescue (Festuca), timothy (Phleum), rump (Bromopsis), and shaker (Briza). Feather grass (Stipa), fescue (Festuca valesiaca), wheatgrass (Agropyron) are widespread in the steppes. On the prairies, the primary role belongs to Chloris, a bison grass (Buchloё dactyloides). The moving sands are inhabited by Selin (Stipagrostis) and Sandworm (Ammophila). The role and diversity of bluegrass in forests and peat bogs is great. The wide distribution of bluegrass is associated with the structure of their vegetative and reproductive organs, physiological and biochemical characteristics that allow plants to have a very high adaptability to a variety of environmental conditions. The family contains typical mesophytes - these are almost all cultivated cereals: rye (Secale), wheat (Triticum), barley (Hordeum), corn (Mais), oats (Avena) and others, hygrophytes - rice (Oriza), manna (Glyceria) , as well as xerophytes - sticking out white whiskers (Nardus stricta), sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), feather grass, wheatgrass, etc. And common reed (Phragmites australis) can grow on swamps of various types and on mountain slopes. Representatives of the family are perennials (meadow fescue - Festuca pratensis), biennials (geniculate foxtail - Alopecurus geniculatus) and annual grasses (Canary canary grass - Phalaris canariensis, field crops), less often tree plants (bamboo - Bambusa). Dinochloa, closely related to bamboo, has spiny liana-like species. The root system of bluegrass is fibrous during seed and vegetative propagation. The main root is formed from the embryonic root, but completes its development early. It is being replaced by numerous, well-developed adventitious roots. The stem is a straw with pronounced nodes and hollow or core-filled internodes. The signs of the anatomical structure of the stem are used in the taxonomy of cereals. Thus, most extratropical species (fescue, wheat, rye) are characterized by internodes with a wide cavity and the arrangement of conducting bundles in two circles, with smaller bundles located in the outer circle and serving the remains of the primary cortex. In tropical species (corn, millet, sorghum) internodes with a small cavity or filled with parenchyma. The intercalary meristem is localized at the bases of internodes. Here, the rudimentary tubercles of the lateral axillary buds can be laid. However, the primordia of aerial buds do not develop and lateral shoots are not formed from them. Therefore, tillering is characteristic of bluegrass, i.e. the formation of lateral shoots from the buds of the underground part of the stem. Tillering can be dense (sticking out white-grass - Nardus stricta), loose (soft wheat - Triticum aestivum) and rhizomatous (creeping wheatgrass - Elytrigia repens). The leaves consist of a sheath covering the stalk, which is usually open, a linear leaf blade, a uvula - a membranous outgrowth located at the junction of the sheath and the leaf blade. Sometimes the uvula is absent or a row of hairs develops instead. In some cereals (barley - Hordeum), the edges of the vagina in the place of the bend form bilateral linear outgrowths - ears. In the epidermis of the leaf there are motor cells that ensure the folding of the leaf in hot weather. In many forms, a parenchymal sheath participating in photosynthesis is located around the vascular bundles. Leaf arrangement is two-row, alternate. Many bluegrass plants are monocarp plants, i.e. bloom and bear fruit once in a lifetime (cultivated field cereals, bamboos with woody stems). Most species have bisexual flowers. In the case of dioecious flowers, plants can be both monoecious (corn - Zea) and dioecious (Pampas grass - Cortaderia selloana). Flowers with a membranous perianth are collected in elementary inflorescences - spikelets, which in turn form complex inflorescences: an ear (rye, wheat, barley), a complex brush, or a panicle (oats - Avena, millet - Panicum), sultan (timothy - Phleum, foxtail - Alopecurus). In maize, the female flowers are collected on the cob, and the male flowers are gathered in a panicle. Spikelet scales are located at the base of the spikelet. The chaff (Lolium) has one. In wheat, rye, and many other plants, the spikelet bears two spikelet scales — the upper and the lower; millet, rice (Oryza), sweet spikelet (Anthoxanthum) and others have more than two of them. In the structure of spikelet scales, a keel, keel tooth and shoulder are distinguished, the size and shape of which are taken into account when determining the species and varieties of cereals. A spikelet consists of an axis on which there is either one (barley) or several flowers (wheat), arranged alternately in two rows. Flowers in spikelets are formed in the axils of the lower floral scales of leaf origin. The keel teeth of the lower scales can be short or develop into an awn in spinous forms. In Persian wheat (Triticum persicum) awns are formed on both flower and spikelet scales. Opposite the lower scales in the flower, there is a two-keeled upper floral scale formed by two fused leaves of the outer perianth circle. The inner circle of the perianth is