("Science and Life" No. 39, 1890)
Of course, all readers know the name of P. N. Yablochkov, the inventor of the electric candle. Every day the question of electric lighting of cities and large buildings is more and more put forward in the queue, and in this matter the name of Yablochkov occupies one of the prominent places among electrical engineers. Placing his portrait in this issue of the journal, let's say a few words about the life of the Russian inventor, the essence and significance of his invention.
Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov was born in 1847 and received his initial education at the Saratov Gymnasium. At the end of the course in it, he entered the Nikolaev Engineering School, where he graduated with the rank of second lieutenant, and then was enrolled in one of the battalions of the Kyiv engineer brigade. Soon he was made head of the telegraph office on the Moscow-Kursk railway and here he thoroughly studied all the subtleties of electrical engineering, which gave him the opportunity to make an invention that made so much noise - an electric candle.
To understand the meaning of this invention, let's say a few words about electric lighting systems.
All devices for electric lighting can be divided into two main groups: 1) devices based on the principle of a voltaic arc, and 2) incandescent lamps.
In order to produce light by incandescence, an electric current is passed through very bad conductors, which therefore become very incandescent and emit light. Incandescent lamps can be divided into two sections: a) incandescence is carried out with air access (Renier and Verdeman lamps); b) incandescence is carried out in a vacuum. In Renier and Verdemann lamps, current flows through a cylindrical coal; since coal quickly burns out when exposed to air, these lamps are very inconvenient and are not used anywhere. Now exclusively incandescent lamps are used, the device of which, in general, is very simple. The ends of the wires are connected by means of a carbon thread and inserted into a glass flask or vial, from which the air is pumped out with the help of a mercury pump almost to perfect emptiness. Here the advantage is achieved that the carbon thread (usually very thin), although it heats up very strongly, can serve up to 1200 hours or more, almost without burning out, due to the absence of air. All systems of vacuum incandescent lamps differ from each other only in the way the carbon filament is processed and in the shape that the filaments are given. In the Edison lamp, the threads are made from charred bamboo wood fibers, while the threads themselves are bent in the shape of the letter U. In the Swan lamp, the threads are made from cotton paper and bent in a loop of one and a half turns. In Maxim's lamp, the filaments are made from charred Bristol cardboard and bent into an M. Gérard prepares the filaments from pressed coke and bends them at an angle. Kruto deposits coal on a thin platinum filament, etc.
Lamps with a voltaic arc are based on the well-known physics phenomenon of the voltaic arc, which Humphry Davy first observed back in 1813. Passing through two coals a current from 2000 zinc-copper pairs, he received between the ends of the coals a fiery tongue of an arched shape, which he gave the name of a voltaic arc. To obtain it, you must first bring the ends of the coals together until they touch, since otherwise there will be no arc, no matter what the current strength; coals move away from each other only when their ends are heated. This is the first and very important inconvenience of the voltaic arc. An even more important inconvenience arises with further combustion. If the current is constant, then the coal connected to the positive pole is consumed twice as much as the other coal connected to the negative pole. In addition, a depression (called a crater) forms at the end of the positive angle, while the negative one retains a sharp shape. With a vertical arrangement of coals, a positive coal is always placed at the top in order to use the rays reflected from the concave surface of the crater (otherwise the rays would disappear when going up). With alternating current, both coals retain a sharp shape and burn in the same way, but there is no reflection from the upper coal, and therefore this method is less profitable.
From here, the shortcomings of systems with a voltaic arc are clearly visible. Before lighting such lamps, it is necessary to bring the ends of the coals together, and then rearrange the ends of the coals during the entire burning process as they burn. In a word, almost every lamp had to be assigned a person to monitor the combustion. It is clear that such a system is completely unsuitable for lighting, for example, entire cities and even large buildings. To eliminate these inconveniences, many inventors began to invent mechanical regulators, so that the coals would automatically approach each other as they burned, without requiring human supervision. Many very ingenious regulators have been devised (Serren, Jaspar, Siemens, Gramm, Bresch, Weston, Cans, etc.), but they have not helped the cause much. Firstly, they were extremely complex and ingenious, and secondly, they still did not achieve the goal very well and were very expensive.
While everyone was thinking up only various subtleties in regulators, Mr. Yablochkov came up with a brilliant idea, at the same time so simple that it is simply amazing how no one had attacked her before. How easy it was to open the chest can be seen from the following diagram:
a B C _______ d d _______ e f _______ h
a B C D- the old system of voltaic arc; electric current flowed through a and G, the arc was between b and in; the task of the inventors was to regulate the distance between b and in, which varied according to the current strength, quality and size of coals ab and vg, etc. It is obvious that the task was cunning and difficult, where one cannot do without a thousand screws, etc.
The right half of the diagram represents an ingenious solution to the problem made by Yablochkov. He arranged the coals in parallel; current enters through the ends d and and. coals de and zhz separated by a layer of non-conductor; therefore, a voltaic arc is obtained between the ends e from . Obviously, if the intermediate layer is made of combustible material (non-conductive electricity) and if the current is alternating, then the ends e and h will burn evenly until all carbon plates de and zhz won't burn to the end. You don't need any regulators, no fixtures - the chest was more than easy to open! But the main sign of any ingenious invention lies precisely in the fact that it is very simple ...
As was to be expected, Yablochkov's invention was treated with distrust in Russia, and he had to go abroad. The first experience in large sizes was made on June 15, 1877 in London, in the courtyard West India Docks. The experiments were a brilliant success, and soon Yablochkov's name spread throughout Europe. At present, many buildings in Paris, London, etc. are illuminated according to the Yablochkov system. At present, in St. Petersburg there is a large “Association of Electric Lighting and the Manufacturing of Electrical Machines and Apparatus in Russia” under the firm of P. N. Yablochkov the Inventor and Co. .-Petersburg, Bypass Canal, No. 80). At present, Mr. Yablochkov has made many improvements to his system, and his candles are now as follows.
The diameter of the coals is 4 mm; the insulating (intermediate) substance is called columbin. Initially, columbine was made from kaolin (china clay), and now it has been replaced by a mixture of equal parts of lime sulphate and barite sulphate, which is very easily cast into molds, and at the temperature of a voltaic arc turns into vapor.
It has already been said above that when igniting, the ends of the coals must be connected. At Yablochkov, the ends of the coals in the candle are separated by columbine, and, therefore, the problem of connecting them had to be solved. He solved it very simply: the ends of the candles are dipped in coal dough, which quickly burns out and lights the candle, which continues to burn even with the help of columbine.
It goes without saying that Yablochkov candles require alternating current so that both coals burn evenly.
One of the important drawbacks of the Yablochkov system was that the candles had to be changed frequently when they burned out. Now this drawback has also been eliminated - by the arrangement of candlesticks for several candles. As soon as the first candle burns out, the second lights up, then the third, and so on. To illuminate the Louvre (in Paris), Mr. Clario invented a special automatic switch for Yablochkov's system.
Yablochkov's candles are excellent for lighting workshops, shipyards, shops, railway stations, etc. In Paris, except for the Louvre, shops are illuminated according to the Yablochkov system. du Printemps”, the Continental Hotel, the Hippodrome, the workshops of Farko, Gouin, the factory in Ivry, etc. In Moscow, the area near the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Stone Bridge, many factories and factories, etc. are illuminated using the same system.
In conclusion, it is impossible not to recall the history of this invention once again without a feeling of extreme bitterness. Regrettably, but in Russia there is no place for Russian inventors until they receive a foreign stigma. The inventor of the most ingenious method of electrical soldering of metals, Mr. Benardos, long and unsuccessfully pushed through the doors of the Russian capitalists, until he achieved success in Paris. Yablochkov would still "vegetate in obscurity" if he had not been to London and Paris. Even Babaev received the stigma of fitness in America ...
There is no prophet in his own country. These words sum up the life of the inventor Pavel Yablochkov in the best possible way. In terms of the level of scientific and technological progress, Russia in the second half of the 19th century lagged far behind the leading European countries and the United States in some areas. Therefore, it was easier for compatriots to believe that everything ingenious and advanced comes from afar, rather than being born in the minds of scientists working next to them.
When Yablochkov invented the arc lamp, he first of all wanted to find a use for it in Russia. But none of the Russian industrialists took the invention seriously, and Yablochkov went to Paris. There he improved the design with the support of a local investor, and success came almost immediately.
After March 1876, when Yablochkov received a patent for his lamp, "Yablochkov's candles" began to appear on the main streets of European capitals. The press of the Old World praises our inventor. “Russia is the birthplace of electricity”, “You must see Yablochkov’s candle” - European newspapers of that time were full of such headlines. La lumiere russe("Russian light" - as the French called Yablochkov's lamps) was rapidly spreading through the cities of Europe and America.
