Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Ufa State Aviation Technical University

Department of Production Safety

and industrial ecology "

Glossary of Environmental Terms

Compiled by: Krasnogorskaya N.N., Legushs E.F.,

Methodological guide for / Ufa State Aviation Technical University; Compiled by Krasnogorskaya N.N., Legushs E.F. Ufa, 2005.36 p.

The methodological manual presents the basic terms and definitions of ecology and environmental protection.

Designed for university students of technical specialties.

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT(from the Greek. a- negative particle and biotikos- vital, living) - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) of the habitation of organisms.

AUTOTROPHIC ORGANISMS, AUTOTROPHES(Greek. autos- myself, trophe- food) - organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones using the energy of the Sun (phototrophs) or chemical bonds (chemotrophs); autotrophs include plants and some bacteria.

AUTOHTON (S)- living organisms that have arisen and originally evolved in a given place.

AGROCENOSIS(from the Greek agros - field and koinos - common) - a community of organisms living on agricultural lands occupied by crops or planting of cultivated plants.

ADAPTATION(lat. adapto- adjusting) - adaptation of the body to various conditions of existence in the environment.

ALLOLOPATHY(Greek. allelon- each other, mutually, pathos- suffering) - the influence of co-living organisms of different species on each other through the release of waste products.

ALLOKHTON (S)- living organisms found in a given area, but originated outside of them.

ANTIGENS- substances alien to the body that cause the formation of antibodies in the blood and other tissues.

ANTIBODIES- proteins of the immunoglobulin group formed in the human body and warm-blooded animals in response to the ingress of antigens into it and neutralizing its harmful effect.

ANTHROPOCENTRISM(from the Greek. antbropos- human, kentron- center) - the view that man is the center of the universe and the ultimate goal of the entire universe.

AREAL(lat. area- area, space) - part of the earth's surface (territory or water area), within which this taxon: species, genus, family.

BACTERIOPHAGUS- a virus that infects microorganisms.

BACTERI (O) CID- a chemical of organic origin that kills bacteria. Inorganic synthesized substances ( corrosive sublimate,formalin and others) with the same effect are called antiseptics.

BENTHAL- the bottom of the reservoir, inhabited by organisms that live on the ground or in its thickness.

BENTHOS- a set of organisms living at the bottom of the reservoir

BIOGAS- a mixture of gases generated during the decomposition of waste (manure, straw) or organic household waste by cellulosic anaerobic organisms with the participation of methane fermentation bacteria (approximate composition: methane - 55-65%, carbon dioxide - 35-45%, admixtures of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen sulfide).

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES- biogeochemical circulation of substances, exchange of matter and energy between various components biosphere caused by the vital activity of organisms and is of a cyclical nature. All biogeochemical cycles are interconnected and form the dynamic basis for the existence of life. The energy flows of the Sun and the activity of living matter serve as the driving forces of biogeochemical cycles, which leads to the movement of chemical elements.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CIRCUITS- the transition of nutrients from inanimate nature (from the reserves of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and earth's crust) to living organisms and back to the inanimate environment. These cycles are caused by direct or indirect influence of solar energy and include the cycles of C, N, P, S, H 2 O and all other elements.

BIOGEOCENOSIS- an evolutionarily developed, relatively spatially limited, natural system of functionally interconnected living organisms and the abiotic environment surrounding them, characterized by a certain energy state, type and rate of exchange of matter and information. B. is an elementary ecosystem and a geosystem.

BIOINDICATOR- a group of individuals, according to the presence, state and behavior of which changes in the environment, including the presence and concentration of pollutants, are judged.

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS- periodically repeating changes in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY- a variety of living organisms, as well as ecosystems and ecological processes, the links of which they are. Can be divided into three categories: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

BIOM- (from the Greek. bios- life and lat. Oma- end, totality) - a set of different groups of organisms and their habitat in a certain landscape-geographical zone, for example, in the tundra, coniferous forests, arid zone. For example, the biome of tropical rainforests.

BIOMASS- the total mass of individuals of a species, a group of species or a community of organisms, usually expressed in units of mass of dry or wet matter, referred to units of area or volume of any habitat (kg / ha, g / m 3, kg / m 3, etc.)

BIOSPHERE(from the Greek. bios- life; sphaire- ball) - the shell of the Earth, in which the aggregate activity of living organisms manifests itself as a geochemical factor of a planetary scale. B. - the largest ecosystem on the Earth - an area of ​​systemic interaction alive and inert substance on the planet. Includes the lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the upper lithosphere of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms.

BIOTA(Greek. biote- life) - a historically formed set of living organisms, united by a common area of ​​distribution, living on some large territory isolated by any (e.g., biogeographic) barriers. In contrast to the biocenosis, the biota includes species that may not have ecological links with each other.

BIOTIC ENVIRONMENT- a set of living organisms that influence other organisms by their vital activity.

BIOTOPE- a relatively homogeneous space in terms of abiotic environmental factors, occupied by a biocenosis.

BIOFILTER(biological filter) - a biological wastewater treatment facility built on the principle of gradual passage of the treated masses either through the thickness of the filter material covered with an active microbiological film, or through the space occupied by an artificially created community of purifying organisms, for example. reeds.

BIOCHOR- a set of similar biotopes. Biochores are combined into biocycles.

BIOCENOSIS(Greek. bios- life and koinos- general) - a community of producers, consumers and reducers that are part of one biogeocenosis and inhabit one biotope. An integral part of the ecosystem

BIOCYCLE- a large subdivision of the biosphere, a set of biochores: sea, land and inland water bodies.

BOGARA- land in areas of irrigated agriculture, where agricultural plants are cultivated without irrigation.

BONITY- an economically significant, as a rule, comparative natural characteristic (soil richness, timber yield per hectare, ease of extraction of mineral raw materials, etc.) of an economically valuable group of objects or lands that distinguish them from other similar formations.

BONITY OF THE FOREST- an indicator of the economic productivity of a forest area. Depends on natural conditions and human impact on the forest. It is characterized by the size of the growth of wood (often the height of the planting) at a comparable age. Five bonitet classes are distinguished from I (the most productive) to V.

BONITY SOIL- its properties and the level of productivity of crops cultivated on it as a total indicator of fertility . It is distinguished by natural zones and republics (regions).

SOIL BUFFER–The ability of the soil to maintain an acidic reaction (pH). Acquired special importance due to acidic precipitation.

VALENCE ENVIRONMENTAL- the degree of endurance, or the characteristic of the ability of living organisms to exist in a variety of environmental conditions.

VERMICID- means for the destruction of worms.

EXPLOSION DEMOGRAPHIC- a sharp increase in population associated with changes in socio-economic or general environmental conditions of life (including the level of health care).

PURIFIED WATER- water, brought to the content of impurities in it, not exceeding the natural background or permissible value.

WATER CONDITIONALLY CLEAN: 1) water that is not polluted above the established limit or in which, with the addition of pure water, the concentration of pollutants has been brought to the level permitted by legislation; 2) waste water, the discharge of which without purification into a given water body does not lead to a violation of water quality standards in places of water use.

CLEAN WATER- water free of contaminants. From a sanitary point of view V.ch. - does not cause deterioration of health in a person.

WATER DRAINAGE- 1) a set of sanitary measures and technical devices that ensure the removal of wastewater outside populated places or industrial enterprise; carried out from the sewer; 2) V. with the help of a drainage canal - freeing the river bed from the water in order to carry out hydraulic works in it or to protect some objects from flooding by the river during the period floods or flood.

WATER USE- procedure, conditions and forms of water resources use: 1) use of water bodies to meet the needs of the population and the national economy; 2) the use of water for economic or domestic purposes without removing them from water bodies, by "passing it through themselves" (hydroelectric power plants or a water mill). V. is possible without a change in the quality of water and with a change in its quality (including the species composition of the animal and plant world).

WATER CONSUMPTION- consumption of water from a water body or from water supply systems. They are distinguished by return V. - with the return of taken water to the source and irrevocable V. - with its consumption for filtration, evaporation, etc.

WATER SUPPLY RETURN- re-entry of used water into technological cycles or household water supply networks after its purification (in technological cycles, sometimes without it). Technological facet of V.O. - using water without getting it into natural cycles.

Water reuse - Use of waste water discharged by the facility for water supply.