usually represented by two films, or lodicules. Bamboo and feather grass have three of them. During flowering, water actively enters the lodicules; they increase in size and move the lower and upper flower scales apart, allowing the flowers to open. Most bluegrass flowers have three stamens, but there can be six of them (rice, bamboo, sugarcane - Saccharum officinarum), two in a fragrant spikelet, and even one (cinna - Cinna). The pistil is formed by two accrete carpels, a column with a bipartite feathery stigma. The ovary is superior. Flower formula: P (2) +2 A 3 G (2). The fruit is dry, non-opening, single-seeded, called a caryopsis and has a thin pericarp tightly attached to the seed coat. Often in hulled species of wheat, barley, oats and other plants, when the caryopsis ripens, its pericarp sticks together with flowering scales tightly attached to it. In contrast to them, in naked forms (rye, soft wheat, etc.), the seeds do not stick to the scales. The embryo of the seed has one developed cotyledon - the scutellum, which borders on the endosperm. The second cotyledon, epiblast, is reduced. The embryonic bud is surrounded by a leaf-like formation called the coleoptile, which protects the seedlings when they emerge on the soil surface. Seedling roots are protected by a root sheath, or coleoria. The seed endosperm is well developed, rich in starch and protein. The seeds have different duration of post-harvest ripening. In winter forms it is short, even freshly harvested seeds can give seedlings, in spring forms it is long, up to several months. Some species, including certain varieties of wheat, are "two-handed", i.e. can germinate both in autumn and in spring sowing. Most cereals are wind-pollinated plants. These are corn, rye, sorghum, Sudanese grass, timothy, rump, fescue and others. Optional, i.e. optional, self-pollinators include wheat, Aegilops, etc. For chasmogamous (open-flowering) wind-pollinated cereals, the daily flowering rhythm of plants is of great importance. The coincidence of the opening times of the flowers ensures the success of cross-pollination in the population. Stricter, abligate, self-pollination is characteristic of cleistogamous (closed-flowering) barley and oats. Apomictic propagation, in which seeds are formed without fusion of germ cells, is found in tropical millet and sorghum. Viviparia is less common in bluegrass. So, in the Arctic species of bluegrass (Poa), fescue (Festuca), pike (Deschampsia), reproduction occurs by bulbous buds, which are formed in inflorescences from spikelets. Taking into account the variety of anatomical and morphological characters of vegetative and reproductive organs, the Bluegrass family is subdivided into subfamilies. In the multivolume "Plant Life" six subfamilies are distinguished: Bamboo (Bambucoideae), Rice (Oryzoideae), Poaideae, Reed (Arundinoideae), Polevic (Eragrostideae), Millet (Panicoideae). ^ Subfamily Bamboo formed by tall tropical and subtropical woody plants (Arundinaria - Arundinaria, bamboo, dendrocalamus - Dendrocalamus) and herbaceous plants (Maclurolyra - Maclurolyra, pyresia - Piresia). Bamboo are widespread in Africa, Central and South America, Southeast Asia, where they are of food and technical importance. ^ Subfamily Rice combines herbaceous one - and perennial self-pollinating plants. They are characterized by spikelets flattened from the sides with one developed flower. There are four spikelet scales, two lodicules, and six stamens. Inflorescence is a one-sided, spreading or compressed panicle. The most important crop in world agriculture is sowing rice (Oryza sativa), used to make cereals, flour, spirits, paper and wicker products. TO subfamily Bluegrass belongs to the majority of extratropical herbaceous annual and perennial grasses. Many of them have membranous leaf tabs. Single and multi-flowered spikelets are collected in a complex ear (wheat), panicle (oats), sultan (timothy). There are two spikelet scales and lodicules, three stamens. This includes grain, cereals and forage grasses. The genus Wheat (Triticum) has about 30 species. In culture, two types are most common: soft wheat (T. aestivum), which is distinguished by a hollow stem under the inflorescence and a loose long spike with spread awns, seeds with a mealy endosperm, as well as durum wheat (T. durum), in which the stem under the inflorescence is made , the spike is compressed from the sides, dense, the awns are straight, the seed has a vitreous endosperm. Valuable varieties of soft winter wheat in Belarus are Zavet, Spektr, Pram'era, etc. Wheat grain contains many gluten-forming proteins and therefore is the main grain crop. It is also used for the manufacture of cereals, starch, alcohol. In seed rye (Secale cereale), the inflorescence is an unbreakable spinous complex spike, spikelets are two-flowered, often with the rudiment of a third flower. Differs in high winter hardiness and unpretentiousness to soil, therefore it is widely cultivated in Belarus. Valuable varieties are Talisman and Zarnitsa. Used for food and feed purposes. As a result of intergeneric hybridization of wheat and