Here it is - success in the modern sense. Pavel Yablochkov becomes a famous and rich man. But the people of that generation thought differently - and far from the concepts of worldly success. Foreign fame was not what the Russian inventor was striving for. Therefore, after the end of the Russian-Turkish war, he committed an act unexpected for our modern perception. He bought from the French company, which invested his work, for one million francs (!) the right to use his invention in his native country and went to Russia. By the way, a colossal amount of a million francs - this was the entire fortune accumulated by Yablochkov due to the popularity of his invention.
Yablochkov thought that after the European success he would have a warm welcome in his homeland. But he was wrong. Of course, Yablochkov's invention was now treated with more interest than before his departure abroad, but the industrialists this time were not ready to appreciate Yablochkov's candle.
By the time the material about Yablochkov was published in the pre-revolutionary "Science and Life" la lumiere russe started to fade. In Russia, arc lamps have not become widespread. In advanced countries, they have a serious competitor - an incandescent lamp.
Incandescent lamps have been developed since the beginning of the 19th century. One of the founders of this direction was the Englishman Delarue, who as early as 1809 received light by passing current through a platinum spiral. Later, our compatriot, retired officer Alexander Lodygin, created an incandescent lamp with several carbon rods - when one burned out, the other automatically turned on. Through constant refinement, Lodygin managed to raise the life of his lamps from half an hour to several hundred hours. It was he who was one of the first to pump out air from the bulb of the lamp. The talented inventor Lodygin was an unimportant entrepreneur, so he played a rather modest role in the history of electric lighting, although he undoubtedly did a lot.
The most famous character in the history of electricity was Thomas Alva Edison. And it should be recognized that the glory of the American inventor came deservedly. After Edison began developing the incandescent light bulb in 1879, he conducted thousands of experiments, spending more than $100,000 on research work, a fantastic amount at the time. The investment paid off: Edison created the world's first incandescent lamp with a long life (about 1000 hours), suitable for mass production. At the same time, Edison approached the matter systematically: in addition to the incandescent lamp itself, he developed in detail the systems of electric lighting and centralized power supply.
As for Yablochkov, in the last years of his life he led a rather modest life: the press forgot about him, and entrepreneurs did not turn to him either. The grandiose projects of arranging world capitals were replaced by more modest work on the creation of an electric lighting system in Saratov, the city where he spent his youth and where he now lives. Here Yablochkov died in 1894 - unknown and not rich.
For a long time it was believed that Yablochkov's arc lamps were a dead end branch in the evolution of artificial lighting. However, at some point, the brightness of arc lamps was appreciated by car companies. The Yablochkov candle was revived at a new technological level - in the form of gas-discharge lamps. Xenon lamps, which are installed in the headlights of modern cars, are in some way a highly improved Yablochkov candle.
Short information:
An arc lamp ("Yablochkov's Candle") is one of the variants of an electric carbon arc lamp, invented in 1876 by Pavel Yablochkov. It consists of two coal blocks, approximately 6 x 12 mm in cross section, separated by an inert material such as gypsum or kaolin. A jumper made of thin wire or carbon paste is fixed at the upper end.
Date of invention: 1899
Short information:
Light pressure was first studied experimentally by P. N. Lebedev in 1899. In his experiments, a torsion balance was suspended on a thin silver thread in an evacuated vessel, with thin disks of mica and various metals attached to the beams. The main difficulty was to distinguish light pressure against the background of radiometric and convective forces (forces due to the difference in temperature of the surrounding gas from the illuminated and unlit sides).
Description:
The first electric arc lamp was invented in 1802 by the Russian physicist V.V. Petrov. Its basis was made up of two coal rods, located horizontally. One of them was connected to the positive pole of the electric battery, the other to the negative. When heated, the rods began to glow, and a luminous electric arc appeared between them. To obtain such an arc, it was necessary to spread the carbon rods at a strictly defined distance, which was technically difficult to implement.
In the middle of the XIX century. the French physicist J. Foucault invented a regulator that automatically maintained the required distance between the coals. However, this complicated the design of the lamp. At the end of the XIX century. the idea of creating an easy-to-use electric light bulb, as they say, was in the air. P.N. Yablochkov was one of the first to tackle this problem.
"Candle Yablochkov" was distinguished by a simple design. The inventor placed the carbon electrodes not horizontally, as was done before him, but; vertically, placing an insulator (porcelain insert) between them. When an electric current was passed through the “candle”, a luminous arc appeared at the top, which ignited the electrodes. To achieve uniform illumination, Yablochkov coated the electrodes with a layer of kaolin, a white clay that acted as an insulator. The lamps worked for an hour and then burned out. To make the lamp shine longer, Yablochkov increased the thickness of one carbon rod and also used alternating current.
Glory came to the inventor. In Paris, the Louvre store was lit for the first time with his bulbs. Gas lamps on the streets of the French capital were dismantled - they were replaced everywhere by "Yablochkov's candles". Placed in white matte balls, they gave a pleasant bright light.
Yablochkov's lamps could be found not only in Paris: they burned on the central streets of all European capitals, in the halls and restaurants of the best hotels, on the alleys of the largest parks in Europe. The enterprises of the partnership produced 10,000 light bulbs a day, and they were sold out instantly (one light bulb cost 20 kopecks, which was not so cheap at that time).
But the triumph of the Russian inventor was short-lived. Soon they began to assert that in fact the light did not come from Russia, but from America, and that the Russian scientist deliberately made his lamps short-lived in order to get rich. But objectively, the future belonged not to an arc lamp, but to an incandescent lamp invented by our compatriot A.N. Lodygin and improved by T. Edison (we still use such a lamp).
In 1879 P.N. Yablochkov returned to Russia. In St. Petersburg, the production of arc lamps was launched, but it was not possible to launch them into widespread consumption. Nevertheless, the merit of the inventor is undeniable. Thanks to the “Yablochkov candle”, a new era has begun in people's lives: electric light has ceased to be perceived as a miracle. Today we remember P.N. Yablochkov with deep respect for his difficult life and his invention.
100 Great Russian Inventions, Veche 2008
Yablochkov Pavel Nikolaevich (1847-1894) - Russian inventor, military engineer and businessman. He is best known for his creation of the arc lamp, signal thermometer, and other inventions in the field of electrical engineering.
Pavel Yablochkov was born on September 2 (14), 1847 in the village of Zhadovka, Serdobsky district, Saratov province. His father, Nikolai Pavlovich, was a representative of an old dynasty, but by the time his son was born, he had become impoverished. In his youth, he proved himself in the naval service, but due to illness he was fired. Subsequently, he began to work as a mediator and justice of the peace. The mother of the inventor, Elizaveta Petrovna, was a housewife and, possessing an imperious character, held her entire large family in her hands (after Pavel, she gave birth to four more children).
Parents provided the boy with primary education right at home, where he was taught the basics of literacy, writing and counting, as well as the French language. But the real passion of Paul was the design of various devices. As a teenager, he created a device that helped to redistribute the land, as well as a distant analogue of the modern speedometer. The device was mounted on the carriage wheel and counted the distance traveled.
Years of study
At the insistence of his parents in 1859, Pavel, thanks to successfully passed tests, immediately entered the second grade of the Saratov gymnasium. But due to financial problems, three years later, the father was forced to pick up his son. According to another version, the unbearable conditions in the gymnasium, where corporal punishment was used, became the reason for the interruption of studies. For some time, Yablochkov stayed at his parents' house, and then he passed the exams and entered the Nikolaev Engineering School, located in the capital. It was an advanced educational institution of its time, where eminent scientists taught. While preparing for admission, Pavel attended preparatory courses, where he was greatly influenced by the military engineer Caesar Antonovich Cui.
Caesar Antonovich Cui - Lecturer at the Nikolaev Academy of Engineering
Pavel Nikolayevich's mentors were well-known professors Fedor Fedorovich Lasovsky, German Yegorovich Pauker, Ivan Alekseevich Vyshegradsky. They gave him an excellent knowledge base in electricity, magnetism, mathematics, fortification, artillery, drafting, military tactics and many other disciplines. The military methods of educating the school had a positive effect on the inventor - he acquired a military bearing and became physically stronger.
Military service
In 1866, Yablochkov graduated from college, received the rank of lieutenant engineer and was assigned to the fifth engineer battalion, located in Kyiv. The service did not arouse much enthusiasm in Pavel - he was full of creative ideas that it was not possible to implement in the barracks. In 1867, the scientist submits a letter of resignation due to illness. This allowed him to completely plunge into the world of electrical engineering and the result was not long in coming.
The inventor developed a self-excited generator, which initiated a lot of research in electrical engineering. However, there was no solid knowledge in electromagnetism and this limited its possibilities. In 1869, he was reinstated in the service with the rank of second lieutenant, which gave him the right to enter the St. Petersburg Galvanic classes, where they trained as military electrical engineers.