EMISSION OF THE MOST PERMISSIBLE (MPE)- Scientific and technical standard, established from the condition that the content of pollutants in the surface layer of air from a source or their combination does not exceed the air quality standards for the population, fauna and flora (i.e., the maximum permissible concentration - MPC). Measurement unit - g / s, t / year (volume (amount) of pollutant emitted by individual sources per unit of time).

Heterotrophic organisms, heterotrophs(Greek heteros - different, other, trohpe - food) - organisms that use ready-made organic substances for nutrition. They live off autotrophs.

Hypodynamia(Greek. hypo- at the bottom, dinamis- strength) dysfunction of the body while limiting motor activity (musculoskeletal system, blood circulation, nutrition, digestion).

Global(from lat. globus- ball) - covering the entire globe, planetary.

HOMEOSTASIS (IS)- the state of internal dynamic balance of the natural system, supported by the regular renewal of its main structures, material and energy composition and constant functional self-regulation of its components.

GOMOYOTHERM (IYA)- the ability of animals (birds and most mammals) to maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature.

Degradation(fr. degradation- step) - gradual deterioration, loss of original qualities.

DISINFECTION- destruction of pathogens of infectious diseases of humans and domestic animals in the external environment by physical, chemical and biological methods.

Demography(from the Greek. demos- people, grapho- I write) - the science of population and the laws of its development.

DENITRIFICATION- the process of destruction by a group of soil and water bacteria of nitrates to molecular nitrogen.

Detritus(from lat. detritus- worn out) - small organic particles (the remains of decomposed animals, plants and fungi, together with the bacteria contained in them), settled on the bottom of the reservoir or suspended in the water column.

Detritophages(from lat. detritus- worn out and Greek. phagos- devouring) - aquatic and land animals that feed on detritus along with the microorganisms it contains.

DEFLATION- blowing and grinding of rocks with mineral particles brought by the wind, transfer of weathering products.

DIVERGENCE(from Lat. divergence) - the process of divergence of characters in originally closely related groups of organisms in the course of evolution.

LETHAL DOSE (ABSOLUTE)LD- the minimum amount of a harmful agent, the ingress of which into the body inevitably leads to its death.

RADIATION DOSE- the amount of radiation measured by the ionization of the air. The unit of measurement is roentgen.

DOSE OF ABSORPTION- the energy of any kind of radiation absorbed by a unit mass of the irradiated medium. It is measured in rad, and for living tissue - in rem (biological equivalents of an X-ray).

DOSE TO THE MOST PERMISSIBLE (SDA)- the maximum amount of a harmful agent, the penetration of which into organisms (through respiration, food, etc.) or their communities does not yet have a detrimental effect on them. One-time traffic rules and traffic rules are established for a certain period of time (hour, day, etc.).

DOSE TOXIC- the minimum amount of a harmful agent, leading to a noticeable poisoning of the body.

DOMINANT- a species that quantitatively prevails in a given community, as a rule, in comparison with similar forms or, in any case, included in the same level of the ecological pyramid or layer of vegetation.

HARDNESS OF WATER- the content of dissolved salts of alkaline earth metals in it - calcium, magnesium, etc. It is measured by the sum of milligrams - equivalents of calcium and magnesium ions contained in 1 liter of water. Distinguish between the total liquid life (the total amount of calcium and magnesium contained in the water), removable and permanent life cycle. Depending on the general living volume. distinguish: very soft (up to 1.5 mEq), soft (1.5 - 3 mEq.), moderately hard (3 - 6 mEq.), hard (7 - 9 mEq.), very hard (over 9 meq.) water. Until 1953, female measured in degrees of hardness, which shows how many grams of calcium oxide are contained in 100 liters of water. 1 degree of hardness is equal to 0.35663 mEq. calcium or magnesium ions. In some countries, and now Zh. In. measured in degrees.

Living matter- the totality of all living organisms, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, weight, energy; associated with the environment by the biogenic current of atoms, respiration, nutrition and reproduction.

product life cycle- A set of interrelated processes of sequential change in the state of the product from the beginning of the study and justification of its development until the end of its service life. Stages of the product life cycle: research and justification of development, development, production, operation (including decommissioning, disposal, transfer, disposal, destruction) and overhaul.

POLLUTION- The introduction into the environment or the emergence in it of new, usually not typical for it, physical, chemical, biological factors, leading to an excess of the natural average long-term concentration of the listed agents in the environment at the time under consideration, and, as a consequence, to negative impacts on people and the environment ... In its most general form, Z. - everything that is in the wrong place, at the wrong time and not in the amount that is natural for nature, which brings its systems out of equilibrium, differs from the usually observed norm and / or desirable for a person. ...

ANTHROPOGENIC POLLUTION- pollution resulting from human activities.

BIOLOGICAL POLLUTION- introduction into the environment and reproduction in it of organisms undesirable for humans. Accidental or occurring as a result of human activity, the penetration into ecosystems or technical devices of species of animals (bacteria) and / or plants, which are usually absent there.

PHYSICAL POLLUTION- Environmental pollution, characterized by deviations from the norm of its temperature-energy, wave, radiation and other physical properties.

CHEMICAL POLLUTION - Environmental pollution, formed as a result of changes in its natural chemical properties or when chemicals that are not typical of it enter the environment, as well as in concentrations exceeding the background (natural) average long-term fluctuations in the amounts of any substances for the period under consideration.

MECHANICAL CONTAMINATION- Contamination of the environment by agents that have only a mechanical effect without physical and chemical consequences (for example, garbage).

POLLUTION LIGHT- The form of physical pollution of the environment associated with periodic or prolonged excess of the level of natural illumination of the area, including through the use of artificial lighting sources.

NOISE POLLUTION- A form of physical pollution resulting from an increase in the intensity and repetition of noise above the natural level, which leads to an increase in people's fatigue, a decrease in their mental activity, and upon reaching 90 - 100 dB, a gradual hearing loss.

ELECTROMAGNETIC CONTAMINATION- A form of physical pollution of the environment associated with the violation of its electromagnetic properties.

FIELD POLLUTION- Energy pollution in the form of a stream of elementary particles (including quanta of electromagnetic radiation) that negatively affect the state of living organisms.

thermal pollution (thermal)- A form of physical pollution of the environment, characterized by a periodic or prolonged increase in its temperature against the natural level.

pollution is transboundary-Pollution of the environment, covering the territory of several states or entire continents and formed due to the transboundary transfer of pollutants.

Global pollution- Biospheric pollution of the external environment for a polluting object by physical, chemical or biological agents found far from pollution sources and practically anywhere in the world.

CUSTOMER- a site within which (permanently or temporarily) certain types and forms of economic activity are prohibited to ensure the protection of one or many species of living things, biogeocenoses, one or more ecological components or the general nature of the protected area.

RESERVE- a territory or water area specially protected by law, completely excluded from any economic activity (including visits by people) for the sake of preserving intact natural complexes (standards of nature), protecting species of life and monitoring natural processes.

BIOSPHERE RESERVE- a representative landscape unit, allocated in accordance with the UNESCO program “Man and the Biosphere” for the purpose of its conservation, research (and / or monitoring). May include completely untouched by economic activity or slightly modified ecosystems, often surrounded by exploited land. As an exception, the allocation of territories of ancient development is allowed. The representativeness (representativeness, specificity, and not uniqueness) of these territories is especially emphasized.

SOIL SALINATION- an increase in the content of readily soluble salts (sodium carbonate, chlorides and sulfates) in the soil, due to the salinity of the parent rocks, the introduction of salts by ground and surface waters, but more often caused by irrational irrigation. The soils are considered saline when the content of salts is more than 0.25% in the solid residue (for gypsum-free soils).

WASTE DISPOSAL- placing them underground, in geological workings (abandoned coal mines, salt mines, sometimes specially created cavities) or in the deepest depressions of the seabed without the possibility of reverse extraction.

"GREEN REVOLUTION"- a significant increase in the third quarter of the 20th century in the production of grain crops (wheat, rice, corn) based on the success of breeding.

SANITARY PROTECTION ZONE- a strip separating an industrial enterprise from a residential area (settlement).

RESIDENTIAL ZONE (RESIDENTIAL)- an area of ​​a settlement intended exclusively or almost exclusively for housing housing with the withdrawal from it or the prohibition of the construction of industrial facilities in it.

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK AREA- places on the surface of the land and in the waters of the world's oceans, where human activity can create dangerous environmental situations, for example. areas of underwater oil production on the sea shelf, areas of the sea dangerous for passing tankers, where an accident with an oil spill may occur, etc.

