Content indicated by a particular linguistic expression with a word, sentence, sign, etc. The question of the Z. of linguistic expressions is investigated by linguistics, semiotics, and logical semantics. Distinguish between objective, semantic and expressive Z. linguistic ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
meaning- VALUE MEANING FRANZ. signification, signifiant, SIGNIFIE. The basic concepts of modern linguistics for describing a sign were substantiated by the classic of this science F. de Saussure. According to the definition of the scientist, the signifier / signified are ... ... Postmodernism. Glossary of terms.
VALUE, VALUE, I; Wed 1. The main semantic content of what l. H. concepts. Z. look, gesture. Z. speeches, speeches. Determine h. the words. Lexical z. words (the concept denoted by it). Complete, direct, literal, figurative z. the words. 2. ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Meaning: The meaning is the semantic content of a word, phrase or sign. The value of the function is the result of evaluating the function. The absolute value is the modulus of the number. The value of a quantity is the ratio of a measured physical quantity to a unit ... ... Wikipedia
Content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. Z. linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, logic, and semiotics. In the science of language, under Z. (see. Lexical meaning) is understood as semantic ...
The semantic content of a word, reflecting and consolidating in the mind the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon, etc. encyclopedic Dictionary
Meaning- (Common Slavic., from the word "sign") 1. quantity or value, expressed as a number; 2. information about something objectively existing, about its role in what is happening (the term meaning rather conveys the personal value of an object or such information for an individual). * ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
meaning- meaning / nye 1) The main semantic content of which l. The meaning of the concept. The meaning of the look, gesture. Meaning of speech, performance. Determine the meaning of the word. The lexical meaning of the word (the concept denoted by it) ... Dictionary of many expressions
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A material object (phenomenon, event) acting as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and used for the acquisition, storage, processing and transmission of messages (information, knowledge). Distinguish ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Books
- School dictionary. Names and titles. Dictionary of eponyms, Ryazantsev Viktor Dmitrievich. The dictionary is addressed to schoolchildren, whom it will help in the study of history, literature, geography, biology, chemistry, astronomy and many other subjects of the school curriculum. However, the book may be ...
- Top of Crimea. Crimea in Russian history and the Crimean self-identification of Russia. From Antiquity to the Present, Sergei Chernyakhovsky. Few would argue that the Crimean events of 2014 became the most significant for world geopolitics and marked a new fork in world history. The future of all mankind after ...
The meaning and meaning of the word- The meaning of a word from the psychological point of view is nothing more than a generalization, or a concept. The meaning of the word is not constant, it changes in the course of the child's development. The meaning of a word is the totality of all psychological facts that arise in our minds due to the word. The meaning of a word is always a dynamic, fluid, complex formation that has several zones of different stability. Meaning is only one of the zones of that complex meaning that a word acquires in the context of any speech, and, moreover, the zone that is the most stable, unified and precise.
A word in a different context easily changes its meaning. Meaning, on the contrary, is that fixed and unchanging point that remains stable despite all changes in the meaning of the word. The enrichment of a word with the meaning that it takes into itself from the entire context is the basic law of the dynamics of meanings.
Meaning is a stable system of generalizations behind a word, the same for all people, and this system can have different depth, generalization, breadth of coverage of the objects it denotes, but it necessarily retains an unchanged core - a certain set of connections.
An adult has both aspects of a word: its meaning and its meaning. He knows the established meaning of the word and at the same time can each time choose the necessary system of connections from this meaning in accordance with the situation.
In the process of ontogenesis, the object relatedness of a word is a product of long-term development. In the early stages, a word is woven into a situation, gesture, facial expressions, intonation, and only under these conditions does it acquire its objective reference. Then the object-related reference of the word is gradually freed from these conditions, and only at the subsequent stages of the child's development does the word acquire a clear, stable object-reference. But the meaning of the word develops even after the object-relatedness has reached its stability. This means that our consciousness changes the semantic and systemic structure. At the early stage of a child's development, it is affective in nature, reflecting the world emotionally first of all. At the next stage, consciousness begins to bear a visual-effective character, and only at the final stage does consciousness acquire an abstract verbal-logical character.
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Before moving on to the main topic, one concept should be introduced, which will play a significant role in all further reasoning.