Staying at this educational institution was beneficial and Yablochkov became seriously acquainted with the most modern achievements in the field of electricity. For eight months, Pavel Nikolayevich listened to a course of lectures, which was combined with active practice. Professor Fyodor Fomich Petrushevsky supervised the training. At the end, each student of the course had an internship in Kronstadt, where they actively worked with galvanic mines.
According to the current rules, graduates of the galvanic classes had to serve for three years and Yablochkov was sent to the fifth engineer battalion, familiar to him, as the head of the galvanic service. Having served the full term, the inventor retires from military service forever and moves to Moscow.
New life
In Zlatoglavaya, Pavel Nikolayevich got a job as the head of the telegraph office of the Moscow-Kursk railway. One of the arguments that persuaded him to go to work was a good repair base. He actively continued his studies, absorbing the valuable experience of local electricians. An important role in the formation of the personality of the inventor was played by acquaintance with an electrical engineer who had a great talent as an inventor. Thus, the individual image of a scientist was gradually formed, who did not leave attempts to create something new.
At this time, he brought the faulty Trouvé electric motor (the name comes from the name of the French inventor Gustave Pierre Trouvé) into working order, developed a project to optimize the Gramme machine, and also created an explosive gas burner and a device for recording temperature changes in passenger cars. But it turned out to be inconsistent to create, since the main work took a lot of time.
Nevertheless, Yablochkov managed to delve deeply into the principle of operation of arc lamps, he conducted many experiments aimed at improving them. In 1873, the scientist began work in the workshop of physical instruments and a year later, he was the first in the world to create the design of electric searchlight lighting for railway tracks on a locomotive. In 1875, the scientist leaves for the USA for the world exhibition in Philadelphia, where he wanted to present his inventions. But financial affairs did not go well and Pavel Nikolayevich came to Paris instead of the United States.
Paris stage
In the French capital, he gets a job in the workshops of academician Louis Breguet, whose telegraph apparatus he was well acquainted with from his work in Moscow. In addition, he owned a large enterprise that produced various electrical appliances. The Russian inventor showed Breguet his electromagnet and the Frenchman immediately appreciated his talent.
Pavel Nikolayevich immediately set to work at the plant, simultaneously conducting experiments in his small room on the campus. Soon he completed work on several inventions and managed to patent them.
In March 1876, Yablochkov received a patent for the most famous invention - the famous electric candle (an arc lamp without a regulator). A scientist from Russia managed to create a light source that met the needs of the mass consumer. It was economical, simple and easy to use and made lighting accessible to all. Compared to a carbon lamp, Yablochkov's device contained carbon rods (electrodes) separated by a kaolin spacer.
Candle Yablochkov
Details about the Yablochkov candle are described in the video of the Chip and Dip channel.
Alexander Pushnoy demonstrates the principle of the Yablochkov candle in the Galileo program.
The success was stunning and the inventor who gave the world the “Russian light” was seriously talked about. Soon, Pavel Nikolayevich went as a representative of the Breguet company to an exhibition of physical instruments in London. Here he was waiting for a serious success, because Russian scientific circles learned about the fate of the electric candle. Upon his return to Paris, numerous businessmen were waiting for the scientist, who quickly realized what opportunities for profit were opened up by the creations of the Russian scientist.
Under the patronage of L. Breguet, the French inventor Auguste Deneyrouz, who organized a joint-stock company, took up the promotion of the arc lamp. The enterprise was engaged in the study of electric lighting, and Yablochkov was entrusted with providing scientific and technical guidance. His competence included supervision of production and work to improve the device. The company with an authorized capital of 7 million francs actually monopolized the production of "Russian light" on a global scale.
The next two years were very fruitful. Yablochkov was engaged in the installation of street lighting and public buildings in Paris and London. In particular, thanks to him, the bridge across the Thames, the Chatelet Theater, the London Theater and other objects were illuminated. From here, from Western Europe, electricity began to spread throughout the world. And it is no coincidence, since the Russian electrical engineer managed to optimize the candle to the possibility of being used in large lighting fixtures. "Russian Light" covered American San Francisco, Indian Madras and the palace of the King of Cambodia.
Candles Yablochkov installed on the Victoria Embankment (1878)
Along with this, he created a kaolin lamp, developed a transformer for dividing electric current. The Paris exhibition of 1878 was a true triumph for Yablochkov - there were always many visitors in his pavilion, who were shown many cognitive experiments.
Return to Russia
Dreams of the homeland did not leave the scientist during his stay in a foreign land. Here he received worldwide recognition, restored his commercial reputation, and paid off his accumulated debts. Before his trip to Russia, Pavel Nikolaevich bought a license for the right to use electric lighting in Russia. The company's management demanded the entire package of shares worth 1 million francs - the inventor agreed and received full carte blanche.
The scientific community in Russia warmly welcomed the return of the scientist, which cannot be said about the tsarist government, which made a suggestion to the inventor for supporting political emigrants abroad. But the most unpleasant thing was in something else - domestic entrepreneurs were practically not interested in an electric candle. I had to organize the business myself.
In 1879, a partnership was organized that was engaged in the creation of electric machines and electric lighting systems. Together with Yablochkov, such luminaries in the field of electrical engineering as Lodygin and Chikolev were engaged in work. From a commercial point of view, it was quite a successful project, but did not bring any moral satisfaction. Intellectually, Pavel Nikolayevich understood how few opportunities there were in Russia for the implementation of existing plans. In addition, in 1879, not the most joyful news came from across the ocean - he improved the incandescent lamp and found mass use for it. This was the last reason for moving to Paris.
New Paris Stage
In 1880, Yablochkov returned to the French capital, where he immediately began preparing for participation in the World Electrical Exhibition. Here, his inventions were again praised, but were set off by Edison's incandescent lamp. This made it clear that the triumph of the arc lamp is already over and the prospects for the development of this technology are very vague. Pavel Nikolayevich took this turn of events calmly and refused to further develop light sources. Now he was interested in electrochemical current generators.
The inventor will be torn between France and Russia for 12 years. It was a difficult time, because he did not feel at home in any country. The domestic ruling and financial elite perceived him as a waste material, and abroad he became a stranger, because the block of shares no longer belonged to the scientist. Yablochkov continued to work on electric motors and generators, studied the issues of alternating current transmission. But all developments were carried out in a tiny apartment, where there were no conditions for scientific research. During one of the experiments, the exploding gases almost killed the scientist. In the 90s, he patented several more inventions, but none of them allowed him to make a decent profit.
The health of the inventor left much to be desired. In addition to heart problems, lung disease was added, the mucous membrane of which was damaged by chlorine during the experiment. Yablochkov was pursued by chronic poverty, but the electrical company seriously got rich on his inventions. The inventor himself has repeatedly noted that he never aspired to become rich, but always counted on the full development of his scientific laboratory.
In 1889, Pavel Nikolaevich plunged headlong into preparations for the next International Exhibition, where he headed the Russian department. He helped engineers from Russia who arrived in Paris and accompanied them at all events. The weakened health of the inventor could not withstand such stress and he was partially paralyzed.
The return home took place at the very end of 1892. Petersburg met Yablochkov unfriendly and cold, next to him were only close friends and family. Many of those to whom he gave way to life turned away, there was not much to live on. Together with his wife and son, the scientist decided to return to his small homeland, where he died on March 19 (31), 1894.
Personal life
The inventor met his first wife, a school teacher, Lyubov Nikitina, in Kyiv. They married in 1871, but family life was relatively short, as the wife died at the age of 38 from tuberculosis. The marriage left four children, three of whom died at an early age. The second wife, Maria Albova, gave birth to Pavel Nikolaevich, the son of Plato, who later became an engineer.
- The first test of the lighting system of Pavel Nikolayevich was carried out in the barracks of the Kronstadt training crew on October 11, 1878.
- Each Yablochkov candle, let in at the Breguet plant, burned for only 1.5 hours and cost 20 kopecks.
- In 1876, Pavel Nikolayevich was elected a member of the French Physical Society.
- In Russia, the greatest interest in the arc lamp was shown in the fleet, where more than 500 lamps were installed.
- In 2012, a technopark appeared in Penza, named after the great inventor, who specializes in materials science and information technology.
Yablochkov Technopark, Penza
Video
The film "Great Inventors. Russian light of Yablochkov. LLC "Gringa" by order of CJSC "First TVCh", 2014
production
production
early 20th century
OK. 20 kopecks (Russia, late 19th century)
Candle Yablochkov- one of the options for an electric carbon arc lamp, invented in 1876 by Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov.