ZONING OF THE NATIONAL PARK- division of its territory into sections with different modes of operation. As a rule, 3-4 zones are distinguished: reserved, economic and recreational (in addition to the named buffer zones).

ZOOPLANKTON- a set of animals that live (as a rule, freely soar) in the water column of sea and freshwater bodies and on those capable of resisting the transfer of currents. Z. is an integral part of plankton. Z., although very thin, occurs practically to the maximum depths of the World Ocean.

ZOOPHAGUS- an animal-eating organism, carnivorous species.

RADIATION VISIBLE- optical radiation with a wavelength from 740 nm (red light) to 400 nm (violet light), which causes visual sensations in humans. According to other sources, the wavelength range of I. v. - from 380 to 770 nm.

RADIATION SOUND(sound) - excitation of sound waves in an elastic (solid, liquid, gas) medium. Audible sound - 16 Hz - 20 kHz, infrasound - less than 16 Hz, ultrasound - 21 kHz - 1 GHz and hypersound - more than 1 GHz.

RADIATION INFRORED- optical radiation with a wavelength from 770 nm (ie more visible) to 1 - 2 mm, emitted by heated bodies.

IONIZING RADIATION- electromagnetic (X-rays, gamma rays) and corpuscular (alpha particles, beta particles, flux of protons and neutrons) radiation, to one degree or another penetrates into living tissues and produces changes in them associated with "knocking out" electrons from atoms and molecules or direct and indirect formation of ions. In doses exceeding natural (radiation background), I.I. harmful to organisms.

RADIATION OPTICAL (LIGHT)- electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of approximately 1 nm (X-rays) to 1 mm (beginning of the radio emission range).

RADIOACTIVE RADIATION- emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays.

UV RADIATION- electromagnetic radiation not visible to the eye within the wavelength range of 400-10 nm.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION- the process of emission of electromagnetic waves and the alternating field of these waves.

ATMOSPHERIC INVERSION (TEMPERATURE, GAS)- displacement of cooled layers of air (gases) downward and their accumulation under layers of warm air (this is facilitated by basins, valleys, and other negative forms of relief), which leads to a decrease in the dispersion of pollutants and an increase in their concentration in the surface part of the atmosphere.

Immunity(from lat. immunitas- getting rid of something) - the body's immunity to infectious agents and foreign substances.

BIODIVERSITY SPECIES INDEX- the ratio between the number of species and any indicator of "significance" (the number of individuals, biomass, productivity etc.). Species diversity trophic group are determined by Ch. arr. rare species, while the indicators of "significance" are few species dominants.

Information- 1) information about something; 2) a message that reduces uncertainty; 3) the knowledge necessary to make a decision or control some processes.

INTRODUCTION- deliberate or accidental transfer of individuals of any species of living outside the range.

IONOSPHERE- the layer of the atmosphere (the lower and. - from 50 - 80 to 400 - 500 km, the upper I. - up to several thousand km), characterized by a significant number of positively ionized molecules and atoms of atmospheric gases and free electrons. Infrastructure plays an important role in the propagation of short-range radio waves on earth; it exhibits aurora borealis and ionospheric magnetic storms that reflect on the state of terrestrial organisms.

SOURCE OF POLLUTION- 1) point of emission of substances (pipe, etc.); 2) an economic or natural facility producing a pollutant; 3) the region where the pollutants come from (with long-distance and transboundary transport); 4) extra-regional background of pollution accumulated in the environment (in the air - СО 2, in the water - their acidity, etc.).

CADASTRE- a systematized set of data, including a qualitative and quantitative description of objects or phenomena, in some cases with their economic (ecological-socio-economic) assessment. Contains their physical and geographical characteristics, classification, data on dynamics, degree of knowledge and ecological, socio-economic assessment with the attachment of cartographic and statistical materials.

CARCINOGEN- a substance or physical agent that contributes to the development of malignant neoplasms or their occurrence.

QUARANTINE- a system of measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and the penetration of unwanted species of organisms into places where they do not yet live.

SOIL ACIDITY- the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution (active, or actual, acidity) and in the soil absorbing complex (potential acidity).

CHEMICAL ELEMENT CLARK- a numerical estimate of the average content of a chemical element in the earth's crust, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,biosphere, its living matter, the Earth as a whole, in various rocks, space objects, etc. It is expressed in units of mass (percent, g / t, etc.) or atomic percent.

CLIMAX- “final” phase of biogeocenotic succession, or “final” successional stage of development of biogeocenoses for given conditions of existence (including anthropogenic ones, for example, “fire climax”).

CLONE- 1) a group of individuals in same-sex organisms that reproduce by division, budding, fragmentation, etc., consisting of the offspring of one individual; 2) genetically homogeneous vegetative offspring of one individual.

QUANTITIES OF THE MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE RESIDUAL (MPDI) - the amount of harmful substances in foodstuffs capable of accumulating in fish and other organisms.

COMMENSALISM- permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners feeds on food debris or products of the other's excretion, without harming him.

TERRITORIAL PRODUCTION COMPLEX (TPK)- a group of enterprises and institutions performing a specific national economic function and interconnected in addition to production ties by the joint use of territories, natural and labor resources located in this territory, as well as production infrastructure (structures, buildings, transport systems that are not directly related to the production of material goods but necessary for the production process). Often it has a specialization based on the leading natural resource of the territory (for example, TPK of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly). The interconnected set of TPKs constitutes the regional TPK, which serves as the basis for the formation of an economic region.

COMPOST- fertilizer obtained as a result of microbial decomposition of organic substances, including from municipal waste.

CONVERGENCE- the appearance in species and biotic communities of different origins as a result of a similar lifestyle and adaptation to similar environmental conditions (for example, the body shape of a shark and a dolphin, the appearance of deciduous forests in northern Eurasia and North America).

COMPETITION- rivalry, competition, any antagonistic relationship between individuals of the same or different species, determined by the desire to better and more quickly achieve some goal in comparison with other members of the community; one of the manifestations of the struggle for existence; there are intraspecific, interspecific, direct, and indirect K.

CONSORATION (TH)- a set of dissimilar organisms that are closely related to each other and depend on the central member, the core of the community (individual consortium: core - one individual; population consortium: core - population or species as a whole; synusial consortium: core - species that make up one ecobiomorph, for example. , mesophilic dark conifers). The edificator species usually acts as the central member of K. .

PRIMARY CONSUMENT (FIRST ORDER)- an organism that eats plant foods.

SECONDARY CONSUMENT (SECOND ORDER)- an organism that eats animal food.

CONCENTRATION MAXIMUM RAY TIME (MPC MR ) - the concentration of the pollutant in the air (populated areas), which does not cause reflex reactions in the human body.

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATION (MPC)- the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, with constant contact or when exposed for a certain period of time, practically does not affect human health and does not cause adverse effects in his offspring. Recently, when determining the MPC, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also the effect of these pollutants on wild animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities in general.

DAILY CONCENTRATION MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE (MPC SS ) - the concentration of the pollutant in the air, which does not have a direct or indirect harmful effect on a person when inhaled around the clock.

COPROFAG- an organism that feeds on the dung of other animals (for example, dung beetles).

RED BOOK- a list of rare and endangered organisms; an annotated list of species and subspecies with an indication of the current and past distribution, the number and reasons for its reduction, the characteristics of reproduction, already taken and necessary measures for the protection of species. There are international, national (on a national scale) and local variants of K. to., As well as separately K. to. Plants, animals, and other systematic groups.

SURVIVAL CURVE- a graph showing the number of individuals of a species that survived by a certain period of time. It is plotted by deposition on the abscissa of time in years or as a percentage of the average (deviation of the recorded age from the average life expectancy) or absolute life expectancy, and on the ordinate - the number of surviving individuals per 1,000 born.

A crisis(from the Greek. krisis- decision, turning point, outcome) - a difficult, difficult situation.

CRYOFIL- an organism that lives in melt water on the surface of ice or snow, as well as in water, soaking sea ice. The massive development of algae stains snow (eg "red snow") or ice.

CRYOFIT- cold-resistant plant in dry habitats.

CRYPTOFIT- a perennial herb, the terrestrial organs of which die off in an unfavorable season for the growing season, and the buds of renewal are laid on rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and lie deep in the ground (geophytes) or under water (hydrophytes).

ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERION- a sign on the basis of which the assessment, definition or classification of ecological systems, processes and phenomena is made. K.E. may be nature protection(preserving the integrity of the ecosystem, living species, its habitat), anthropoecological(impact on a person, on his population) and economic(up to the impact on the entire system "society - nature").

CIRCLE OF BIOTIC EXCHANGE LARGE (BIOSPHERIC)- a non-stop planetary process of a regular cyclical, uneven in time and space redistribution of matter, energy and information, repeatedly entering (except for a unidirectional flow of energy) into continuously renewing ecological biospheres.

CIRCLE OF BIOTIC EXCHANGE SMALL (BIOGEOCENOTIC) - multiple non-stop, cyclical, but uneven in time and open circulation of a part of substances, energy and information, included in the biosphere circle of exchange, within an elementary ecological system - biogeocenosis. The degree of material closeness of the biomass (b.) Is very significant (for phosphorus, for example, globally about 98%, in the taiga - 99.5%). In agrocenoses, this indicator drops sharply (for phosphorus since 1900 - 1980, it fell from 80 to 39%), which leads to eutrophication of water bodies and other unfavorable consequences.

XENOBIOTIC(from the Greek. xenos- alien) - any substance alien to a given organism or their community (pesticides, household chemicals, etc., pollutants) that can cause a violation of biotic processes, including disease and death of living organisms.

XEROPHIL- an organism adapted to life in conditions of lack of water, and therefore living in places with low humidity (from animals - lizards, turtles, etc.).

XEROPHIT- a xerophilous plant that tolerates temporary wilting with a loss of 50% moisture or is able to live in an arid area. There are various categories of K. Real K. - wormwood, gray-haired Veronica, etc.

The culture(from lat. cultus- cultivation, processing) - a way of adapting and organizing the life of people, a set of industrial, social and spiritual achievements of mankind.

CUMULATION- 1) increase, collection, concentration of the active principle (for example, an increase in the concentration of pesticides in the food chain);

2) the summation of the action of a drug or poison introduced into the body with a sharp increase in the effect or the appearance of new signs, often unfavorable (honey).

LANDSCAPE- a natural system homogeneous in terms of development conditions, the main category of the territorial division of the geographic envelope. A natural geographic complex, in which all the main components: relief, climate, water, soil, vegetation and fauna are in complex interaction and interdependence, forming a single inextricable system that is homogeneous in terms of development conditions. By the nature of the impact on humans, the landscape is divided into topophilic (attractive) and topophobic (irritating).

LARVICID- a substance used to control insect larvae (including butterfly caterpillars).

Limiting (limiting) factor- a limiter for the course of a process or the existence of an organism.

Limiting sign of harm- a sign characterized by the lowest harmless concentration of a substance in water

LITHOSPHERE- the upper solid shell of the Earth, composed of rocks and their derivatives of volcanic origin, sedimentary biogenic compounds, weathering products. Gradually passes with depth into spheres with a lower strength of the substance. Includes the earth's crust and the Earth's upper mantle. The thickness of Leningrad is 50-200 km, including the earth's crust - up to 75 km on the continents, 10 km under the ocean floor.

LICENSE- a permit (usually paid), issued by specially authorized state bodies, for the right to a single or repeated a specified number of times during the time specified in the law of an economic or action affecting the economy (shooting game, catching fish, releasing products of a certain kind, releasing pollutants, trade, use of an invention protected by a patent, etc.).

Local(lat. lokalis- local) - related to a limited area.

LUMBRICIDE- a substance used to fight worms.

MAGNETOSPHERE- the zone of manifestation of the magnetic properties of the space body. The structure and properties of M. are essential for life on Earth (M. traps high-energy particles coming from outer space) and space research. There is a still not strictly proven opinion about the possibility of the influence of human economic activity on the Earth's surface.

MANGARS (MANGROVES, MANGROVE FORESTS)- thickets of evergreen low-stemmed (up to 10 m) trees and shrubs with aerial respiratory roots, growing on the coasts of tropical and subtropical seas in the tidal strip.

MARGINALITY- 1) the marginal, borderline position of a natural formation, for example, a strip of semi-desert and desert; 2) unsettled, "borderline" social position of the individual, his flawed socio-psychological status (in relation to self-consciousness). Marginal individuals usually have increased activity (hence M. is one of the reasons for passionarity).

MESOSPHERE- the layer of the atmosphere, lying above the stratosphere, within 50 - 80 km above the earth's surface, and replaced by the thermosphere: characterized by a decrease in temperature with height (approximately from 0 o to –90 o C).

MELANISM- the phenomenon of a dark color of animals, depending on the presence of pigments (melanins) in their integuments. Industrial M. - the emergence of dark forms of butterflies (more than 70 species) as a result of natural selection of melanists in habitats polluted with soot.

LOCATION OF SPECIES- a spatially limited set of conditions of an abiotic and biotic environment, providing the entire development cycle of individuals, populations or a species as a whole; - a place (territory, water area) with certain conditions where a given species of living is found (cf. Station).

METAL HEAVY- with a density of more than 8 t / m 3 (except for noble and rare). M. t. Include: Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Cj, Sb, Sn, Bi, Hg. In applied works to the list of M.t. Pt, Ag, W, Fe, Au, Mn are also often added. Almost all M.t. toxic. Anthropogenic dispersion of M.t. (including in the form of salts) in the biosphere leads to poisoning or the threat of poisoning the living.

Meteosensitivity(Greek. meteora- atmospheric phenomena) - the body's sensitivity to weather changes.

Mycorrhiza- symbiotic habitation of fungi on the roots and in the tissues of plant roots, which ensures that symbionts receive part of the nutrients from each other.

MICROCOSM- 1) an ecosystem, an extremely limited microecosystem (often artificial). It is widely used for modeling large ecosystems; 2) a figurative expression for the "world" of a single grain of sand, drop, atoll, etc. (literally, "miniature world").

MINERALIZATION- 1) the process of decomposition of organic compounds to carbon dioxide, water and simple salts, with or without participation decomposers; 2) concentration of salts in waters; expressed in mg / l, g / l, g / m 3 and% 0; with an increase in the dryness of the climate, as a rule, it increases: for example, the water in the river. Pechora has M. of 40 mg / l, and in the river. Emba - 164 mg / l.

Worldview- a system of generalized views on the world and a person's place in it, beliefs, ideals, and values ​​conditioned by these views.

ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK- deep awareness of the vital necessity of preserving the environment of life common to all mankind. Component of ecological culture.

Modeling(from lat. modulus- measure, sample) - a method of indirectly studying objects of reality on their natural or artificial counterparts - models. At present, computer modeling has become widespread, where the analogue of the object of study is its mathematical description entered into a computer.

MONITORING(from the English. monitor- warning) - observation, assessment and forecast of the state of various environmental parameters. It is customary to divide M. into basic, or background, global M., regional M. and impact M., as well as by methods of tracking and objects of observation (aviation, space, human environment).

RESERVE MUSEUM- a group of specially protected cultural sites among nature and within populated areas. Including historical, architectural and natural M.-z. (Valaam, Solovetsky, etc.), memorial natural M.-z. (for example, Gorki Leninskie) and purely architectural M.-z. within cities or specially created (Kizhi, Malye Karely, etc.).

Mutagenesis(lat. mutatio- the change,genes- giving birth) - the process of occurrence in the body of hereditary changes - mutations.

Turbidity of water- the content of suspended solids per volume unit of a mixture of water and these substances, expressed in weight units (g / m 3, mg / l) or volume units. The water flow rate usually increases in water bodies as it approaches the coast (it depends on waves eroding the shore), and in watercourses - from the surface to their bottom (it increases by the current eroding bottom sediments). Maximum M.V. observed during floods. Usually M.v. it grows with a decrease in the water content of the area: in the rivers of the forest belt of the European part of Russia, it fluctuates within 50 - 100 g / m 3, in the forest-steppe - 100 - 200 g / m 3, in the steppe and semi-desert - 250 - 500 g / m 3. The most muddy river in the world is the Yellow River (35 - 40 thousand g / m 3).

MUTUALISM- 1) a form of symbiosis, in which each of the cohabitants receives relatively equal benefits: 2) a form of coexistence of organisms, in which the partners or one of them cannot (cannot) exist without each other (without a cohabitant). For example, termites and some microorganisms in their intestines, which convert wood cellulose into digestible substances; in the stomach and intestines of a person, 400 - 500 species of microorganisms live, many of which a person cannot do without.