rye, amphidiploids of triticale were obtained, the varieties of which have good prospects for use in agriculture. The genus Barley (Hordeum) has a dense brittle spinous spike, single-flowered spikelets, sitting in three on the ledge of a segment of the spikelet. Leaves with well-developed ears. Common barley (N. vulgare) has a wide spike, 4 - 6-sided, all spikelets are fertile. In two-row barley (H. distichon), the ear is linear, flat, the middle ear is fertile, and the lateral ones are sterile. The varieties of spring barley Stratus, Yakub, Sonor are distinguished by high productivity. Cereals, beer, animal feed are made from grain. Sowing oats (Avena sativa) annual, leaves with a long tongue, panicle inflorescence, large spikelets, 2 - 3-flowered. There are filmy and naked forms. Oatmeal is appreciated as a dietary product. The grain is used for animal feed. Meadow grasses of the Bluegrass subfamily are rump, bluegrass, fescue, timothy and others; feather grass is characteristic of the steppes. For subfamily Reed characteristic tall, perennial herbaceous plants with multinodular stems, highly developed rhizomes and multi-flowered spikelets. They can be found in forest glades and swampy meadows. Countries with a warm climate are distinguished by the greatest species diversity. Common reeds (Phragmites australis), Pampas grass (Cortaderia) subfamily Polevichkovy dominated by herbaceous plants, natives of the arid regions of the tropics. In the southern regions of Belarus, weedy species of the vole (Eragrostis) are occasionally found, on the salt marshes of North Africa the coastal (Aeluropus) is common, in the North American prairies - the distichlis (Distichlis). ^ Subfamily Prosovye is the most highly specialized in the family. Spikelets are usually two-flowered, located singly or in groups of 2-3 on spike-shaped branches. The subfamily includes common millet (Panicum miliaceum), barnyard or chicken millet (Echinochloa), barnyard grass (E. frumentaceae), sorghum (Sorghum), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), as well as the most important food and forage crop of world agriculture - corn. (Zea mays). Corn grain is processed into cereals, flour, starch, molasses, alcohol and other products. In Belarus, there is not enough heat for full ripening of grain, so corn is grown for livestock feed. For these purposes, heterotic maize hybrids Bemo 182 SV, Polessky 212 SV, Krasnodar 194 MV and many others are used. The Bluegrass family is of exceptionally great economic importance. They play an outstanding role in the formation of a sedentary lifestyle for many peoples of the world in connection with the transition from collecting seeds of cereal plants to growing and baking them. The main grain crops in Belarus are soft wheat and rye. Groats are obtained from barley, oats, millet, rice, corn. Bison (Hierochloё) and sweet spikelet (Anthoxanthum) contain aromatic substances used in perfumery, food processing and medicine. The poisonous manna is water (Glyceria aquatica), which, when fresh, causes convulsions and impaired cardiac activity in animals. Many cereal grasses are the main components of natural hayfields and pastures and have been introduced into cultivation. These are meadow timothy (Phleum pratensis), hedgehog (Dactylis glomerata), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), giant bent (Agrostis gigantea), awnless fire (Bromus inermis), perennial chaff (Lolium perentens) (meadow fox) meadow bluegrass (Poa pratensis), high ryegrass (Arrhenatherum elatius), etc. Red fescue (F. rubra), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and others are used in ornamental gardening as lawn grass. To fix the mobile sands, sand-lover (Ammophila arenaria) and sandy spikelet (Leymus arenarius) are used. Many cereals can be used as building materials. In tropical countries, strong and light bamboo stems are used as water pipes. High quality paper is made from feather grass and rice. There are many weeds among cereals. These are creeping wheatgrass (Elytrigia repens), rye bonfire (Bromus secalinus), barnyard (chicken millet), annual bluegrass (Poa annua), some species of bristles (Setaria). The weeds in the meadows are low-value forage meadows, or pike (Deschampsia cespitosa), and protruding white whiskers (Nardus stricta). REFERENCES 1. Herbaceous plants of the USSR. T. 1. / Yu.E. Alekseev, V.N. Vekhov, G.P. Gapochka et al. M .: Mysl, 1971. 487 pp., Ill. 2. Herbaceous plants of the USSR. T. 2. / Yu.E. Alekseev, V.N. Vekhov, G.P. Gapochka et al. M .: Mysl ', 1971. 309 pp., Ill. 3. Plant life. In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. T. 5 (1). Flowering plants / ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. Moscow: Education, 1980.432 pp., Ill. 4. Plant life: In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. T. 5 (2). Flowering plants / ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. M .: Education, 1981.512 p .: ill. 5. Plant life: In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. T. 6. Flowering plants / ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. M .: Education, 1982.544 p .: ill.