Invention history
History of creation
Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov began his first experiments with electric lighting in his Moscow workshop in 1872-1873. The scientist then worked with regulators of various systems, and then with the carbon lamp of A. N. Lodygin, which was released at that time. Yablochkov took thin coals and placed them between two conductors. In order to prevent coal from burning, he wrapped it with asbestos fibers (the so-called mountain flax). The idea was that the coal, when heated, would not burn out, but only the asbestos surrounding it would glow. Although these experiments were unsuccessful, they suggested to Yablochkov the idea of using clay and other similar materials in electric lighting.
In October 1875, during one of the experiments on the electrolysis of common salt, Pavel Nikolayevich discovered the possibility of an electric arc in the electrolytic bath between the ends of parallel carbon electrodes separated by a small gap. It was then, according to the memoirs of N. G. Glukhov, he had the idea of a more advanced device for an arc lamp without a regulator of the interelectrode distance - the future "Yablochkov candle".
In the same month, Yablochkov was forced to go abroad - to Paris, where he got a job at the electro-mechanical plant Louis Francois Clément Breguet.
By the beginning of the spring of 1876, Yablochkov completed the design of an electric candle and on March 23 of the same year received a French patent for it No. 112024 containing a brief description of the candle in its original forms and an image of these forms.
World recognition
The success of the electric candle was determined immediately; its significance was that electric lighting was presented to everyone not as a luxury item, but as a means that could become available to everyone. At the end of April 1876, the French professor Alfred Niode (fr. Alfred Niaudet) made the first public communication about the candle in the French Physical Society. The entire world press, especially the technical press, was full of information about the new light source.
At the end of the summer of 1876, Yablochkov returned from London to Paris, where he was introduced to the engineer and entrepreneur Louis Deneurose (fr. Louis Denayrouze) . On the advice of Antoine Breguet, Yablochkov signed an agreement with him for the practical implementation and commercial promotion of his inventions. On the basis of this contract, Deneyruz organized the Syndicate for the Study of Electric Light (Yablochkov's system) ( Syndicat d "études de la lumière électrique / system Jablochkoff /) . The syndicate began its activities at the end of 1876 with a fixed capital of 7 million francs. His workshops are located in a newly built building on Avenue de Villiers ( avenue de Villiers), 61 .
In April 1878, the Syndicate was reorganized into the General Electric Company. Yablochkov's processes" ( Societe generale d "elelectricité. Procedes Jablochkoff) .
P. N. Yablochkov carried out scientific and technical management in the company, supervised the production of candles and equipment and the operation of installations; L. Deneyruz and other representatives of the company - the organizational, financial and commercial aspects of the matter. The company immediately secured a monopoly on the operation of an electric candle and other inventions of P. N. Yablochkov in all countries of the world. Although Pavel Nikolayevich first offered the Russian privilege for his candle as a gift to the Russian military ministry, his proposal was not even honored with an answer. In the first years of its existence, the company's export turnover amounted to more than 5 million francs, of which 1.25 million were net profits from the sale of Yablochkov's patent. In addition to the production of candles, the company also carried out work on the installation of prime movers and dynamos for lighting installations with Yablochkov candles and their complete equipment.
At the same time, P. N. Yablochkov finally became convinced of the advantages that alternating current can give for the operation of electric candles. He began to consistently solve the problem of providing lighting installations with alternating current generators. The first step in this direction was the construction by the workshops of the Belgian inventor Zinob Theophilus Gramm of a special commutator, which was connected to the DC machine; however, this was only a partial solution to the problem. In 1877, Gramm produced the first AC machines to power Yablochkov's candles. With the help of these machines it was convenient to feed four separate circuits, each of which could include several candles. The machines were designed for electric candles of 100 carcels, that is, a luminous intensity of 961 candela. This was the world's first practical application of alternating current.
Yablochkov's work on transferring electric candles to AC power gave a big impetus to its other applications, which gives reason to consider P. N. Yablochkov the founder of the use of alternating currents.
In 1878, the General Electric Company acted as an exhibitor at the World Exhibition, which was held in Paris from May 1 to November 10. The pavilion with the exhibits of P. N. Yablochkov was completely independent at the exhibition; it was located in the park surrounding the main exhibition building - the Champ de Mars Palace. In addition, the entire territory of the exhibition was lit by Yablochkov's candles. .
commercial promotion
None of the inventions in the field of electrical engineering has received such rapid and widespread distribution as Yablochkov's candles. Large shops used it as a means of advertising, and large hotels - as a sign. It was a distinctive feature of all public holidays in the major cities of Europe. Within three years (from 1878 to 1881), the General Company installed about four thousand candles in large workshops, railway stations, public halls and squares, warehouses, theaters and several palaces.
In France
The first installation of candle lighting by Yablochkov was arranged in February 1877 in the Marengo hall of the Louvre department store ( Hall Marengo. Grands Magasins du Louvres) in Paris . It consisted of 4 lanterns powered by two machines Alliance. After a two-month experiment, 16 lanterns were put up. After 11 months - 86 lanterns. As a result of the experiment, both positive and negative results were revealed. There was an increase in illumination, the invariability of the colors of goods under electric lighting, in addition, savings, compared with gas lighting, amounted to about 22%. At the same time, flickering of the candles was observed, due to the heterogeneity of the coals and fluctuations in the engine speed, and the rattling of the caps (“singing” of the candle). In the lanterns, it was necessary to frequently change the candles after they burned out, and in order that the room would not remain in the dark, it turned out to be necessary to arrange a special device for changing lamps. In 1880, the Louvre department store was already illuminated by 96 lanterns with Yablochkov candles, in addition, lanterns were installed in the dining room and in the courtyard of the Louvre Hotel. Thus, the total number of lanterns here reached 134.
Following the Louvre department store, Yablochkov's candles were also installed in other large department stores in Paris - Prentham ( Au Printemps), Bon Marchais ( Le Bon Marche) .
The square in front of the building of the Paris Opera, illuminated by Yablochkov's candles (candelabra lanterns with three balls are visible near the facade)
On February 15, 1878, the Syndicate for the Study of Electric Light received permission to install 8 lanterns with Yablochkov candles on Opera Square ( place de l'Opera). On March 11 of the same year, the Syndicate proposed, for the period of the World Exhibition in Paris, in addition to Opera Square, to also illuminate one of the central thoroughfares of Paris - Opera Avenue ( avenue de l'Opera) and French Theater Square ( place du Theater-França; now Place André-Malraux). In addition, on April 11, the Syndicate, transformed into the General Electric Company, undertook to install illumination of the facades of the Legislative Building, the Church of St. Mary Magdalene and the Arc de Triomphe.
On May 11, 1878, the municipal council authorized the General Company to test electric lighting for 6 months.
The opening of the lighting took place on May 30, 1878. It was timed to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the death of Voltaire. The General Company estimated the total cost of lighting the Opera Square at 46,000 francs, the estimated cost of lighting the Opera Avenue and the French Theater Square was 100,000 francs.
Initially, the installation on Opera Avenue and adjacent squares included 40 lanterns, of which 8 were located on Opera Square, and 32 - on French Theater Avenue and Square. A few weeks later, the number of lanterns was increased to 62, of which 8 pairs of lanterns were located on Opera Square, 32 lanterns (16 on each side) on Opera Avenue and 14 on French Theater Square.
At first, ordinary city lights were used for Yablochkov's candles. A few days later they were replaced with frosted balls, which improved the distribution of light. The balls were mounted on high metal poles , which had an oak wooden plinth up to a height of 1.5 m from the ground . Each of the lanterns contained a candlestick for six candles, which were switched using a manual switch.
The installation was divided into four groups, each of which had a separate power source. One Gramma dynamo with a capacity of 20 l / s was installed in the basement of the Opera House; two of the same power were located in house number 28 on Opera Avenue, each of them fed 16 lamps located on the avenue; the fourth dynamo was located on Rue Argenteuil ( rue d'Argenteuil), she fed the installation on the square of the French Theater. The greatest distance from the lamp to the dynamo reached 1000 meters. At that time it was the farthest transmission of electrical energy at a distance. Each group of lamps was assigned a mechanic and an electrician-controller for switching switches, which was carried out on average at an interval of one and a half hours.
In addition, in front of the building of the Opera House, two artistic pillars-candelabra were installed on both sides, topped with three balls for Yablochkov's candles, which illuminated the facade of the theater. Each ball contained one candle. These candles were powered by two Alliance machines.
The hourly rate for one lantern was 1.25 francs. To illuminate the facades and monuments, lanterns with special reflectors were used, so the hourly payment from them was 1.75 francs.