Nayston- a set of living beings living near the surface of the water, on the verge of water and air (then the surface film up to 5 cm deep into the waters). Sometimes the population of only the surface film is distinguished - hyponeuston .

NECROPHAGUS- an organism that feeds on dead animals (lit. a corpse eater).

NICHE ENVIRONMENTAL- the place of a species in nature, including not only the position of the species in space, but its functional role in the community (for example, trophic status) and its position relative to abiotic conditions of existence (temperature, humidity, etc.). If a habitat is, as it were, the “address” of an organism, then N.E. - this is his "profession".

NOOSPHERE(from the Greek. nö os- mind andspbaire-ball)- letters. "Thinking shell", the sphere of reason, the highest stage of the evolution of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and development of humanity in it. The formation of the noosphere assumes that human activity in various spheres is based on a comprehensive scientific knowledge of natural and social activity, that political unity of mankind will be achieved, wars are excluded from the life of society, and the basis of the cultures of all peoples inhabiting the Earth will be ecohumanistic values ​​and ideals.

WATER DISCHARGE RATE- the established amount of wastewater discharged per person or per conventional unit of production, typical for a given production.

WATER CONSUMPTION RATE- the established amount of water per inhabitant or a conventional unit of manufactured products (a unit of measurement in the service sector). In Russia, one of the highest in the world N.V. - in Moscow up to 500 liters per day for 1 person.

EMISSION RATE- the total of gaseous and / or liquid wastes allowed by the enterprise to be discharged into the environment. N.V. volume is determined on the basis that the cumulation of harmful emissions from all enterprises in a given region does not create concentrations of pollutants in it that exceed the MPC.

PRODUCTION RATE- 1) the limit on the withdrawal of individuals from the population, which establishes the number and age and sex composition of animals with the expectation of maintaining the natural density and structure of populations or their change to an economically expedient level; 2) a certain limitation of the extraction of a given species of animal or a group of animals (for example, ducks by a separate hunter in one day, etc.).

RATE OF REMOVAL OF RESOURCE- scientifically grounded limit of extracted natural resources (mineral values, forests, populations of terrestrial and marine animals, invertebrates, biomass of mushrooms, berries), ensuring their self-recovery or rational gradual use. NORM SANITARY AND HYGIENE- a qualitative and quantitative indicator, the observance of which guarantees safe or optimal conditions for a person's existence (for example, the norm of living space per one family member, the norm of the quality of water, air, etc.). The synonym is hygienic standard.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARD(water, air, soil) - setting the limits within which a change in its natural properties is allowed. Usually, the norm is determined by the reaction of the most sensitive type of organism to changes in the environment (an organism - an indicator), but sanitary and hygienic and economically feasible standards can also be established.

WASTE DEHYDRATION- Technological method of separating water from waste or waste for the purpose of their further processing (briquetting, incineration, etc.).

BIOLOGICAL WASTE DISMANTLING- destruction of their harmful components, and in wastewater - organic substances of microorganisms - by their accidental combination or with the help of specially selected cultures.

WASTE TREATMENT THERMAL- their processing at a temperature of 600 - 1000 о С in special reactors.

PHYSICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT- exposure to them by physical agents - radiation, light, etc. In order to destroy hazardous or harmful components.

CHEMICAL WASTE DISMANTLING- binding of harmful substances from waste into harmless compounds during a chemical reaction.

DISARMING- complex measures aimed at: 1) suppression of the focus of an infectious or natural focal disease (honey); 2) destruction of the formed or artificially distributed poisons (sanitary.); 3) the destruction of quarantine species of plants and animals (agricultural); 4) sterilization of instruments, materials, premises.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT ENVIRONMENTAL- proof of the probable absence of adverse environmental consequences (deviation from the accepted standards) implementation of the proposed project and, conversely, improvement in the course of its implementation of conditions for human life and the functioning of the economy. It is probabilistic in nature, since the apparent pros and cons, due to the factor of uncertainty and the principle of incomplete information, may not be realized by the primary (pre-project) environmental impact assessment. O. p. E. can be considered realized only under the condition of the maximum (preferably one hundred percent) probability of obtaining pluses and the minimum (preferably complete) absence of minuses in the adopted normative scale. The completeness and information security of such a scale depends on the level of knowledge. In each specific case, this level should be the maximum possible for a given stage in the development of science.

OZONE SCREEN- the layer of the atmosphere within the stratosphere, lying at an altitude of 7-8 km. At the poles, 17-18 km. At the equator and up to 50 km (with the highest ozone density at altitudes of 20-22 km) above the planet's surface and characterized by an increased concentration of ozone molecules (10 times higher than at the Earth's surface), absorbing ultraviolet radiation, which is fatal to organisms.

ORGANISM(from Lat. organizo - I arrange, I give a slender look) - here: a living being, an individual with a systemic structure.

WASTE- types of raw materials unsuitable for the production of these products, their unused residues or substances arising in the course of technological processes (solid, liquid and gaseous) and energy that are not subject to utilization in the considered production (including in agriculture and in construction).

BIOLOGICAL CLEANING- waste disposal using biological objects (passing through thickets of aquatic plants, activated sludge, sawdust, etc.).

WATER PURIFICATION- elimination of impurities from waters (including living organisms) using mechanical, physicochemical (chlorination, ozonation, etc.) and biological methods.

AIR CLEANING- elimination of impurities from the air and bringing its quality to natural using physical and chemical methods.

FLOOD- a relatively short-term and non-periodic rise in the water level resulting from the rapid melting of snow during a thaw, glaciers with a sharp rise in temperature, heavy rains. P. following one after another can form flood... Significant P. is able to cause flood.

NATURE MONUMENT- natural objects are often associated with some historical events or persons, identified as natural protected areas of small size (geological outcrop, a very old tree, an exotic group of perennial plants, an unusual spring) with their immediate surroundings. Natural monuments are declared unique or typical, scientifically, culturally, cognitively and recreationally valuable natural objects, which are small natural boundaries (rivers, lakes, areas of valleys and coastlines, noteworthy mountains) and individual objects (rare and reference geological outcrops, reference areas of deposits minerals, waterfalls, caves), as well as natural objects of artificial origin (old alleys and parks, sections of abandoned canals, ponds) that are not recognized as monuments of history and culture or are not part of single natural and historical monuments. Meteorites found on the territory of the Russian Federation are also subject to protection.

PARK NATIONAL- a vast territory, including specially protected natural (not exposed to human impact) landscapes or their parts, intended, in addition to the main task of preserving natural complexes intact, mainly for recreational purposes. Has a special administrative department that carries out land use throughout the park or its protected area. Territory of P. n. zoned.

Greenhouse effect- the effect of heating the surface layer of air due to the absorption of thermal radiation from the earth's surface by the atmosphere. It increases with an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, ozone, freons, etc.) and water vapor. Leads to climate warming.

PARCELLA- the structural part of the phytocenosis (biogeocenosis), embracing its entire thickness and distinguished by the population density of certain plant species (mainly dominants) and the characteristics of the microenvironment.

PASTEURIZATION- the destruction of organisms by prolonged heating at a temperature not exceeding 100 o C, and with radiation P. - the destruction of organisms by gamma radiation.

BIOMASS PYRAMID- the ratio between producers, consumers (of the first and second order) and reducers in the ecosystem, expressed in their mass (number - the pyramid of Elton's number, the enclosed energy - the pyramid of energies) and depicted as a graphical model (such models are called ecological pyramids).

PLANKTON- a set of organisms passively floating in the water column ( algae, protozoa, some crustaceans (krill) molluscs, etc.), not capable of independent movement over long distances. A distinction is made between phytoplankton and zooplankton, lacustrine P., limnoplankton, and river P., potamoplankton. Synonym - bioseston.

PLAYSTON- inhabitants (usually passively swimming or semi-submerged) of a relatively thin (usually up to 15 m deep) near-surface layer of water in the ocean or continental body of water with special environmental conditions resulting from the direct interaction of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Examples: sargassum algae, duckweed and other organisms.

POLLUTANT- a substance that pollutes the living environment (usually means anthropogenic municipal, industrial or agricultural pollution).

POLOVODE- annually repeating, usually in the same season of the year, a relatively long and significant increase in the water content of the river, causing a rise in its level, which, as a rule, is accompanied by the release of waters from the channel and flooding of the floodplain.