Taxonomy
There are many different types of plants on Earth. It is difficult to navigate in their variety. Therefore, plants, like other organisms, systematize - distribute, classify into certain groups. Plants can be classified according to their use. For example, medicinal, gingerbread, oil plants, etc. are isolated.
The most common system that botanists use today is hierarchical. It is built according to the box-in-box principle. Any level of the hierarchy of the system is called taxonomic rank (taxonomic category).
Taxon- these are actually existing or existing groups of organisms, referred in the process of classification to certain taxonomic categories.
Classifying living organisms , scientists attributed them to one or another group, taking into account the similarity (community). Such groups are called taxonomic units, or taxonomic units.
The main taxonomic rank is - view (species). Usually under biological species understand the totality of populations of individuals capable of interbreeding with the formation of fertile offspring, inhabiting a certain area, possessing a number of common morphophysiological characteristics and types of relationships with abiotic and biotic environments, and separated from other similar populations of individuals by the absence of hybrid forms.
In other words view Is a group of organisms similar in structure, living in a certain territory, adapted to similar habitat conditions and capable of producing fertile offspring.
Genus. A group of species similar in many characteristics is combined into a genus.
Families. Close genera are united into families.
Classes. Families that are similar in general characteristics are combined into classes.
Departments. Classes of plants, fungi and bacteria are grouped into divisions.
Kingdom. All divisions of plants form the plant kingdom.
The genus is located above the view (genus), family (familia), order (ordo), subclass (subclassis), Class (classis), Department (divisio) and kingdom (regnum).
Within a species, smaller systematic units can be distinguished: subspecies (subspecies), variety (varietas), the form (forma); for cultural, the category is used - variety.
Table 1
The main taxonomic ranks of the taxonomy of higher plants and examples of taxa
Swedish professor Karl Linnaeus in the 18th century proposed binary nomenclature instead of the cumbersome polynomial. Introduced binary nomenclature by Calom Lineus in 1753. The rules for assigning botanical names to plants are contained in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, which is revised at the International Botanical Congresses every 6 years.
The scientific name of the species according to the binary nomenclature (double) consists of two Latin words. The first word is the name of the genus, the second is the specific epithet. After the Latin name of the species, the surname or initials of the author who gave the name to the species are written in abbreviated form.
For example, the view Triticum aestivum L... (wheat) consists of two words: genus Triticum- wheat, specific epithet aestivum- soft.
The scientist who first described the taxon is its author. The surname of the author is placed after the Latin name of the taxon, usually in an abbreviated form. For example, the letter L... indicates authorship of Linneus, DS. - De Candolle, Bge. - Bunge, Com. - V.L. Komarov, etc. In scientific works, authorship of taxa is considered mandatory, in textbooks and popular publications they are often omitted.
The Latin name of the family is formed by attaching the ending - ceae(tse) or - aseae(acee) to the basis of the name of one of the most common genera of this family. For example, the genus Roa(bluegrass) gave the name to the family Roaseae(bluegrass).
Sometimes alternative, traditional, names are allowed, for example, families:
Astrovye (Asteraceae) - Compositae Compositae
Legumes ( Fabaceae) - Butterflies (Leguminosae)
Celery (Apiaceae) - Umbelliferae (Umbelliferae)
Lamiaceae ( Lamiaceae)- Labiaceae
Bluegrass ( Poaceae)- Cereals (Graminea).
Department names usually end with - phyta ( fit), for example, Angiospermophyta- angiosperms, etc. The name of the plant orders ends with - ales
The plant kingdom is divided into two subkingdoms:
Lower plants (Thallobionta);
Higher plants (Kormobionta).
Sub-kingdom "lower plants"
The lowest plants include the most simply arranged representatives of the plant world. The vegetative body of lower plants has no division into organs (stem, leaf) and is represented by a thallus - they are called thallus .
The lower plants are characterized by the absence of complex internal differentiation, they do not have an anatomical and physiological system of tissues, as in higher plants, the organs of sexual reproduction of the lower ones are unicellular (with the exception of chara and some brown algae. bacteria, algae, slime molds (mixomycetes), fungi, lichens.