On October 25, 1878, the General Company agreed to extend the test of electric lighting in front of the Chamber of Deputies and on Opera Avenue for another month. On November 30 of that year, the city council decided to extend the lighting until January 15, 1879, provided that its cost did not exceed the price of gas. In a letter dated December 2 , the company stated its agreement to these terms . For the first International Congress of Electricians in 1881, 60 frosted balls with Yablochkov candles were installed in the opera hall, placing them throughout the dome. These candles were powered by machines located in one of the theatre's cellars.
Objects in Paris lit by Yablochkov's candles |
 Opera Avenue |
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| Department Store Prentham | paris hippodrome | Mauritanian salon of the hotel Continental |
The largest of all was the installation of lighting at the Parisian hippodrome. His running track was illuminated by 20 arc lamps with reflectors, and the places for spectators were lit by 60 Yablochkov electric candles, located in two rows along the spectator seats and on four columns. To power the Yablochkov candles, three Gramma AC dynamos were installed, and 20 DC machines of the same system were installed to power the arc lamps. In addition, another dynamo was installed to power the arc lamp that illuminated the engine room. The cost of the entire installation was about 200 thousand francs; the total luminous intensity of all sources is 12,000 carcels, that is, 115,320 candelas.
Most of Yablochkov's candles were installed in the new Prentham department store. In 1882, 160 candles were installed here, enclosed in oval lanterns and hung on pendants. Two years later, their number was increased to 258.
Fulfilling an order for the lighting of the Chatelet theater ( Theater du Chatelet), Pavel Nikolaevich designed a simple device that helped regulate the voltage in the mains, making it possible to strengthen or weaken the light in the auditorium.
Yablochkov's candles in Paris also illuminated the Champs Elysees, the National Library, Place de la Bastille, Monceau Park, part of the Central Alley, the Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, 48 lanterns illuminated the Grand Hotel de Paris; in the Palace of Industry in 1879, there were 250 lanterns, in 1880 - more than 300. One of the most beautiful was the installation of lighting in the Mauritanian salon of the Continental Hotel ( Continental) in Paris .
Soon, Yablochkov's candles began to be installed in other cities of France: Anzen, Angers, Cueron, Beauvais, Lorient, Toulouse, Saint-Nazaire, Biarritz, Le Havre, Marseille, Toulon. In Lyon, they illuminated the Bellecour theater and the workshops of the Buir factory, in Lille - the workshops of the company Fives-Lille, where about 60 lanterns were installed, in Pompe (department of Meurthe and Moselle) - the forges of Dupont and Fould, in Reims - the spinning mill of Isaac Holden, in Saint-Chamon - the Company of blast furnaces, forges and steel mills of the Navy.
One of the largest in the early period of the development of electric lighting was the installation of lighting in the harbor and adjacent part of the embankment in the city of Le Havre. It was designed in 1880 and started functioning in 1881. A feature of the harbor of Le Havre was that ships could enter it only during high tides; if the tides were at night, then the ship remained in the outer roadstead, waiting for the tide to rise during the daylight hours. It was decided to arrange powerful electric lighting here, which would turn on from the beginning of the high tide and turn off an hour after it ended. Initially, 12 lanterns were installed here as an experiment. The lantern had two two-lamp candlesticks, and in each candlestick only one candle could burn at any time. An electromagnetic signaling acoustic device was included in the common wire, which came into action when the candle went out. The power plant consisted of two steam engines driving four Gram AC dynamos (one was a backup). Later, the number of lanterns was increased to 32. The port of Le Havre was illuminated by Yablochkov's candles until 1890.
Electric candles appeared on free sale and began to disperse in huge quantities. By 1879, for example, the General Electric Company alone was producing about 8,000 candles daily. The retail price has decreased from 1 franc to 60 centimes per candle . The cost of operating a candle from 1877 to 1881 decreased by almost 7 times. So, in 1877, the operation of one candle cost 66 centimes per hour, in 1878 - 40 centimes per hour, in 1879 it decreased to 25 centimes, in 1880 - to 20, in June 1881 - to 15, by October the same year - no more than 10 centimes per hour.
In the British Empire
London, Victoria Embankment, lit by Yablochkov's candles (1878)
On June 17, 1877, Yablochkov's candles were installed at the West India Docks in London. A little later, candles were installed in the Metropole Hotel, Hatfield House, the British Museum. They illuminated the Westgate sea sandy beaches and stations of the Circle Line of the London Underground Charing Cross (now Embankment) and Victoria. The most prominent illuminated area in London was part of the Thames Embankment with Waterloo Bridge (Victoria Embankment), where sixty lanterns with Yablochkov candles were used from 1878 to 1884.
In addition to London, electric light appeared in Glasgow, Liverpool, Birmingham.
To guide the work on the device and operation of electric lighting in the UK was created (“Company of electric energy and light according to the Yablochkov method”) with a capital of 300 thousand pounds sterling. The company bought out the right to lighting with Yablochkov candles throughout the British Empire, including colonial possessions. The company was located at No. 1 Great Winchester Street. Great Wincester street) in London and had a factory for the production of candles, machines and apparatus.
The success of Yablochkov's coverage caused panic among the shareholders of British gas companies. They launched a campaign to discredit the electric method of lighting. At their insistence, the British Parliament set up a special commission in 1879 to consider the admissibility of the widespread use of electric lighting in the British Empire. However, after lengthy debates and listening to testimonies, members of the commission did not come to a consensus on this issue.
At least 250 lanterns with Yablochkov's candle were supplied by the General Company to British India. They were installed in Delhi, Calcutta, Madras and several other cities. There were six candles in the residence of Prince Aga Khan in Bombay (Mumbai).
In Germany
Almost simultaneously with England, Yablochkov's candles (five lanterns, four candles in each) were installed in the trading office of Julius Michaelis (German. Julius Michaelis) in Berlin. A few days after that, Yablochkov's candles lit up Spindler's shop on Wallstrasse; and then the Chamber of Deputies in Berlin and the hall of the Berlin main post office. P. N. Yablochkov himself went to provide technical assistance in installing candles. In addition to Berlin, Yablochkov's candles appeared in Hannover and Hamburg, as well as in the imperial land of Alsace-Lorraine (now part of France).
Other countries
In Europe, within four years, electric lighting appeared in Belgium, Portugal, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland. In Italy, they illuminated the Colosseum, the National Street and the Column Square in Rome and the square in front of the Cathedral in Naples; in Austria - the Volskgarten park in Vienna, in Greece - the Bay of Falerno, in Spain - the Puerta del Sol in Madrid, in the Netherlands 50 lanterns lit up the Antwerp railway station.
On the American continent, Yablochkov's electric candles were first installed in 1878 at the California Theater ( California Theater; now defunct) in San Francisco. On December 26 of the same year, Yablochkov's candles lit up John Wanamaker's stores. John Wanamaker) in Philadelphia; then the streets and squares of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and the cities of Mexico. At the end of 1878, 20 Yablochkov candles were ordered in Paris to illuminate the train station of the Bonaventure railway station and the Notre Dame de Montreal Cathedral in Montreal, Canada. The general company had facilities in Argentina, Cuba, Reunion and elsewhere.
In Asia, four Yablochkov candles were installed in the Persian Shah's palace in Tehran. Later, within 8 months, he ordered 20 lanterns. Yablochkov's candles were in the palace of the King of Cambodia. King Thibaut of Burma installed sixty lamps in his palace at Mandalay.
Candle Yablochkov in Russia
Petition of the Association of Electric Lighting and the Production of Electrical Machines and Apparatus in Russia by P. N. Yablochkov to the St. Petersburg City Duma for permission to experiment with electric lighting of Catherine Square (March 27, 1879)
Catherine's Square in St. Petersburg, illuminated by Yablochkov's electric candles
Foundry bridge in St. Petersburg illuminated by Yablochkov's electric candles
Russian scientific circles learned about Yablochkov's electric candle from representatives from Russia who were present at the London Exhibition of Physical Instruments. On October 5 (17), 1876, at the 39th meeting of the Physics Department of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society at St. Petersburg University, Professor F. F. Petrushevsky made a report on the Yablochkov candle. On December 30, 1876 (January 11, 1877), Professor A. S. Vladimirsky demonstrated in Moscow the effect of electric candles brought by him from London.
During the World Exhibition of 1878, orders were placed for equipment and materials for the installation of the first lighting installations according to the Yablochkov system in Russia: the barracks in Kronstadt, the streets in front of the house of the chief commander of the Kronstadt port and the steamship plant. The maritime department of the Russian Empire became interested in the prospects for the use of electricity in maritime affairs.
The first test of electric lighting according to the Yablochkov system was carried out in Russia on October 11 (23), 1878. On this day, the barracks of the Kronstadt training crew were illuminated. On November 23 (December 5) of the same year, lighting with one Yablochkov candle was tested in the lantern of the square near the house occupied by the commander of the Kronstadt seaport. At the end of November, Yablochkov's candles were tested at the Kronstadt steamship plant. Here, electric candles were used in balls with conical tinplate reflectors. A total of 112 lanterns were installed at the steamship plant. During experiments in the Kronstadt Naval Library and in the Naval Assembly, which lasted 48 days, 941 candles were used up.