Along with the concept of meaning, in modern psychology, the concept of meaning is used, which plays a decisive role in analyzing the most important aspects of the problem of language and consciousness.
For classical linguistics, "meaning" and "meaning" were almost synonymous and, as a rule, were applied unambiguously. Only very recently, in foreign psychology and psycholinguistics, two aspects of the concept of the meaning of a word began to differ: the “referential” meaning, that is, meaning, which introduces him into a certain logical category, and "social and communicative" meaning, reflecting his communicative functions (Halliday, 1970, 1975; Rommetweit, 1974; and others).
In Soviet psychology, the distinction between "meaning" and "meaning" was introduced several decades earlier - even by L. S. Vygotsky in his classic book Thinking and Speech, which was first published in 1934 and gained wide popularity.
By meaning, we mean an objectively formed system of connections in the course of history that lie behind a word. For example, behind the word "inkwell" is the meaning at which we stopped above. As we have already said, the word "inkwell", which has developed in social history, means something related to paint (black-), tool-making (-il-), containers (- prostrate-). Thus, this word not only indicates a certain object, but also subjects it to analysis, introduces it into the system of objective connections and relations.
By assimilating the meanings of words, we assimilate the common human experience, reflecting the objective world with varying completeness and depth. “Meaning” is a stable system of generalizations behind a word, the same for all people, and this system can only have different depths, different generalizations, different breadth of coverage of the objects it denotes, but it necessarily retains the same “core” - a certain set of connections.
Alongside this concept of meaning, we can, however, distinguish another concept, which is usually denoted by the term "meaning." By meaning, in contrast to meaning, we mean the individual meaning of a word, isolated from this objective system of connections; it consists of those connections that are relevant to the given moment and to the given situation. Therefore, if the "meaning" of a word is an objective reflection of the system of connections and relations, then "meaning" is the introduction of subjective aspects of meaning in accordance with the given moment and situation.
Consider an example to illustrate this point. The word "coal" has a certain objective meaning. It is a black object of woody origin, the result of burning wood, with a specific chemical composition, which is based on the element C (carbon). However, the meaning of the word "coal" can be very different for different people and in different situations. For the hostess, the word "coal" means what is used to light a samovar or what is needed to light the stove. For a scientist, coal is a subject of study, and he highlights the side of this meaning of the word that interests him - the structure of coal, its properties. For an artist, it is a tool that can be used to make a sketch, a preliminary sketch of a painting. And for the girl who stained her white dress with coal, the word "coal" has an unpleasant meaning: it is something that has given her unpleasant experiences at the moment.
This means that the same word has a meaning that has objectively developed in history and which is potentially preserved by different people, reflecting things with different completeness and depth. However, along with the meaning, each word has a meaning, by which we mean the selection from this meaning of the word those sides that are associated with a given situation and the subject's affective attitude.
That is why modern psycholinguists with good reason believe that if the "referential meaning" is the main element of the language, then the "socio-communicative meaning" or "meaning" is the main unit of communication (which is based on the perception of what exactly the speaker wants to say and what motives encourage him to speak) and at the same time the main element of the living, associated with a specific affective situation of the use of the word by the subject.
An adult cultured person has both aspects of a word: both its meaning and its meaning. He firmly knows the established meaning of the word and at the same time can each time choose the necessary system of connections from the given meaning in accordance with the given situation. It is easy to understand that the word "rope" for a person who wants to pack a purchase has one meaning, but for a person who has fallen into a hole and wants to get out of it, it is a means to salvation. Only with some mental disorders, for example with schizophrenia, the ability to choose a meaning corresponding to the situation suffers sharply, and if a person who fell into a hole and who was thrown a rope, will talk about the qualities of a rope, say, that “a rope is a simple rope ", And will resonate instead of acting, this will indicate a clear deviation of his psyche from the norm.
So, in the word, along with the meaning, which includes the object relatedness and the meaning itself, that is, generalization, the assignment of the object to the known categories, there is always an individual meaning, which is based on the transformation of meanings, the selection of that the system of connections that is relevant at the moment.
Let us now turn to the main topic of interest to us and try to trace how the meaning of a word is formed in the process of a child's development.