Algae belong to the group of autotrophic organisms. Bacteria (with rare exceptions), myxomycetes and fungi are heterotrophic organisms that require ready-made organic matter. Those and others, as it were, complement each other.
Algae are the main generators of organic matter in water bodies. The decomposition of organic substances and their mineralization are carried out as a result of the activity of heterotrophic organisms: bacteria and fungi. Thanks to the decomposition of organic substances, the atmosphere is replenished with carbon dioxide.
Some soil bacteria and blue-green algae are able to bind free nitrogen in the atmosphere. Thus, the biological cycle of substances performed by autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms is inconceivable without the activity of lower plants. In terms of widespread distribution in nature and in terms of numbers, the lower plants outnumber the higher ones.
Subkingdom "higher plants"
Higher plants include organisms that have well-defined tissues, organs (vegetative: root and shoot, generative) and individual development (ontogeny) of which are divided into embryonic (embryonic) and postembryonic (post-embryonic) periods.
Higher plants are divided into two groups:
Spore (Archegoniophyta);
Seed (Spermatophyta).
Spore plants spread by spores. Water is needed for reproduction. Spore plants also called archegonal... The body of higher plants is differentiated into tissues and organs, which appeared in them as one of the adaptations to life on land. The most important organs are root and the escape dissected into stem and leaves. In addition, special tissues are formed in terrestrial plants: integumentary, conductive and the main.
Covering tissue performs a protective function, protecting plants from adverse conditions. Across conductive tissue there is an exchange of substances between the underground and aboveground parts of the plant. Main fabric performs various functions: photosynthesizing, supporting, storing, etc.
In all spore plants in their life cycle of development, the alternation of generations is clearly expressed: sexual and asexual.
The sexual generation is an outgrowth, or gametophyte- is formed from spores, has a haploid set of chromosomes. It performs the function of the formation of gametes (sex cells) in special organs of sexual reproduction; archegonium(from the Greek. "arche" - beginning and "gone" - birth) - female genital organs and antheridia(from the Greek. "Anteros" - blooming) - male genital organs.
Sporangial tissue also has a double set of chromosomes, it divides by meiosis (a method of division), resulting in the development of spores - haploid cells with a single set of chromosomes. The generation name "sporophyte" means a spore-forming plant.
Spore plants are divided into the following divisions:
Mossy (Bryophyta);
Lycophyta;
Horsetail (Sphenophyta);
Fern-like (Pterophyta).
Seed plants spread by seeds. No water is needed for reproduction.
The main differences between seed plants from the higher disputes are as follows:
1. Seed plants form seeds for propagation. Subdivided into two sections.
- angiosperms- plants that form seeds enclosed in fruits.
2. In seed plants, further improvement in the life cycle and even greater dominance of the sporophyte and further reduction of the gametophyte are observed. The existence of the gametophyte in them completely depends on the sporophyte.
3. The sexual process is not associated with a liquid droplet environment, and gametophytes develop and go through a full cycle of their development on the sporophyte. Due to the independence of the fertilization process from water, immobile male reproductive cells - sperm cells - have arisen, which reach the female reproductive cells - eggs - with the help of a special education - a pollen tube.
In seed plants, the only mature megaspora remains permanently enclosed within the megasporangium, and here, within the megasporangium, the development of the female gametophyte and the process of fertilization take place.
Megasporangium in seed plants is surrounded by a special protective cover called integument. The megasporangium with the integument surrounding it is called the ovule. This is really a seed germ (ovule), from which a seed develops after fertilization.
Inside the ovule, the process of fertilization and the development of the embryo takes place. This ensures the independence of fertilization from water, its autonomy.
In the process of development of the embryo, the ovule turns into a seed - the main unit of dispersal of seed plants. In the vast majority of seed plants, this transformation of the ovule into a mature seed ready for germination occurs on the mother plant itself.
For primitive seeds, for example, in cycads, the absence of a dormant period is characteristic. Most seed plants are characterized by a more or less long dormant period. The dormant period is of great biological importance, because it makes it possible to survive the unfavorable season, and also contributes to a more distant settlement.
Internal fertilization, the development of the embryo inside the ovule and the emergence of a new, extremely effective unit of dispersal - the seed - are the main biological advantages of seed plants, which made it possible for them to more fully adapt to terrestrial conditions and achieve a higher development, higher spore plants.