On November 21 (December 3), 1878, the electric lighting experiment was carried out by naval electrical officers in the Mikhailovsky Manege. Here, during the week, 10 lanterns were lit, 4 candles each, mounted on poles.
On December 4 (16), 1878, Yablochkov's candles (8 balls) lit up the Bolshoi Theater in St. Petersburg for the first time.
At the end of 1878, Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov returned to Saint Petersburg. In April 1979, he organized the "Partnership on the faith of electric lighting and the manufacture of electrical machines and apparatus - P. N. Yablochkov-inventor and Co.", which immediately began the construction of a number of electric lighting installations.
On March 22 (April 3), Yablochkov's candles illuminated the Palace Bridge across the Neva. They illuminated only half of the bridge (8 lanterns), for the second one Chikolev's differential lamps were used.
March 27 (April 8), 1879 partnership, “wishing to show the city the possibility of benefit and advantages of electric lighting of central squares over gas lighting”, filed a petition to the St. Petersburg City Duma. The partnership asked for permission to set up an experiment with electric lighting on Ekaterininskaya Square (now Ostrovsky Square) "Eight lanterns with Yablochkov's candles" for 2-3 weeks at your own expense. Due to various delays by the police and theater management, the installation of electrical equipment did not begin until 13 April. The next day, at 9 pm, Ekaterininskaya Square was illuminated. The first three days, the lighting continued until 12 am, and from April 17 to May 2 - all night, simultaneously with the city gas lighting, which was finally extinguished on the square from April 22.
After the satisfactory results of the first experiments with electric lighting in St. Petersburg, the City Council decided to use this method to illuminate the new Liteiny Bridge. According to the estimate, it turned out that, although the lighting device would cost 8 thousand more than gas, the annual electricity consumption would be 700 rubles less. In May 1879, the Duma decided to hand over the lighting of the bridge to the partnership "Yablochkov and Co" for ten years, obliging them to put 12 arc lamps. The experiments on lighting the Liteiny Bridge were the longest: they lasted continuously for 227 days. During this time, there were only 19 cases of lights going out for 3-6 minutes, caused by the jumping off of the drive belts from the dynamo shafts.
With the greatest interest, lighting installations according to the Yablochkov system were met in the institutions of the Navy. In the spring of 1879, the maritime department began to experiment with electric lighting using the Yablochkov system on the ships of the Baltic Fleet "Peter the Great" and "Vice-Admiral Popov". Lighting on the ship "Peter the Great" consisted of 9 lanterns connected in three independent circuits: 1) two distinctive and a landing lantern; 2) one lantern in the admiral's cabin and two in the wardroom; 3) two lanterns above the engine hatches and one for bow tower lighting. Such ship lighting installations were the first of their kind, until that time it was possible to meet lighting on ships, carried out using a single arc lamp.
These experiments contributed to the expansion of the use of the Yablochkov system for lighting ships. By 1882, 178 Yablochkov candles were operating on the ships of the Baltic Fleet. On the Black Sea, combat lighting was installed on 6 ships and 4 boats, and deck lighting was installed using 62 Yablochkov candles. On the imperial yacht "Livadia" in 1880, 48 lanterns were installed, while installations for lighting streets, squares, stations and gardens each had no more than 10-15 lanterns.
In October 1879, 6 Yablochkov candles were installed in the bulkhead workshop of the Okhta capsule plant. Lighting of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg began with 8 lanterns, by 1880 there were already more than 100 of them. Electric light also appeared at the Baltic shipbuilding, Putilov, Obukhov, Izhora and other large factories, theaters, the Expedition for the Procurement of State Papers, and in the Summer Garden. Some restaurants and mansions were lit up.
Candle lighting installation for Yablochkov residential building (1886)
Most of the work on the installation of electric candles, the development of technical plans and projects was carried out under the leadership of Pavel Nikolaevich. By the middle of 1880, about 500 lanterns with Yablochkov candles were installed in Russia, more than half of them - on military ships and at factories of the military and naval departments. Yablochkov's candles, manufactured by the St. Petersburg plant of the partnership, were lit in Moscow and the Moscow region, Kyiv (in the workshops of the Kiev-Brest railway), Nizhny Novgorod, Helsingfors (Helsinki), Odessa, Kharkov, Nikolaev, Bryansk, Arkhangelsk, Poltava, Krasnovodsk (Turkmenbashi), Krasnodar and other cities of Russia. One candle cost about 20 kopecks.
In Saratov, experiments with street lighting began in February 1880. Yablochkov's candles illuminated the entrance to the Nikitin brothers' circus. Of the private mansions, the Schmidt flour mill house on Nikolskaya street (now Radishcheva street) and the house of Count Uvarov on the corner of Krapivnaya (T. Shevchenko street) and Volskaya streets were the first to be equipped with electricity.
On November 25, 1881, 16 lanterns with Yablochkov's candles illuminated the area of the Great Gatchina Palace for the first time. The next day, November 26, the swearing-in of the Grand Dukes Pavel Alexandrovich, Dmitry Konstantinovich and Mikhail Mikhailovich took place here at the solemn announcement of the coming of age of Their Highnesses.
Electric lighting in Russia is not as widespread as it is abroad. There were many reasons for this: the Russian-Turkish war, which diverted a lot of money and attention, the technical backwardness of Russia, the inertia, and sometimes the bias of the city authorities.
Stopping work on the candle
The appearance in 1880 of T. Edison's electric incandescent lamp, accompanied by loud advertising, began to respond unfavorably to the further successes of electric arc lamps. During the International Electrical Exhibition in Paris in 1881, the Yablochkov candle still continued to be the most common and most satisfactory electrical light source. It was widely used to illuminate the pavilions, the Trocadero Palace and the exhibition area. Yablochkov's inventions presented at the exhibition received the highest rating and were recognized by the decision of the International Jury out of competition.
However, for the first time, T. Edison's exhibits were widely presented at this exhibition, including the incandescent lamp, the advantages of which were convincingly shown. It could burn for 800-1000 hours without replacement, it could be ignited, extinguished and re-ignited many times. In addition, it was also more economical than a candle.
The lighting of Opera Avenue in Paris with Yablochkov's candles was discontinued in 1882, the Palace Bridge in St. Petersburg - immediately after the expiration of a ten-year contract concluded in 1879 between the St. Petersburg City Administration and the partnership "Yablochkov the inventor and Co."
In 1883 a British company Jablochkoff Electric Light and Power Company lost a contract to cover the Strand County newsroom ( Strand Vestry) Swan-Edison Company ( Swan-Edison Company). By October of that year, it was bankrupt. Lanterns with Yablochkov's candles were removed from the Thames embankment, and by the beginning of 1885 it was again lit with gas. However, candle lighting in England continued until 1887, and London Underground stations and some other places were lit until 1890.
All this had a strong influence on the further work of Pavel Nikolaevich. From 1881, he decisively stopped his work on the candle and electric lighting and concentrated on creating devices for cheaper and easier generation of electrical energy.
Design features
Yablochkov candle device
Candlesticks for Yablochkov candles with spring clip
Components of the Yablochkov candle
Candle lamp Yablochkov (Paris)
The design of the candle, designed for mass distribution, was developed by P. N. Yablochkov based on experience in lighting the Louvre department store.
Candle Yablochkov consists of the following parts:
To power the candles, a voltage of 50-60 V was used. The intensity of the candles was 40-60 karsels (384-577 candela), they burned from 1.5 to 2 hours. Their luminous efficacy ranged from 4.5 to 8 lm/W. The weight of the candle is about 100 grams.
The candle was installed in a special candlestick, consisting of two insulated metal (copper, brass) clamps, one of which was fixed, and the second was fixed on a spring hinge. The clamps had semi-cylindrical grooves into which brass candle pins were inserted. Both clamps were mounted on a stand made of slate or some other material and connected by a return wire.
The candles were covered with glazed frosted milk glass balls. The ball is usually 400 mm in diameter and has a hole at the top. The height of the lantern reached 700 mm, in its base there were doors for ventilation.
As a current source for candles, Yablochkov initially used the Alliance dynamo ( Alliance; for example, to illuminate the Louvre department store), since 1877, Gramma machines were most often used, starting from 1879, Siemens machines began to be used.
Features of making candles
Candle electrodes were made from crushed and carefully sieved coke and coal tar with the addition of alabaster. With the help of a simple press, thin round sticks, about 50 cm long, were squeezed out of this viscous homogeneous and plastic mass, which were then cut in half. This was done so that both electrodes of the candle had the same composition. Then the electrodes were calcined without access to air, after which they became solid.