Meaning and meaning
The analyzed examples show that the comprehension of the text is a complex process. At the same time, it obeys certain laws due to the phenomenal features of the human brain. How to use these laws for our task: learn by reading quickly deep and fully understand the text? To find ways to solve this problem, you must first decide what should be understood in the text being read. Obviously, to some readers the question itself may seem meaningless: you need to understand everything that is contained in the text. And here an interesting discovery awaits us: the entire text, it is not necessary to read it in its entirety. To understand it, it is enough to read only a certain part of it, which can be conventionally called the “golden core” of its content. This is exactly the 25% of the text content that remains after eliminating redundancy.
What is the “core”? To understand this, let us consider the basic semantic (semantic) principles of text construction. As established by modern linguistics, texts have the unity of an internal logical organization. They are built according to the same logical rules for the coherence of presentation.
Rice. 11. Levels of text compression
In addition, as we already know, the redundancy of texts reaches 75%. Obviously, the “golden core” we are talking about carries the main semantic load. And if this is so, then the target process of transforming the text, ie, its compression, during reading can be conditionally considered the selection and formation of this "core". In fig. 11 shows a flowchart of the sequence for performing this operation. The text contains certain information that the reader sees in it.
When describing further transformations, we will proceed from the semantic information theory developed by the Soviet mathematician and linguist Yu. A. Shreider. According to this theory, the reader, studying information, compares it with the amount of knowledge (it is also called thesaurus), which he has at the moment, and evaluates the incoming information. This means that if at first the reader did not understand the text, then the text does not carry any information for him. If then, even after a long time, having received new knowledge, the reader turns to the same text for the second time, then he is already extracting the necessary information from it. What happens to her next? As a result of studying the text, the reader highlights the meaning, which is then converted into meaning. Before analyzing the essence of the subsequent process, it is necessary to give an explanation: what is the meaning and meaning? The German mathematician and logician Gottlob Frege was the first to study the concepts of “meaning” and “meaning”.
In 1892, his work "On the Sense and Significance" was published, which has not lost its relevance to this day. G. Frege defines meaning as the content of a linguistic expression, that is, it is a thought contained in words. The meaning of a linguistic expression is that essential object that is verbally fixed in the mind of a person. For example, the meaning of the word moon is essentially a celestial body or natural satellite of the Earth.
According to G. Frege's concept, the relation of a name to what it calls or designates is a relation of naming, and the thing that is called is the meaning of this name. Every name always calls something (the function of naming, or nomination), and that something is a definite thing. Naturally, there may be unnamed things.
Thus, meaning is an essential property of a name, which is realized through the diversified naming of things. G. Frege calls the meaning the difference in the method of formal designation of objects by names. Combinations of words like Alexander Pushkin, the great Russian poet, poet killed by Dantes different in meaning, but the same in meaning. In the language in general and in texts in particular, you can find different ways of using names: teacher - teacher; doctor - doctor; hippopotamus - hippopotamus, etc. These examples give different information about the same thing. The meaning is that which is transmitted and understood in the message as socially significant information and that when receiving the message must be understood unambiguously. Two expressions can have the same meaning, but different meanings, if these expressions differ in the structure of the text implementation. Consider the expressions "5" and "3 + 2". The meaning in each of them is different, and the meaning is the same.
Referring again to Fig. 11. The final stages of transforming a piece of text include highlighting the meaning from the resulting meaning. Does this mean that always, in any text, there are all the components of this scheme? Not at all. However, the content of each of its elements is decreasing. Indeed, texts always contain information. Few meaningless texts can be found. But very many meaningful texts do not contain meaning. In the literature on logic, an example of such an empty expression is usually given:
word concept king of France, makes sense, but in relation to the XX century. doesn't matter. Are scientific texts of such content possible? To answer, it is enough to find out if there is a meaning in the quoted text.
Consider some total and, therefore, unique instance "A". The establishment of the identity of an instance with itself can be viewed as a mapping that brings the images of "A" in accordance with the prototype of "A". Instance "A" by definition can only be compared with itself. Therefore, the mapping is internal and, according to Stilov's theorem, can be represented as a superposition of a topological and subsequent analytic mapping. The set of images "A" constitutes a point system, the elements of which are equivalent points ... As the analysis carried out by the Soviet linguist I. P. Sevbo has shown, formal coherence and pseudoscientific sound do not diminish the emptiness of this text.