STRIP GREEN NOISE PROTECTION- a strip of trees and shrubs separating the source of noise (highway, railroad, roadway from the street, etc.) from residential, administrative or industrial buildings. A hedge 15–20 m wide in summer reduces noise by at least 10 dB, that is, 10 times.

FOREST PROTECTIVE STRIP- forest and non-forest areas allocated on the lands of the state forest fund, adjacent to the roads; designed to protect roads from snow and sand drifts, mudflows, avalanches, landslides, avalanches, wind and water erosion, to reduce noise levels, perform sanitary and hygienic and aesthetic functions, to fence moving vehicles from adverse roads at least 50 m on each side roads, along highways - 25 m (GOST 17.5.3.02 - 79).

IRRIGATION FIELDS- areas designated for biological wastewater treatment and usually used for agricultural or forestry purposes.

FILTER FIELDS- territories intended (usually specially arranged) for biological treatment of wastewater from pollutants and, as a rule, not used for other purposes.

Population(from lat. populus- people, population) - a set of individuals of the same species, possessing a common gene pool and occupying a certain territory. Contacts between individuals within one population are more frequent than between individuals from different populations.

NATURAL RESOURCE POTENTIAL- 1) the ability of natural systems, without prejudice to themselves and to people, to give the products necessary for mankind or to perform useful work for him within the framework of the economy of a given historical type. For mineral resources, their pollution of the planet's surface, changes in the seismic situation, etc., can be a limitation. - this is that part of the natural resources of the Earth and the nearest space, which can be really involved in the economic activities of society with the condition of preserving the environment of human life. Economically assessed P. p.-r. within the geographical framework of the state, it is part of the national wealth of the country; 2) theoretically, the maximum amount of resources that can be used by mankind of a finite whole of the planet and its immediate environment, that is, without undermining the conditions under which a person can exist and develop as a biological species and a social organism. It is determined by the level of ecological balance of the biosphere and its large subdivisions, which constitute the limits for such existence and development.

BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (BOD)- an indicator of water pollution, characterized by the amount of oxygen that, over a set time (usually 5 days, BOD 5) went to the oxidation of chemical pollutants contained in a unit volume of water.

NATURE USE- a set of all forms of exploitation of natural resource potential and measures to preserve it. P. includes: a) extraction and processing of natural resources, their renewal or reproduction; b) the use and protection of the natural conditions of the living environment; and c) the preservation (maintenance), reproduction (restoration) and rational change of the ecological balance (equilibrium, quasi-stationary state) of natural systems, which serves as the basis for preserving the natural resource potential of the development of society;

BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY(from Latin product - to produce to create) - the rate of biomass accumulation, i.e. biomass produced by a population or community per unit area per unit of time; total or gross primary productivity should also include energy and biogenic volatiles (gases, aerosols).

SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY- biomass, as well as energy and biogenic volatiles produced by all consumers per unit area per unit of time, or the rate of biomass accumulation of consumers.

PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY- biomass (aboveground and underground organs), as well as energy and biogenic volatiles produced by producers per unit area per unit of time, or the rate of photosynthesis.

PRODUCTIVITY PRIMARY GROSS (TOTAL, TOTAL)- the total amount of organic matter produced during photosynthesis, including the energy consumed for plant respiration and volatile nutrients ( phytoncides etc.).

PRODUCTIVITY PRIMARY CLEAN- the rate of accumulation of organic matter in plants, minus the part used for respiration and excretion of nutrients. P. p. H. Is also called observed photosynthesis or pure assimilation.

PRODUCER (S)- (from lat. producentis- producing, creating) autotrophs and chemotrophs, producing organic matter from inorganic compounds. The main producers in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are green plants.

Prokaryotes(from lat. pro- redistribution, earlier, instead of Greek. kä ryon- core) - organisms whose cells do not have a nucleus limited by a membrane (all bacteria, including archaea and cyanobacteria).

Dynamic equilibrium- the equilibrium of the system, maintained due to the constant renewal of its components and structure.

RADIATION- flux of corpuscular (alpha, beta, gamma rays, neutron flux) and / or electromagnetic energy.

RADIATION IONIZING- natural radiation (for example, cosmic rays), which lead to ionization (formation of ions and free electrons) of electrically neutral atoms and molecules. R. and. acts in a destructive way on living matter and is the source of a wide range of changes in living organisms (causes new mutations, radiation sickness, etc.).

VEGETATION RUDERAL- plant groups formed in garbage and landfills.

Regional(from lat. regionalis- regional) - referring to any specific territory.

Reducers(from lat. redycentis- returning) - organisms (bacteria and fungi) that feed on dead organic matter and subject it to mineralization, that is, destruction to inorganic compounds, which are then used by producers.

RECREATION- restoration of health and working capacity by resting outside the home - in the bosom of nature or during a tourist trip associated with visiting interesting places for viewing, including national parks, architectural and historical monuments, museums.

RECULTIVATION- artificial restoration of soil fertility and vegetation cover after technogenic disturbance of nature (opencast mining, etc.).

RECUPERATION(waste) - the process of extracting valuable substances involved in the technological process and usually ending up in waste, and returning them in their original form for reuse. In a broad sense - collection and use of production waste in a cycle recycling.

RELIC- a species or community, previously widespread in geological history, and now occupying small areas. According to the time of the previous domination or wide distribution, R. of a certain geological dating is distinguished: tertiary, Pleistocene etc. Examples: blueberry - forest R. in the Arctic; desman — Neogene R. in the Volga and Ural basins;

REPELLENT- a substance that repels animals. In nature, one of the agents allelopathy, on the farm - one of pesticides... Distinguish olfactory and deodorant R. (neutralizing odors attractive to animals). R. use hl. arr. to protect people and animals from the attack of blood-sucking insects, prevention of t transmissive diseases, protection from arthropods that spoil furniture, clothing, as well as to protect valuable vegetation (natural and cultural) from animals.

REPRODUCTION- reproduction of individuals. The value of the population P. (pure R.) is determined by the sum of the products of the survival size characteristic of a given age of individuals by the birth rate specific to this age (the number of offspring per female).

Fertility- the birth of new individuals of any organism, regardless of whether they are born, hatch from eggs, germinate from seeds or appear as a result of division. Fertility varies with the size and age of individuals in the population, as well as environmental conditions.

SUPPORT- the degree of water saturation with decomposing organic matter. Established by the species composition of saprobic organisms in aquatic communities .

SAPROPEL- sediment formed at the bottom of continental water bodies and consisting of the remains of plant and animal organisms, mixed with mineral sediments brought by water and wind, transformed under anaerobic conditions. Before this transformation - detritus. Used as fertilizer.

SAPROPHYTE(Saprotrophs) (from the Greek. saprö s - rotten and tropbē- food) - heterotrophic organisms that use organic compounds of dead bodies or excrement (excrement) of animals for nutrition.

RESET EXTREMELY PERMISSIBLE(substances in a water body) (PDS) - the mass of a substance in wastewater, the maximum allowable for disposal in the established mode at a given point per unit of time in order to ensure water quality standards at the control point. The MPD is set taking into account the MPC of substances in the places of water use, the assimilating capacity of the water body and the optimal distribution of the mass of discharged substances between water users discharging wastewater.

ecological certification- activities to confirm the compliance of the certified object with the requirements of legislative and regulatory legal acts in the field of natural resources and environmental protection.

SYMBIOSIS- joint life of two or more individuals of different systematic groups, during which both partners (symbionts) or one of them gain advantages in relations with the external environment (S. algae, fungus, and microorganisms in the body of a lichen).

SYNANTHROPE(species): 1) a species that has found especially favorable living conditions near a person's dwelling; 2) an animal that usually lives within or near settlements. S. are divided into tenants who use only shelters near a person (swallows, swifts, etc.) and strict synanthropes that feed within a person's dwelling (cockroaches, bed bugs). Species, some individuals of which live close to a person, while the main part is far from him, are called partial synanthropes (ducks in cities), and those living near people for a short time are called temporary Sinanthropus (waxwings and other birds migrating through populated areas).

SYNOIKIA- the least close symbiotic cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms, often, apparently, indifferent for both cohabitants.

SYNUSION- an ecologically and spatially separate part of the phytocenosis, consisting of plants of one or several close life forms (for example, trees, shrubs, mosses, etc.).

SYNECOLOGY- a section of ecology that studies the relationship of populations, communities and ecosystems with the environment

Mortality- death of individuals in the population during a given period or the number of deaths per unit of time.