Of great importance in the manufacture of candles was the nature of the insulating material (columbine), which was placed between the electrodes, as well as the quality of its adhesion to coals. If the columbine broke during combustion, or a piece broke off from it, or it was consumed faster than coals, then the arc descended into the cavity formed, its temperature dropped, and the light acquired undesirable reddish hues.
Candle design development
Options for the location of coals in a candle, patented by P. N. Yablochkov in 1876
The general scheme of Yablochkov's electrical lighting: a lantern for 4 candles with a switch, powered by a Gram dynamo
The first model of the Yablochkov candle, which was shown at an exhibition in London, consisted of two parallel coals. In order for the arc to burn only at the end of the coals, one of them was surrounded by a low-melting porcelain tube or a white glass tube. When the coals were burned, this tube gradually melted. Outwardly, the porcelain shell of coal resembled a stearin candle, as a result of which this light source was given the name electric candle.
For his candles, Yablochkov used coals developed in 1868 specifically for electric light by the French engineer Ferdinand Carré. Due to the fact that the coals burned differently when powered by direct current, the positive coal was made twice as thick as the negative one. This very well compensated for its high burning rate, however, it created a new inconvenience. The thinner negative carbon, having greater resistance, reddened over most of its length and quickly burned out. In addition, the thicker positive electrode produced a rather noticeable shadow. Further research showed that uniform combustion of coals of the same section is possible only when using alternating current to power the candle.
Initially, a carbon stick with an insulating handle was used to ignite the arc, which was applied to the ends of the coals while current was passed through them. However, this method turned out to be very inconvenient.
Constantly making improvements to the design of the lamp, Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov, in addition to the main French patent No. 112024, received six more additions to it.
Soon he abandoned the porcelain tube, replacing it with a semi-oval insulating plate made of kaolin (china clay). The length of the carbon blocks was increased to 120 mm, the cross section of both electrodes became the same - 4 mm in diameter. A contactor in the form of a charred plate attached by means of a paper strip was installed on the upper edge of the coals. When the candle was connected to an alternating current source, the safety jumper at the end burned out, setting the arc on fire. The candle burned for ¾ hours; after this time, a new candle had to be inserted into the lantern. The strength of the light of candles was 20-25 carcels, that is, 192-240 candela. These candles were used to light the Louvre department store.
Having settled first on kaolin as an insulating layer, Pavel Nikolaevich continued to look for other materials suitable for this. In addition, he experimented with painting arc flames in different colors. The kaolin plate gave a bluish light, from lime and quartz it became slightly yellowish. Candles intended for street, theatrical and indoor lighting were most often made of alabaster, giving a pinkish color. The color intensity may vary. With the addition of barium salts, the pink light softened even more, approaching natural; with the addition of strontium salts, it became more intense. The first addition to patent No. 112024, dated September 16, 1876, secured Yablochkov's priority in replacing kaolin with other silicate-like substances with additives of metal salts for flame coloring.
In the second addition dated October 2, 1876, Yablochkov provided for the use of such mixtures as an insulating layer that, under the influence of heating, can turn into a small amount of semi-liquid fluid mass and form an arc in the place between the electrodes where this drop will touch the electrodes; in this case, the arc can move during the motion of the semi-liquid drop. Such substances are able to increase the length of the arc at the same voltage, which was used by Yablochkov to make candles for different light intensities. However, such isolation between the electrodes has not entered into wide practice.
At the same time, Yablochkov patented the manufacture of candles of several calibers according to the intensity of light. As a result of long work, he managed to achieve uniformity in the quality of coals and produce them in a fairly large assortment with light intensity from 8 to 600 carcels, that is, from 77 to 5766 candelas.
The third addition to the main patent, taken on October 23, 1876, provided for the manufacture of the insulating mass not from solid pieces, but from powder. In this case, the coals were surrounded by a shell (sleeve), the outer part of which was made of asbestos cardboard. The coals around the shell were surrounded by powder, the shells of coals were also separated from each other by powder. The powder that Yablochkov considered most suitable consisted of one part lime, four parts sand and two parts talc. The sleeve was sealed with potassium silicate. Under the action of the arc, the cartridge case with the filler ignited with a bright flame. However, the lack of photometric data makes it impossible to judge the benefits of a flamed electric candle.
One of the design options for the candle involved the use of a kaolin tube with a carbon cylinder inside, surrounded by a carbon tube, instead of two coal sticks. According to the fourth amendment dated November 21, 1876, the coals were replaced by tubes made of conductive materials. The tubes were filled with a mixture similar to that used for insulation, which also included powdered coal. These variants of the electric candle did not enter into wide practice.
By 1879, Yablochkov managed to make significant changes to the design of the candle. The insulating layer instead of kaolin was now made from a mixture of equal parts of gypsum (lime sulphate) with barium sulphate. This mass evaporated at the temperature of the voltaic arc, increasing the brightness of the light produced. In addition, this mass is very easy to cast into molds. Two workers could produce up to 15,000 insulating plates in a day. To ensure a new ignition, after the candle went out, up to 10% zinc powder was added to the mass. On the new composition of the insulating layer on March 11, 1879, Yablochkov received the sixth, last, addition to patent No. 112024. The length of the coal blocks was brought to 275 mm, of which 225 mm was useful. In general, thanks to the improvement of the material from which the candles were made, their service life was doubled and brought to one and a half hours.
In 1879, the chief engineer of the St. Petersburg plant, N.P. Bulygin, proposed to cover the carbon rods with copper. To do this, after finishing, they were immersed for 10-15 minutes in a bath with a solution of copper sulfate. At the same time, the rods were metallized, that is, covered with a thin layer of copper and acquired a reddish tint. Copper served as a moderator during the burning of the candle. Such a candle burned 20 minutes longer than an ungalvanized one.
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| Coal for candles Yablochkov. Products of the plant "Electrougli" A. I. Byuksenmeister (Kineshma) | Candle Yablochkov (coal block with kaolin) | Candlestick P. N. Yablochkov for 4 candles | P. N. Yablochkov's candlestick for 8 candles and a commutator for it |
To increase the lighting time, a design was developed for a lantern for 4 candles (used on Opera Avenue), in which four holders were placed crosswise on a common stand; in this case, the four internal contacts were one, having a common terminal for current supply, and the four external contacts were isolated and had separate terminals. The central terminal was connected to one pole of the machine, and each of the outer terminals was connected to the contacts of a lever switch. Four such lamps were connected in series into one circuit of the Gramm machine. The switch was hidden at the base of the lamppost and protected from interference by unauthorized persons. Later, candlesticks for 6, 8 and 12 candles appeared.
At first, switching from one candle to another was carried out using a manual switch installed in the base
P.N. Yablochkov was born on September 14 (26), 1847 in the Saratov province, in the family of an impoverished nobleman. From childhood he was fond of designing: he came up with a device for land surveying, which later the peasants of the surrounding villages used during land redistribution; a device for counting the path traveled by a cart is a prototype of modern odometers.
He was educated first at the Saratov Men's Gymnasium, then at the Nikolaev Engineering School in St. Petersburg. In January 1869, P.N. Yablochkov was sent to the Technical Electroplating Institute in Kronstadt, at that time it was the only school in Russia that trained military specialists in the field of electrical engineering. After completing his studies, he was appointed head of the galvanic team of the 5th engineer battalion, and after three years of service he retired.
After P.N. Yablochkov worked on the Moscow-Kursk railway as the head of the telegraph service, here he created a "black-writing telegraph apparatus".
P.N. Yablochkov was a member of the circle of electricians-inventors and lovers of electrical engineering at the Moscow Polytechnic Museum. Here he learned about the experiments of A. N. Lodygin on lighting streets and premises with electric lamps. After that, he decided to improve the then existing arc lamps. He began his inventive activity with an attempt to improve the most common Foucault regulator at that time. The regulator was very complex, operated with the help of three springs and required continuous attention.
In the spring of 1874, Pavel Nikolaevich had the opportunity to practically apply an electric arc for lighting. A government train was supposed to follow from Moscow to Crimea. The administration of the Moscow-Kursk road, for the sake of traffic safety, decided to light the railway track for this train at night and turned to Yablochkov as an engineer interested in electric lighting. For the first time in the history of railway transport, a searchlight with an arc lamp - a Foucault regulator - was installed on a steam locomotive. Yablochkov, standing on the front platform of the locomotive, changed the coals, twisted the regulator; and when they changed the locomotive, he dragged his searchlight and wires from one locomotive to another and strengthened them. This went on all the way, and although the experiment was a success, he once again convinced Yablochkov that this method of electric lighting could not be widely used and the regulator had to be simplified.