Obviously, now we can answer the question of what should be read in the texts: you need to be able to find the meaning.
TO 
How do you practically learn to highlight meaning? Let's consider another interesting phenomenon. As N.I. Zhinkin showed, the brain of every person already possesses this ability, since it contains a program for highlighting meaning in any readable text that has meaning. Experiments by psychologists! confirmed that when processing text, the human brain always allocates a "nuclear" meaning, regardless of the way it is formally expressed or meaning. So, in one of the experiments, a group of subjects was asked to press a special button every time the word appeared on the screen doctor, and not respond to the signal if other words appeared, even similar in outline, for example speaker. Most of the subjects coped with
Rice. 12. The filtering ability of the brain
this task. Then, without warning, the caption was shown on the screen doctor. Almost everyone pressed a button, although the outline of the word did not resemble a word in any way doctor.
This example is proof that when perceiving textual information, the brain reacts not to the linguistic structure of a word, but to its content. The brain's perception of various phrases is shown in Fig. 12. Due to the presence of an algorithmic filter, the brain does not pass (outputs 0 at the output) the phrase "Lilac ideas are sleeping furiously." For the phrase "Mine is yours, do not understand" the corresponding expression is formed. Finally, the brain reacts in the same way to words. doctor and doctor, while for the word "speaker" the output is also 0.
The meaning of the word as a unit of the study of verbal thinking. Stages of development of the meanings of words (L.S.Vygotsky). Double stimulation technique. The meaning and meaning of words
The unit of analysis of verbal thinking is a psychological phenomenon that is both speech and thinking - the meaning of words. Meaning is a characteristic of a word; on the other hand, it is a generalized representation of reality. Before the advent of man, speech and thinking evolved separately and independently of each other. Their unification became possible thanks to the emergence of language in human society. Speech thinking arose at about 2 years old, when children begin to master the language. How did the meaning of the word develop in ontogeny? The idea is to simulate the natural conditions in which the mastery of human concepts takes place. 1) a person in the world around him encounters various objects that may be similar or different from each other in some way. 2) a person in the world around him is faced with the words that denote these concepts. The concept is formed in the context of the possible correlation of various words with various objects, which are designated by these words. Vygotsky: As a unit of analysis of the higher forms of thinking that distinguish humans from animals, one should choose the meaning of a word that reflects "Unity of communication and generalization."
Vygotsky and Luria experimentally substantiated the position according to which the types of verbal thinking are characterized by the types of generalizations that are fixed in the word. The type of thinking can be judged by the structure of the meanings functioning in his speech. Then the stages of development of meanings (in sociogenesis and ontogenesis) give the name to the forms of thinking: syncretic, complex and conceptual. Children 3-12 years old: stages of speech development: 1) syncret stage ... Features: it is impossible to establish objective connections between geometric shapes. It is difficult to identify the objective content of the meaning of words used by children. Grouping based on a random attribute. 2) stage of complexes ... When choosing geometric shapes, children begin to focus on their objective signs. At the same time, not 1 of these signs is common to all figures designated by one word or another. The meaning of words is characterized by a certain objective content, but it cannot be called a concept. There is 5 types of complexes: associative (children select figures according to a model at once according to several alternating signs), collection (they do this not according to the principle of similarity, but according to the principle of complementarity), chain (children begin to select figures according to one characteristic. But at some point they change the sign), diffuse (the figures are selected based on the general global similarity), pseudo-concept (the selected figures have at least one common feature). 3) concept stage ... At least one common feature is found + they recognize this feature as a common one. In children, concepts first appear in the form of potential concepts. Their content is characterized by one feature common to some group of objects. The development of concepts ends with the formation of true concepts, they are composed according to a set of common features. True concepts first appear in children by the age of 11-12.