SMOG- a combination of field particles and fog droplets (from the English "smoke" - smoke, soot and "fog" - thick fog). Distinguish between London smog (a mixture of smoke and fog, occurs when the atmosphere is polluted with soot or smoke containing sulfur dioxide) and Los Angeles smog (photochemical smog caused by air pollution from transport exhaust gases containing nitrogen oxides; occurs in clear sunny weather with low air humidity , ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) are formed).

Medium resistance- the whole set of factors (including unfavorable conditions, lack of food and water, predation and disease) aimed at reducing the population size, hindering its growth and spread. Opposite in action to biotic potential.

Habitat- a set of specific abiotic and biotic conditions in which a given individual, population or species lives.

STATION- the habitat of the population.

Stenobiont- an organism that is unable to tolerate significant fluctuations in environmental factors, or with a narrow environmental valence.

STERILIZATION- complete destruction of microorganisms (temperature 100 о С, chemicals, filtration) in food products intended for long-term storage, and on items used for special purposes, for example, medical instruments (sanitation).

STOCK CONTAMINATED- waste water containing impurities in quantities exceeding the maximum permissible concentration.

STORAGE RUNOFF- arising as a result of heavy rains (showers).

ATMOSPHERE STRATIFICATION- temperature drop in the lower atmosphere with height, characterized by a vertical gradient in degrees per 100 m. In the troposphere, the temperature drops on average by 0.6 о per 100 m.

Stress(lat. stress - tension) - a state of tension that occurs in humans and animals under the influence of strong influences.

SUCCULENT- a drought-resistant plant of dry habitats with juicy fleshy aboveground organs (trunks, stems, leaves), in which moisture is stored. There are stem S. (cacti, cactus euphorbia), which accumulate water in the stems, and leaf S. (agave, aloe), which accumulate moisture in the leaves.

SUCCESSION(from lat. successio- continuity) - a sequential change in the biocenosis, successively arising in the same territory (biotope) under the influence of natural factors (including internal contradictions in the development of the biocenoses themselves) or human impact; nowadays, as a rule, it is observed as a result of a complex interaction of natural and anthropogenic factors. The end result of S. is more slowly developing climax or nodal communities.

TECHNOLOGY(from the Greek. tecbnë - art, craftsmanship, skill and logos- doctrine) - a set of rules, skills used in the manufacture of any type of tool, substance.

TOXIC SUBSTANCES(from the Greek. toxikon - poison) - poisonous substances.

TOLERANCE(lat. tolerantia - patience) - the body's ability to tolerate the adverse effects of one or another environmental factor.

TROPHIC CHAIN ​​(food chain, food chain) 1) the relationship between organisms through which the transformation of matter and energy occurs; 2) groups of individuals (bacteria, fungi, plants and animals) related to each other by the food-consumer relationship.

TROPHIC LEVEL- a set of organisms united by the type of nutrition. Organisms of different trophic chains, but receiving food through an equal number of links in the trophic chain, are at the same trophic level.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT- such a development in the global system "society-nature," which ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people of the present time without prejudice to the fundamental parameters biosphere and does not jeopardize the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It implies the maintenance of the development of the natural environment by the society.

FACTORY CONNECTIONS- the type of biocenotic relations, when a species uses excretion products, dead remains of other species for its structures (fabrication)

PHYTOPLANKTON(from the Greek. pbyton- plant, planktos- wandering) - a set of organisms that inhabit the water column of continental and marine reservoirs and are unable to withstand the transfer of currents.

TAIL DEPOSIT- closed or semi-closed (semi-closedness occurs when an earthen or similar dam is created, through which liquid is partially infiltrated) a basin for storing liquid tailings. Tails - waste (usually liquid or gaseous) arising from the enrichment of minerals or other technological processes. "Fox tails" are emissions containing chlorine.

Chemosynthesis(from the Greek. cbë meia - chemistry, syntbesis - compound) - a type of bacteria nutrition based on the assimilation of CO 2 due to the oxidation of inorganic compounds.

CHEMOTROPH- an organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic due to the oxidation of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and other substances present in water, soil and subsoil.

EURIBIONT- an organism capable of tolerating significant fluctuations in environmental factors, with a wide ecological valence, living in different, sometimes sharply different environmental conditions, capable of tolerating dehumidification during low tides, strong heating in summer, cooling and even freezing in winter. Ex. wolf, practically living in all geographic zones and vertical belts, starfish living in the littoral zone .

EUTROPHYING (EUTROPHYCTION, EUTROPHY) OF WATER: 1) an increase in the biological productivity of water bodies as a result of the accumulation of biogenic elements (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) in water under the influence of anthropogenic or natural (natural) factors; 2) anthropogenic - an increase in the biological productivity of aquatic ecosystems as a result of their enrichment with nutrients from human activity. There is a spelling eutrophication, eutrophication, eutrophy.

ENVIRONMENTAL NICHE- a set of all environmental factors within which the existence of a species in nature is possible. This concept is usually used when studying the relationship of ecologically close species belonging to the same trophic level.

Ecological pyramid- graphic representation of the ratio of various trophic levels. The base of the pyramid is the level producers... There can be three types: pyramid of numbers, pyramid of energy.

Environmental audit(environmental audit) is a systematic documented process of verifying objectively obtained and assessed audit data to determine whether certain environmental activities, events, conditions, management systems or information about these objects meet or fail to meet the audit criteria, and communicate the results obtained during this process.

Ecology(from the Greek. oikos- house and logos - word, doctrine) is a science that studies the relationship of living organisms between themselves and the environment.

Ecosystem(from the Greek. oikos- house and systema – combination, unification) - a set of co-living organisms and the conditions of their existence, which are in a natural relationship with each other and form a system of interdependent biological and abiotic phenomena and processes.

Ecotop- habitat of a community of living organisms, including a set of abiotic components of the habitat.

EXPERTISE OF THE PROJECT- Establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and determining the admissibility of the implementation of the environmental impact assessment object in order to prevent possible adverse impacts of this activity on the environment and related social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the environmental impact assessment object.

Extreme conditions(lat. extremum - extreme) - extreme, dangerous environmental conditions to which the body does not have the proper adaptations.

Endemic(from the Greek. endemos - local) - a local species that lives only in this region and does not live in others.

EROSION- destruction of rocks, soils or any other surfaces with violation of their integrity and changes in their physicochemical properties, usually accompanied by the transfer of particles from one place to another. Distinguish E. rocks, soil, metal surfaces, as well as E. . physical, chemical, biological. E. in nature is caused by wind (wind erosion, deflation), sharp fluctuations in the temperature of air and surfaces of objects, moving water (water erosion), solutions of acids and alkalis in it, environmental pollution (chemical and physical), the influence of biological agents (trampling, biochemical impact). A distinction is made between geological, anthropogenic, and zoogenic (grazing) factors of ecology. Soil ecology largely depends on agricultural technology.

Eukaryotes(from the Greek. ë u- good, completely and kä ryon - nucleus) - organisms whose cells contain formed nuclei (all higher animals and plants, as well as unicellular and multicellular algae, fungi and protozoa).

EPHEMER: 1) a perennial herb, characterized by a short flowering period and annual autumn-winter-spring vegetation in arid areas during the wet spring period. Typical for steppes, semi-deserts and deserts (eg, swollen sedge), as well as for broad-leaved forests (eg, Siberian blueberry); 2) animals, ch. arr. insects with a long-term development cycle, active only in spring, for example. May beetle, June beetle.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT (GREENHOUSE, ORANGE): 1) an increase in temperature and humidity in the closed space of the greenhouse, due to the fact that a transparent coating (glass, polyethylene, etc.) transmits sunlight, but is impervious to long-wave thermal radiation and / or water vapor; 2) gradual warming of the planet's climate as a result of the accumulation in the atmosphere of anthropogenic carbon dioxide and other gases (methane, fluorine and chlorine carbons), which, similar to the greenhouse cover, letting the sun's rays through, prevent long-wave thermal radiation from the Earth's surface.

Tiered- dissection of the plant community (or terrestrial ecosystem) into horizons, layers, tiers, canopies or other structural or functional strata. Distinguish between aboveground and underground layers.