After leaving the telegraph service in 1874, Yablochkov opened a workshop for physical instruments in Moscow. According to the memoirs of one of his contemporaries:
"It was the center of bold and witty electrical events that sparkled with novelty and were 20 years ahead of the time."Together with the electrical engineer N. G. Glukhov, Yablochkov conducted experiments to improve electromagnets and arc lamps. He attached great importance to the electrolysis of common salt solutions. In itself, an insignificant fact played a big role in the further inventive fate of P. N. Yablochkov. In 1875, during one of the numerous experiments on electrolysis, parallel coals immersed in an electrolytic bath accidentally touched each other. An electric arc flashed between them, illuminating the walls of the lab for a brief moment. It was at these moments that P.N. Yablochkov, the idea arose of a more advanced device for an arc lamp (without a regulator of the interelectrode distance) - the future "Yablochkov candle".
In the autumn of 1875, P. N. Yablochkov left for Paris, where by the beginning of spring 1876 he had completed the design of an electric candle. On March 23, he received a French patent for it No. 112024. This day became a historical date, a turning point in the history of the development of electrical and lighting engineering.
Yablochkov's candle turned out to be simpler, more convenient and cheaper to operate than A. N. Lodygin's coal lamp, it had neither mechanisms nor springs. It consisted of two rods separated by an insulating gasket made of kaolin. Each of the rods was clamped in a separate terminal of the candlestick. An arc discharge was ignited at the upper ends, and the arc flame shone brightly, gradually burning the coals and evaporating the insulating material. Yablochkov had to work very hard on the choice of a suitable insulating substance and on methods for obtaining suitable coals. Later, he tried to change the color of electric light by adding various metallic salts to the evaporating partition between the coals.
On April 15, 1876, an exhibition of physical instruments opened in London, at which P.N. Yablochkov exhibited his candle and held a public demonstration of it. On low metal pedestals, Yablochkov placed four candles wrapped in asbestos and set at a great distance from each other. The current from the dynamo, which was in the next room, was connected to the lamps by wires. By turning the handle, the current was switched on, and immediately a very bright, slightly bluish electric light flooded the vast room. The large audience was delighted. So London became the site of the first public demonstration of a new light source.
The success of Yablochkov's candle exceeded all expectations. The world press was full of headlines:
"You must see Yablochkov's candle"Companies for the commercial exploitation of the "Yablochkov candle" were founded in many countries of the world. Pavel Nikolayevich himself, having ceded the right to use his inventions to the owners of the French General Electricity Company with Yablochkov's patents, as the head of its technical department, continued to work on further improvement of the lighting system, being content with more than a modest share of the company's huge profits.
"The invention of the Russian retired military engineer Yablochkov is a new era in technology"
"Light comes to us from the North - from Russia"
"Northern light, Russian light, is a miracle of our time"
"Russia is the birthplace of electricity"
Yablochkov's candles appeared on sale and began to diverge in huge quantities, each candle cost about 20 kopecks and burned for 1½ hours; after this time, a new candle had to be inserted into the lantern. Subsequently, lanterns with automatic replacement of candles were invented.
In February 1877, the fashionable shops of the Louvre were illuminated with electric lights. No less admirable was the lighting of the huge Parisian covered hippodrome. His treadmill was illuminated by 20 arc lamps with reflectors, and the seats for spectators were lit by 120 Yablochkov electric candles arranged in two rows.
The new electric lighting is conquering England, France, Germany, Belgium and Spain, Portugal and Sweden with exceptional speed. In Italy, they illuminated the ruins of the Colosseum, National Street and Colon Square in Rome, in Vienna - Folskgarten, in Greece - Falerno Bay, as well as squares and streets, seaports and shops, theaters and palaces in other countries.
The radiance of the "Russian world" crossed the borders of Europe. Candles Yablochkov appeared in Mexico, India and Burma. Even the Shah of Persia and the King of Cambodia illuminated their palaces with "Russian light".
In Russia, the first test of electric lighting according to the Yablochkov system was carried out on October 11, 1878. On this day, the barracks of the Kronstadt training crew and the area near the house occupied by the commander of the Kronstadt seaport were illuminated. On December 4, 1878, Yablochkov's candles, 8 balls, lit up the Bolshoi Theater in St. Petersburg for the first time. As the Novoye Vremya newspaper wrote in its December 6 issue:
“Suddenly, an electric light was lit, a white bright, but not a cutting eye, but a soft light instantly spread across the hall, in which the colors and colors of women's faces and toilets retained their naturalness, as in daylight. The effect was amazing.”None of the inventions in the field of electrical engineering has received such rapid and widespread distribution as Yablochkov's candles.
During his stay in France, P.N. Yablochkov worked not only on the invention and improvement of the electric candle, but also on solving other practical problems.
Only in the first year and a half - from March 1876 to October 1877 - he presented mankind with a number of other outstanding inventions and discoveries: he designed the first alternating current generator, which, unlike direct current, ensured uniform burnout of carbon rods in the absence of a regulator; first applied alternating current for industrial purposes, created an alternating current transformer (November 30, 1876, the date of obtaining a patent, is considered the date of birth of the first transformer), an electromagnet with a flat winding and was the first to use static capacitors in an alternating current circuit. Discoveries and inventions allowed Yablochkov to be the first in the world to create a system for "crushing" electric light, that is, supplying a large number of candles from one current generator, based on the use of alternating current, transformers and capacitors.
In 1877, the Russian naval officer A.N. Khotinsky received cruisers in America that were being built by order of Russia. He visited Edison's laboratory and gave him A. N. Lodygin's incandescent lamp and the "Yablochkov candle" with a light splitting scheme. Edison made some improvements and in November 1879 he received a patent for them as for his inventions. Yablochkov spoke out in print against the Americans, saying that Thomas Edison stole from the Russians not only their thoughts and ideas, but also their inventions. Professor V. N. Chikolev wrote then that Edison's method was not new and its updates were insignificant.
In 1878, Yablochkov decided to return to Russia to deal with the problem of the spread of electric lighting. Shortly after the arrival of the inventor in St. Petersburg, the joint-stock company "Partnership of Electric Lighting and the Production of Electrical Machines and Apparatus P. N. Yablochkov the Inventor and Co." was established. Yablochkov's candles were lit in many Russian cities. By the middle of 1880, about 500 lanterns with Yablochkov candles were installed. However, electric lighting in Russia is not as widespread as it is abroad. There were many reasons for this: the Russian-Turkish war, which diverted a lot of money and attention, the technical backwardness of Russia, the inertia of the city authorities. It was not possible to create a strong company with the attraction of large capital, the lack of funds was felt all the time. An important role was played by the inexperience in the financial and commercial affairs of P.N. Yablochkov.
In addition, by 1879, T. Edison in America brought the incandescent lamp to practical perfection, which completely replaced arc lamps. The exhibition, which opened on August 1, 1881 in Paris, showed that Yablochkov's candle and his lighting system began to lose their significance. Although Yablochkov's inventions were highly acclaimed and declared out of competition by the International Jury, the exhibition itself was a triumph for the incandescent lamp, which could burn for 800-1000 hours without replacement. It could be ignited, extinguished and re-ignited many times. In addition, it was more economical than a candle. All this had a strong influence on the further work of Pavel Nikolayevich, and from that time on he completely switched to the creation of a powerful and economical chemical current source. In a number of schemes of chemical current sources, Yablochkov was the first to propose wooden separators for separating the cathode and anode spaces. Subsequently, such separators have found wide application in the construction of lead-acid batteries.
Work with chemical current sources turned out to be not only little studied, but also life-threatening. Carrying out experiments with chlorine, Pavel Nikolaevich burned the mucous membrane of his lungs. In 1884, during the experiments, an explosion of a soda battery occurred, P.N. Yablochkov almost died, and suffered two strokes after that.
He spent the last year of his life with his family in Saratov, where he died on March 19 (31), 1894. On March 23, his ashes were buried on the outskirts of the village of Sapozhok (now the Rtishchevsky district), in the fence of the Mikhailo-Arkhangelsk Church in the family crypt.
In the late 1930s, the Mikhailo-Arkhangelsk Church was destroyed, and the family crypt of the Yablochkovs was also damaged. The grave of the inventor of the candle was also lost. But on the eve of the 100th anniversary of the scientist, the President of the USSR Academy of Sciences S. I. Vavilov decided to clarify the burial place of Pavel Nikolaevich. On his initiative, a commission was created. Its members traveled to more than 20 villages in the Rtishchevsky and Serdobsky districts, and in the archives of the Saratov Regional Registry Office they managed to find the metric book of the parish church in the village of Sapozhok. By decision of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a monument was erected on the grave of P. N. Yablochkov, the opening of which took place on October 26, 1952. The words of P.N. Yablochkov.