Dual stimulation technique- a technique originally developed by L.S. Vygotsky and L.S. Sakharov to study the process of concept formation. It uses two rows of stimuli, of which the first performs the function of an object to which the subject's activity is directed, and the second - the function of signs with the help of which this activity is organized. So in the experiment of Vygotsky - Sakharov, figures of various colors, shapes, heights and sizes were used as stimuli-objects, and words written on the back of each of the figures, which are experimental concepts, were used as stimuli-means. The subject had to formulate a concept, gradually revealing its features based on the selection of figures who, in his opinion, acted as carriers of this concept. In this case, it turned out to be possible to investigate how the subject uses signs to control his thought processes and how, depending on the method of using the word, the entire process of concept formation proceeds. Subsequently, the technique received a broad methodological understanding as a means of analyzing the development and functioning of higher mental functions in general.
The process of translating thoughts into words lasts for time and goes through 5 consecutive plans. They can be considered as certain forms of existence of thought. 1 plan- the plan of external speech. Thought is presented in its final form - sound expression. 2 plan- a plan of the meaning of external speech. Thought exists in the meaning of words related to each other. 3 plan- plan of inner speech. Inner speech is speech for oneself. It is not used to transmit to other people. It has certain characteristics that distinguish it from external speech (1. internal speech is predicative. It lacks a subject about which something is communicated. Because everyone knows what he is talking about. 2. It is abbreviated. It is consists not of completely spoken words or phrases, but of scraps. 3. the prevalence of meaning over meaning). 4 characteristics of the meaning of a word: 1) objectivity. The meaning of a word exists in the language independently of the subject, so that the subject must assign these meanings and master them. 2) sustainability. The meaning of the word has an unchanging content. 3) versatility. The same content of the meaning of words for all people. 4) the meaning of words - such contents that exist only outside the contexts of phrases. The meaning of a word - characteristics opposite to the meaning of words. The meaning of the word: subjectivity. The content depends on the will and desire of the subject; variability; uniqueness; arises and exists only in the context of phrases. The meaning of a word is a subjective changeable and often unique content of a word, acquired by it only in a certain context of phrases. 4 plan- the plan of thought. Thought exists in its pure form, without connection with internal and external speech. 5 plan- plan of need - volitional sphere. Any thought that has to be embodied in words arises in connection with his need.
Meanings are simultaneously: 1) the subject of the thinking process (the content of what we think about), 2) a means of thinking (a sign performs the function of a tool, allowing us to highlight the properties of an object, fix and establish new relationships), 3) a product of thinking (as a result of thinking, new values).
Definition and basic memory processes. Types of memory; their classification capabilities. Memory models. Patterns of memory: forgetting curves, the law of the "edge of the row", memory and activity, motivation and memorization.
Memory is a mental process of reflecting a person's experience by memorizing, storing and reproducing information.
Memory processes: 1) Memorization is a process aimed at storing impressions in memory. 2) Preservation - the process of processing, generalization and systematization of material. 3) Reproduction (recall) - restoration of previously perceived information in memory. 4) Forgetting is a process focused on removing information from memory. Forgetting has a positive side - a person frees his memory to store new information or forgets negative events. 5) Recognition is a process of memory, as a result of which, when perceiving information, a feeling of familiarity arises.
Types of memory: 1) Depending on the storage time of the material: instant(3 seconds), short-term(7 ± 2 seconds) is a mandatory intermediate storage and filter that processes the largest amount of information. Short-term memory is very closely related to long-term memory. unnecessary information is eliminated here and useful information remains, operational(intermediate) - the storage time of information is calculated for solving the problem, long-term... 2) Depending on the predominant analyzer: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, motor 3) Genetic (congenital) Intravital: motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical.
The laws of memory are general laws that characterize the work and structure of a person's memory:
1) The law of associations: the more various connections and associations are revealed between parts of a complexly arranged material, the faster and better the material will be remembered, the longer it will be preserved and the easier it will be remembered.
Types of associations: by similarity, by contrast, by contiguity: mental formations that arose simultaneously or sequentially are perceived together.
2) Ebbinghaus's law: in the first hours after memorization, there is an active process of forgetting information.
3) "Edge effect": the beginning and end of information is well remembered.
4) "The Zeigarnik effect": much more quickly it is forgotten about completed cases than about unfinished ones.
5) The law of active repetition when memorizing material.
Memorization is a memory process aimed at storing impressions in the memory.
Reproduction (recall) - restoration of previously perceived information in memory.
Types of memorization depending on the participation of the will:
1) Arbitrary (there is a goal - to remember).