Seeds, unlike spores, have not only a fully formed embryo of the future sporophyte, but also reserve nutrients necessary at the first stages of its development. The dense shells protect the seed from unfavorable natural factors that are destructive for most spores.
Thus, seed plants acquired serious advantages in the struggle for existence, which determined their flourishing when the climate was dry. Currently, this is the dominant group of plants.
Seeds are divided into the following sections:
Angiosperms, or flowering (Magnoliophyta);
Let's consider them in more detail
Lower plants
In terms of widespread distribution in nature and in terms of numbers, the lower plants outnumber the higher ones. As the study of lower plants expands the scope of their use and increases their importance in human life.
The modern plant system is based on the following classification scheme for lower plants:
1. Department of Bacteria.
2. Department of Blue-green algae.
3. Department of Euglena algae.
4. Department of Green Algae.
5. Department of Chara algae.
6. Department of Pyrophytic algae.
7. Department of Golden algae.
8. Department of Yellow-green algae.
9. Department of Diatoms.
10. Department of Brown algae.
11. Department of Red algae.
12. Department of Slime molds.
13. Department of Mushrooms.
14. Department of Lichens.
Algae - Algae
This sub-kingdom includes algae – the simplest in structure and the most ancient plants. It is an ecological heterogeneous group of phototrophic multicellular, colonial and unicellular organisms that often inhabit the aquatic environment.
However, the algae world is very diverse and numerous. Most of them live in water or on water. But there are algae that grow in the soil, on trees, on rocks and even in ice. Algae body – it is a thallus or thallus that has neither root nor shoots. Algae do not have organs and various tissues; the absorption of substances (water and mineral salts) occurs by the entire surface of the body.
All types of algae are united by the following characteristics:
Photoautotrophic nutrition and chlorophyll;
Lack of strict differentiation of the body into organs;
Well-defined conducting system;
Living in a humid environment;
Lack of integumentary membrane.
Algae are distinguished by the number of cells:
- unicellular;
- multicellular (mostly filamentous);
- colonial;
- non-cellular.
There is also a difference in the structure of cells and pigment composition of algae. In this regard, there are:
- green(with a color of green and slight blotches of yellow);
- blue-green(with pigments of green, blue, red and yellow shades);
- brown(with green and brown pigments);
- red(with pigments of various shades of red);
- yellow-green(with the color of the corresponding tones, as well as two flagella of different structure and length);
- golden(with pigments that form a golden color, and cells that do not have a shell or are enclosed in a dense shell);
- diatoms(with a strong shell, consisting of two halves, and a brownish tone);
- pyrrophytic(brownish-yellow shade with naked or shell-covered cells);
- euglenaseaweed(unicellular, glabrous, with one or two flagella).
Algae reproduce in several ways:
- vegetative(by simple division of cells in the body of the organism);
- sexual(fusion of the germ cells of the plant with the formation of a zygote);
- asexual(zoospores).
Depending on the type of algae and how favorable the environmental conditions are, the number of generations in just a few years can exceed 1000.
All types of algae, due to the presence of chlorophyll in the cells, form oxygen. Its share of the total volume produced by the plants of the planet Earth is 30-50%. By producing oxygen, algae absorb carbon dioxide, the percentage of which in the atmosphere today is quite high.
Also, algae are a food source for many other living things. They feed on molluscs, crustaceans, various types of fish. Their high adaptability to harsh conditions provides plants and animals with a high-quality nutrient medium high in the mountains, in the polar regions, etc.
If there are too many algae in ponds, the water begins to bloom. A number of them, for example, blue-green algae, actively emit a toxic substance during this period. Its concentration is especially high at the water surface. This gradually leads to the death of aquatic inhabitants and a significant deterioration in water quality, up to waterlogging.
Algae benefits not only the flora and fauna. Humanity is also actively using them. The vital activity of organisms in the past has become a source of minerals for the modern generation, in the list of which it is worth noting oil shale and limestone.
Taxonomy (classification, taxonomy) is the science of the diversity of living organisms and their distribution into groups based on (evolutionary) relationship.
Systematic units (taxa) in decreasing order:
Types and orders are used in the classification of animals, and divisions and orders are used in the classification of plants and fungi.
The largest of the given systematic units is the super-kingdom. The smallest (original, minimal, basic unit of taxonomy) is a species.
Types / departments are divided into classes, classes - into detachments / orders, detachments / orders - into families, etc. And vice versa: genera consist of species, families - of genera, orders / orders - of families ...
Taxonomists can distinguish many additional taxa - subtype, subclass, etc. For example, a human belongs to the subtype Vertebrates.
All species have a "double name": the first word is the name of the genus, the second is the name of the species.
Choose the one that is most correct. In the system of the organic world, vertebrates are
1) subtype
2) type
3) class
4) squad
Answer
Choose the one that is most correct. The natural classification system of the plant world is based on
1) kinship, common origin of groups
2) the similarity of the external structure of plant organisms
3) the similarity of vital processes in a plant organism
4) the adaptability of organisms to the environment
Answer
Choose the one that is most correct. What is the name of a group of plants that unites related species
1) family
2) genus
3) class
4) population
Answer
Choose the one that is most correct. Pharmacy chamomile unites
1) a variety of flowering plants
2) many individuals based on their relationship
3) related plant genera
4) plants of one natural community
Answer
Choose the one that is most correct. Taxonomists classify plant families into
1) orders
2) squads
3) childbirth
4) types
Answer
Choose the one that is most correct. There is no division in plant taxonomy
1) mossy
2) dicotyledons
3) flowering
4) gymnosperms
Answer
Choose the one that is most correct. What subkingdoms are animals united into?
1) invertebrates and vertebrates
2) arthropods and chordates
3) unicellular and multicellular
4) birds and mammals
Answer
Choose three options. What systematic taxa characterize mucor?
1) Prokaryotes
2) Eukaryotes
3) Cell empire
4) kingdom of mushrooms
5) the plant kingdom
6) animal kingdom
Answer
Choose two correct answers out of five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. The terms of the taxonomy of organisms include
1 class
2) population
3) individual
4) view
5) organism
Answer
Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Thuja
2) Conifers
3) Cypress
4) Thuja western
5) eukaryotes
6) Plants
Answer
1. Establish the sequence in which the systematic groups of plants are located, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) clover
2) legumes
3) red clover
4) angiosperms
5) dicotyledons
6) plants
Answer
2. Establish the sequence in which the systematic groups of plants are located, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Dandelion
2) Composite
3) Dandelion medicinal
4) Dicotyledons
5) Angiosperms
6) Plants
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of the arrangement of the taxonomic groups of the plant, starting with the smallest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Wild radish
2) Radish
3) Angiosperms
4) Dicotyledons
5) Plants
6) Cruciferous
Answer
4. Arrange the systematic plant categories in the correct order, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Buttercup
2) Angiosperms
3) Buttercup pungent
4) Plants
5) Dicotyledons
6) Buttercup
Answer
5. Establish the sequence of the arrangement of the systematic categories used in the classification of plants, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) violet
2) dicotyledons
3) tricolor violet
4) angiosperms
5) violet
Answer
6. Establish the correct sequencing of the taxa of warty birch, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in your answer.
1) warty birch
2) birch
3) angiosperms
4) plants
5) dicotyledons
6) eukaryotes
Answer
7. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) plants
2) shrub cherry
3) rosaceous
4) dicotyledons
5) angiosperms
6) cherry
Answer
8. Establish the sequence of arrangement of taxonomic groups of plants, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) White lamb
2) Lamb
3) Angiosperms
4) Dicotyledons
5) Plants
6) Lipoids
Answer
9. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Angiosperms
2) Plants
3) Sosnovsky's hogweed
4) Umbrella
5) Dicotyledons
6) Hogweed
Answer
10. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Angiosperms
2) Plants
3) mullein bear ear
4) Noricum
5) Dicotyledons
6) Mullein
Answer
1. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the plant are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Meadow bluegrass
2) Bluegrass
3) Angiosperms
4) Monocots
5) Plants
6) Cereals
Answer
2. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the plant are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Onions