Psychological conditions: creating a psychological attitude; repetition reasonable in time; Mindfulness is essential for effectiveness.
2) Involuntary (without a goal, but with interest).
3) Mechanical (memorizing information by repeated repetition).
4) Semantic (based on the search for semantic connections in the studied material).
Reproduction of information occurs in the same way as memorization took place.
1. Associationist theory... Association is a connection, connection, an explanatory principle of all mental formations. A necessary and sufficient basis for the formation of a connection between two impressions is the simultaneity of their appearance in consciousness. Accordingly, memory is not as an active process (activity) of a person with objects or their images, but as a mechanically formed product of associations. Types of associations - by contiguity, by similarity, by contrast. Memorization is really the connection of the new with the already existing experience. But connections are formed selectively, and associationism does not answer the question of how this process is determined.
Representatives of the ass. psychology - Ebbinghaus, Müller, Pilzekker - the first attempts to experimentally study memory. The main subject of research is the study of the stability, strength and strength of associations. An important contribution to science is the development of methods for the quantitative study of memory processes by Ebbinghaus and his followers.
2. Behaviorism... The global task is to establish unambiguous connections between stimuli and responses, the problem of skill. Memory is exhausted by the acquisition of various motor and speech skills; was studied mainly in an involuntary form. Research on arbitrary memory, the central problem is memorization. In these works, the well-known provisions on the influence of repetitions on the success of memorization, on its dependence on the volume and nature of the material, were confirmed and further developed. New facts were obtained about the dependence of the productivity of memorization on various kinds of attitudes and motives.
3. Gestalt psychology... Koeller, Koffka, Wertheimer, Levin. The basis for the formation of associations is the law of integrity. Whole is not a simple sum of elements; holistic education - gestalt - is primary in relation to its constituent elements. The leading condition for memorization is the structure of the material. Therefore, to memorize unorganized, meaningless material, an additional initial condition is required - the subject's intention. Gestalt psychologists overlooked the most important aspect of the process of building and consolidating an image - a person's own activity. Meanwhile, for memorization, it is not so much the fact of similarities or differences of elements that matters as the action of a person who reveals these similarities and differences.
4. Personal theories of memory- identified a number of factors affecting the course of memory processes, especially retention: activity, interest, attention, awareness of the task, as well as accompanying the course of memory processes - emotions.
5. The idea of the social nature of human memory... Janet, Vygotsky, Luria, Leontiev. Memory processes are understood as a social form of behavior, a specific socially controlled action. Comparative studies of involuntary and voluntary memorization (P. I. Zinchenko, A. A. Smirnov).
6. Structural memory model... Complex configuration of interacting subsystems that ensure the implementation of the main memory functions: fixation, processing and reproduction of mnemonic contents in behavior and consciousness. In modern structural models, the following blocks (subsystems) are distinguished: touch register(ultra-short-term storage of information of a very large volume. The task is to provide the next block with the ability to classify the incoming information and send it for further processing. It is required to experience the world as a continuous integrity. Forgetting is associated with interference and fading), recognizer ( a part of long-term memory, taken out to the outside. The transformation of a chaotic flow of information into organized, meaningful units. During the recognition process, long-term memory provides patterns of cognition (hypotheses of standards, prototypes and traits) ), working memory ( a memory block in which information circulates, which is necessary for the implementation of current activities and / or is present in consciousness. ), long-term memory ( permanent storage of information. Forgetting as such does not exist in long-term memory).
the meaning of the word is:
the meaning of the word meaning of the word the content side of the word; consists of lexical, grammatical, sometimes derivational meanings. So, the words tenderness and tender differ in grammatical meaning; and gentle and snowy coincide in grammatical meaning, differing lexically. The meaning of the word is being studied semantics.Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M .: Rosman. Edited by prof. A.P. Gorkina 2006.
Meaning of the word MEANING OF THE WORD... The concepts that are associated (connected) by the speakers of the Ph.D. language with the concept of a known sound or sound combination that makes up a word. Z. S. can be complex, i.e. disintegrate in the consciousness of the speaker into several Z .; so, with the word "hand" in Russian. the concepts are connected: 1. about a known object of thought and 2. about its known relation to other objects of thought, indicated in other words in the same sentence (Z. introduced by the form blames, pad.). The first Z., that is, ZS as a sign of the object of thought without its relation to other objects of thought, called. main, and that Z., which is recognized as modifying the main Z., is called. formal. Both the basic and the formal Z. words are distinguished by a certain instability, mobility, and the ability to change somewhat with each new use of the word. In relation to the main earthquake, this instability is explained by the complexity of the basic earth itself; so the Z. of words denoting objects, as containers of signs, can break down into ideas about individual signs that are part of a complex representation of an object. So speaking of oak, we can think about the shape of the growing oak, about its leaves, acorns, bark color, wood pulp color, strength, durability, etc .; each of these partial representations can appear in our thought without the accompaniment of other representations as the ZS “oak”. Further, the same name can be transferred to other objects by similarity or contiguity (metaphorical or metonymic transfer Z.). The same happens with words that represent the names of individual attributes of an object (compare the verb "to go" as applied to a person, train, clock, time, business, etc.). Frequent use of the word in K.-N. one of the non-original Z. can lead to its displacement from the language in the original Z., that is, to change the Z. word.
ND Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M .; L .: Publishing house of L. D. Frenkel, 1925
Beautiful words about life with meaning
No person can leave us, because initially we do not belong to anyone but ourselves.
Death is not terrible, but sad and tragic. To be afraid of the dead, cemeteries, morgues is the height of idiocy. One should not be afraid of the dead, but pity them and their loved ones. Those whose life was interrupted, not allowing to accomplish something important, and those who remained forever mourning the departed.
But there are no chance encounters ... This is either a test ... or a punishment ... or a gift of fate ...
You shouldn't go back to the past, it will never be the same as you remember it.
If you really need something, life will give it to you for sure ... There is only one way of comprehension - to act.
Appreciate those with whom you can be yourself. Without masks, omissions and ambitions. And take care of them, they are sent to you by fate. Indeed, in your life there are only a few of them.
Human life splits into two halves: during the first half, they strive forward to the second, and during the second, back to the first.
Sometimes one call separates us from happiness ... One conversation ... One confession ...
Beautiful words with a meaning about love
Winners in life always think in the spirit: I can, I want, I am. Losers, on the other hand, focus their scattered thoughts on what they could have, could do, or cannot do. In other words, the winners always take responsibility upon themselves, and the losers blame circumstances or other people for their failures.
Friends are like food - you need them every day. There are friends, like medicine, you look for them when you feel bad. There are friends, like a disease, they themselves are looking for you. But there are friends like the air - they are not visible, but they are always with you.
Time is a great teacher, but unfortunately it is killing its students.
When a lot of people surround you well and cheerfully, but as soon as you feel sad or something happens in your life and you really need help ... the number of people sharply decreases and really there are those people who value and value you.
Letting go of a person who is very dear to you, you always wish him only the best, but when you see him happy without you, your heart begins to slowly swoon ...
And it can be difficult. But this is life. And steadfastly endure ... And not break ... And smile. Just smile.
Life has changed so much, and the world has deteriorated so much that when you see a pure, sincere person who wants to be there, you look for a catch.
If life loses its meaning, take risks.
Even after 100 unsuccessful attempts, do not despair, because 101 can change your life.
Beautiful words with short meaning
Errors are punctuation marks of life, without which, as in the text, there will be no meaning.
If you value your life, remember that others value theirs just as much.
A friend who has attained power is a lost friend.
A person who all his life always and in everything considers not himself to be guilty, but others, is also unhappy in his own way.
As a rule, a person can be judged by what he laughs at.
All troubles are sent to us so that, looking for a way out of them, we begin our spiritual development and change something in ourselves for the better.
All joys are sent to us in order to show how wonderful life is when we are on the right path.
Both fable and life are valued not for length, but for content.
Sometimes it is useful to lose everything in order to understand what you really lack ...
A word taken separately has no more than one meaning, but potentially there are many meanings in it, which are realized and refined in the living speech of a person. The actual use of a word is therefore always a process of choosing the desired meaning from a whole system of pop-up alternatives, highlighting some and inhibiting other connections (Luria, 1969, 1975). LS Vygotsky writes that “the real meaning of a word is not constant. In one operation a word appears with one meaning, in another it acquires a different meaning ”(Vygotsky, 1956, p. 369). The meaning of the word is the second component of the semantics of the word. The meaning, in contrast to the meaning of a word, is understood as its individual meaning, which the word acquires for a person in each specific situation.