2) Monocots
3) Bow
4) Plants
5) Onions
6) Flowering
Answer
3. Establish a sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in the table.
1) Angiosperms
2) Plants
3) Monocots
4) Liliaceae
5) Double sheeted mine
6) Minik
Answer
4. Establish the sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Gladiolus
2) Iris
3) Angiosperms
4) Plants
5) Monocots
6) Gladiolus tiled
Answer
5. Establish the sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Arrowhead
2) Chastukhivye
3) Angiosperms
4) Plants
5) Monocots
6) Arrowhead ordinary
Answer
Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the fungus are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Agaric order
2) the Amanite family
3) class Agaricomycetes
4) genus Amanita
5) Basidiomycete department
6) a kind of Amanita muscaria
7) kingdom of mushrooms
Answer
1. Establish the sequence of arrangement of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Sarcode
2) The simplest
3) Amoeba
4) Animals
5) Sarcopterbugs
6) Common amoeba
Answer
1) Animals
2) Euglena green
3) The simplest
4) Sarcoplastic
5) Euglena
6) Flagellate
Answer
1) South Russian tarantula
2) tarantula
3) arthropods
4) arachnids
5) spiders
6) wolf spiders
Answer
2. Establish the order of the systematic taxa of the animal, starting with the smallest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Scorpions
2) Animals
3) Emperor Scorpion
4) Eukaryotes
5) Arachnids
6) Arthropods
Answer
1. Establish a sequence reflecting the systematic position of the housefly species in the classification of animals, starting with the smallest group. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Diptera
2) Arthropods
3) flies
4) Animals
5) house fly
6) Insects
Answer
2. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) animals
2) mosquito
3) arthropods
4) insects
5) Diptera
6) malaria mosquito
Answer
3. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the animal are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in the answer.
1) coleoptera
2) insects
3) bronze
4) green bronze
5) animals
6) arthropods
Answer
4. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the animal are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Insects
2) Leaf beetles
3) Coleoptera, or Beetles
4) Colorado potato beetle
5) Arthropods
6) Animals
Answer
5. Establish the order of the systematic taxa of the animal, starting with the smallest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Animals
2) Lepidoptera
3) Insects
4) moths
5) Arthropods
6) Birch moth
Answer
6. Establish a sequence of taxonomic names, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Arthropods
2) Eukaryotes
3) Hemiptera
4) Insects
5) Animals
6) Pea aphid
Answer
1. Set the order of the taxonomic names, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) fish
2) stingrays
3) chordates
4) cartilaginous fish
5) vertebrates
6) sea cat
Answer
1) Cartilaginous
2) Tiger shark
3) Cranial (Vertebrates)
4) Chordates
5) Sharks
6) Animals
Answer
1. Establish the sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Chordates
2) Pisces
3) Bony fish
4) Pollock
5) Codfish
6) Vertebrates
Answer
2. Establish the sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Common salmon
2) Salmon
3) Bony fish
4) Salmon
5) Animals
6) Chordates
Answer
3. Establish a sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Vertebrates
2) Pisces
3) Bony fish
4) Crucian carp
5) Carps
6) Chordates
Answer
Establish the correct sequence in the classification of the pond frog, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Pond frog
2) Amphibians
3) Animals
4) real frogs
5) Tailless
6) Chordates
Answer
1. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the animal are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Chordates
2) snakes
3) Reptiles, or Reptiles
4) Central Asian cobra
5) Scaly
6) Aspid snakes
Answer
2. Establish the sequence of arrangement of systematic groups of animals, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Roundheads
2) Lizards
3) Reptiles
4) Vertebrates
5) Round-eared head
6) Chordates
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Vertebrates
2) Animals
3) Chordates
4) viper snakes
5) reptiles
6) Common viper
Answer
1. Establish the correct sequencing of systematic animal taxa, starting with the smallest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) passerine
2) thrush fieldfare
3) chordates
4) birds
5) thrush
6) thrush
Answer
2. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the animal are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Chordates
2) Chicken
3) Animals
4) Guinea fowl
5) Birds
6) Turkey
7) African guinea fowl
Answer
3. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Vertebrates
2) Animals
3) Birds
4) White partridge
5) Partridge
6) Chordates
Answer
4. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Birds
2) Animals
3) Chordates
4) Vertebrates
5) Village swallow
6) Swallow
Answer
5. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
3. Establish the sequence in which the systematic groups of animals are located, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Rodents
2) Squirrel
3) Squirrels
4) Common squirrel
5) Chordates
6) Mammals
Answer
4. Establish the correct sequence for the systematic taxa of the animal, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Common hedgehog
2) Animals
3) Chordates
4) Insectivores
5) Mammals
6) hedgehogs
Answer
5. Establish the sequence in which the systematic taxa of the animal are located, starting with the largest taxon. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Hares
2) Mammals
3) Snowy hare
4) Chordates
5) Lagomorphs
6) Animals
Answer
6. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Chordates
2) Animals
3) Mammals
4) Cetaceans
5) whale
6) whale blue
Answer
7. Establish the order of the systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Artiodactyls
2) Animals
3) Mammals
4) Chordates
5) Spotted deer
6) Deer
Answer
8. Establish the sequence of systematic taxa, starting with the smallest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Marsupials
2) Kangaroo
3) Kangaroo gigantic
4) Chordates
5) Mammals
6) Animals
Answer
© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019