A. N. Leont'ev noted that “meaning is a reflection of reality regardless of the individual's personal attitude towards it” (Leontiev, 1972, p. 290). The meaning of a word exists in reality and is realized by a person in a certain activity, and in it the word acquires meaning, that is, a meaning subjective for a person. Sense is initially social and acts as a fixator of social experience. For example, professional experience is a stable social experience, so it is clear that people of different professions use the same word in different meanings. A. N. Leont'ev wrote that “meaning cannot be taught, meaning is educated,” and it is generated not by the meaning of a word, but by life itself (Leontyev, 1972, p. 292).
It is important to note one more property of meaning, which Vygotsky wrote about. This is the connection of the meaning with the whole word as a whole, but not with each of its sounds, just as the meaning of a phrase is associated with the entire phrase as a whole, and not with its individual words.
The meaning of a word depends on the entire body of a person's knowledge, his life and emotional experience, his personal qualities. Therefore, the meaning of a word is more mobile than meaning, dynamic and, in fact, inexhaustible. However, a prerequisite for mutual understanding between people is the meaning of a word, since it is a generalized reflection of the objective objective content of phenomena, it is fixed in the language system and due to this it acquires stability.
The meaning of a word cannot be torn away from the sound side of the word, as was typical of classical linguistics. Sounds are material carriers of the intangible meaning of a word. AA Potebnya wrote in this regard that “every word as a sound sign of meaning is based on a combination of sound and meaning” (Potebnya, 1905, p. 203).
The bearer of meaning is always a sensory image, the material bearer of the word - motor, sound, graphic. For an adult native speaker, the material carrier seems to be blurred (but not disappear) and is almost not realized, and in the foreground is always the content of the word, its meaning. And only in some cases - in poetry, when teaching a language (when a word becomes an object of action) and in some forms of aphasia, the word seems to be meaningless, loses its meaning, and vice versa, its material carrier begins to be realized. It is known that with different forms of aphasia, different material carriers of the meaning of the word are violated. The position on the material carriers of a word in modern psychology of speech allows us to understand the mechanism of violation of the meaning of words in aphasia.
Knowledge and correct understanding of the semantics of a word, its components such as meaning and meaning, is an important tool and powerful tool in the hands of an aphasiologist in the study and overcoming of aphasia. In aphasia, it is not enough to state a violation of understanding of words, the presence of verbal paraphasia and paragnosia, as is often accepted in practice, it is necessary to establish exactly what is being violated - understanding the meaning or understanding the meaning of words - and what remains intact. It is important to take into account such characteristics of the meaning as its individuality and connection with the personality, the mobility and diversity of the meaning of a word, on the one hand, and the stability of the meaning of the word, its relevance to the whole society that speaks the given language, on the other hand; this knowledge will allow us to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms of speech impairment in aphasia, will allow us to find the necessary methods to overcome the speech defect. Thanks to the meaning (word meaning) that words carry, speech acquires another important, fourth - cognitive, cognitive - function. Further, the meaning of the word, its meaning could appear only due to and due to the object relatedness of the word, which is the most important characteristic of the word and the third component of its semantics.
The word replaces things - objects, objects, phenomena, it represents them, denoting the object itself or its properties, signs, qualities. The object relatedness of the word is the basis of the fifth - nominative - function of speech. S. L. Rubinshtein wrote that a word, being a reflection of an object, is connected with it by an internal connection according to the generality of content. This connection is mediated through the generalized content of the word - through a concept or image. It is impossible to dismember the meaning of the word and its object relatedness - they are interconnected. These are two successive links in the process of using the word (Rubinstein, 1946). This function of speech, more than its other aspects, is associated with the sensory basis of the word. Vygotsky believed that the nominative function of speech is not semasiological, meaningful. “The word here fulfills a nominative, indicating function. It points to a thing. In other words, the word is here not a sign of a certain meaning with which it is associated in thinking, but a sign of a sensually given thing ... ”(Vygotsky, 1956, p. 194).