Ecology(from the Greek. "oikos" - dwelling, "logos" - science) - the science of the laws of the relationship of organisms, species, communities with the environment.
External environment - all conditions of living and inanimate nature under which an organism exists and which directly or indirectly affect the state, development and reproduction of both individual organisms and populations.
Environmental factors(from Lat. "factor" - cause, condition) - individual elements of the environment interacting with the body.
Abiotic factors(from the Greek "a" - negation, "bios" - life) - elements of inanimate nature: climatic (temperature, humidity, light), soil, orographic (relief).
Biotic factors - living organisms interacting and influencing each other.
Anthropogenic factor(from the Greek "anthropos" - a person) - the direct impact of a person on organisms or impacts through a change in their environment.
The optimal factor is the most favorable for the body intensity of the environmental factor (light, temperature, air, humidity, soil, etc.).
Limiting factor - environmental factor that goes beyond the limits of the body's endurance (beyond the allowed maximum or minimum): moisture, light, temperature, food, etc.
Endurance limit - the boundary beyond which the existence of an organism is impossible (ice desert, hot spring, upper atmosphere). For all organisms and for each species, there are boundaries for each environmental factor separately.
Environmental plasticity the degree of endurance of organisms or their communities (biocenoses) to the effects of environmental factors.
Climatic factors - abiotic environmental factors associated with the supply of solar energy, the direction of the winds, the ratio of humidity and temperature.
Photoperiodism(from the Greek. "photo" - light) - the need of organisms in the periodic change of a certain length of day and night.
Seasonal rhythm - the reaction of organisms regulated by photoperiodism to a change in the seasons (when a short autumn day comes, leaves fall from trees, animals get ready for overwintering; when a long spring day comes, the plants begin to regenerate and the animals' vital activity is restored).
The biological clock - the reaction of organisms to the alternation of a period of light and darkness of a certain duration during the day (rest and activity in animals, daily rhythms of movement of flowers and leaves in plants, the rhythm of cell division, the process of photosynthesis, etc.).
Hibernation - adaptation of animals to the transfer of the winter season (winter sleep).
Anabiosis(from the Greek "anabiosis" - recovery) is a temporary state of the organism, in which life processes are slowed down to a minimum and all visible signs of life are absent (observed in cold-blooded animals in winter and during the hot period of summer).
Winter rest - the adaptive property of a perennial plant, which is characterized by the cessation of visible growth and vital activity, the death of aerial shoots in herbaceous life forms and leaf abscission in arboreal and shrub forms.
Frost resistance - the ability of organisms to endure low negative temperatures.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Ecological system - a community of living organisms and their habitat, constituting a single whole on the basis of food connections and methods of obtaining energy.
Biogeocenosis(from the Greek "bios" - life, "geo" - earth, "tsenosis" - general) - a stable self-regulating ecological system, in which organic components are inextricably linked with inorganic ones.
Biocenosis - a community of plants and animals inhabiting the same territory, mutually connected in the food chain and influencing each other.
Population(from the French "population" - population) - a set of individuals of the same species occupying a certain area, freely interbreeding with each other, having a common origin, genetic basis, and to some extent isolated from other populations of a given species.
Agrocenosis(from the Greek "agros" - field, "coenosis" - general) - biocenosis artificially created by man. It is not able to exist for a long time without human intervention, does not possess self-regulation and at the same time is characterized by high productivity (yield) of one or several species (varieties) of plants or animal breeds.
Producers(from the Latin "producer" - producing) - green plants, producers of organic matter.
Consumptions(from Lat. "consumo" - to consume, spend) - herbivorous and carnivorous animals, consumers of organic matter.
Reducers(from the Latin "reducere" - reduction, simplification of the structure) -microorganisms, fungi-destroyers of organic residues
Supply chains- chains of interconnected species that sequentially extract organic matter and energy from the original food substance; each previous link is food for the next.
Nutritional level - one link in the food chain, represented by producers, consumers or decomposers.
Power supply networks complex relationships in the ecological system, in which different components consume different objects and themselves serve as food for various members of the ecosystem.
The ecological pyramid rule is the regularity according to which the amount of plant matter, which serves as the basis of the food chain, is about 10 times greater than the mass of herbivorous animals, and each subsequent food level also has a mass that is 10 times less.
Self-regulation in biogeocenosis the ability to restore internal balance after any natural or anthropogenic influence.
Population fluctuation - a successive increase or decrease in the number of individuals in the population, which occurs in connection with a change in the season, fluctuations in climatic conditions, feed harvest, natural disasters. Due to regular repetition, fluctuations in population size are also called life waves or population waves.
Population regulation - organization of measures to regulate the number of individuals by means of their extermination or breeding.
An endangered population - population, the number of species of which has decreased to the accepted minimum.
The commercial population - a population, the extraction of individuals of which is economically justified and does not lead to the undermining of its resources.
Overpopulation - the temporary state of the population, in which the number of individuals exceeds the value corresponding to the conditions of normal existence. Most often associated with a change in biogeocenosis.
Density of life - the number of individuals per unit area or volume of tone or other environment.
Self-regulation of the number - the limiting effect of the ecological system, which reduces the number of individuals to an average rate.
Change of biogeocenoses - the successive natural development of the ecological system, in which some biocenoses are replaced by others under the influence of natural environmental factors: swamps are formed in the place of forests, in the place of swamps-meadows. A change in biogeocenoses can also be caused by natural disasters (fire, flood, windblow, mass reproduction of pests) or by human influence (deforestation, drainage or irrigation of land, earthworks).
Biocenosis restoration - more natural development of a sustainable ecological system capable of self-healing, which takes place in several stages over tens of years (after cutting down or a fire, the spruce forest is restored in more than 100 years) -
Artificial biocenosis restoration - a set of measures to ensure the renewal of the previous biocenosis by sowing seeds, planting tree seedlings, returning disappeared animals.
Phytocenosis(from the Greek "fiton" is a plant, "cenosis" is a common) plant community, historically formed as a result of a combination of interacting plants in a homogeneous area of ​​the territory. It is characterized by a certain species composition, life forms, layering (aboveground and underground), abundance (frequency of occurrence of species), location, aspect (appearance), vitality, seasonal changes, development (change of communities).

Ecology is the science of the relationship of living beings with each other and with the nature around them, of the structure and functioning of supraorganic systems.
The term "ecology" was coined in 1866 by the German evolutionist Ernst Haeckel. E. Haeckel believed that ecology should study various forms of struggle for existence. In its primary meaning, ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms to the environment (from the Greek "oikos" - dwelling, abode, refuge).
Ecology, like any science, is characterized by the presence of its own object, subject, tasks and methods (an object is a part of the surrounding world that is studied by this science; the subject of science is the most important essential aspects of its object).
The objects of ecology are biological systems of the supraorganism level: populations, communities, ecosystems (Yu. Odum, 1986).
The subject of ecology is the relationship of organisms and supraorganic systems with the surrounding organic and inorganic environment (E. Haeckel, 1870; R. Whittaker, 1980; T. Fenchil, 1987).
All organisms on Earth exist under certain conditions. The part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts is called the habitat. Individual properties or elements of the environment that affect the body are called environmental factors. The factors that are necessary for the existence of a certain species are called resource factors. The factors that lead to a decrease in the number of a species (to its elimination) are called elimination factors.
There are three main groups of environmental factors: abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors

General characteristics of the action of environmental factors

Any organism must be adapted in a certain way to the impact of specific environmental factors. The various adaptations of organisms are called adaptations. Due to the variety of adaptations, it is possible to distribute the survival rate of organisms depending on the intensity of the action of the environmental factor.
The values ​​of the ecological factor that are most favorable for a given species are called optimal, or simply ecological optimum. The same values ​​of the factor that are unfavorable for a given species are called pessimal, or simply ecological pessimum. There is a law of ecological optimum, according to which the survival rate of organisms reaches a maximum at values ​​of a given ecological factor close to its average value.
In the simplest case, the dependence of survival on the action of one factor is described by the equations of the normal distribution, which correspond to the bell-shaped curves of the normal distribution. These curves are also called tolerance curves, or Shelford curves.
As an example, consider the dependence of the density (survival) of a certain plant population on soil acidity.
It is seen that the populations of this plant species reach their maximum density at pH values ​​close to 6.5 (weakly acidic soils). PH values ​​from about 5.5 to 7.5 form a zone of ecological optimum, or a zone of normal life, for a given species. With a decrease or increase in pH, the population density gradually decreases. PH values ​​less than 5.5 and more than 7.5 form two zones of ecological pessimum, or zones of inhibition. PH values ​​less than 3.5 and more than 9.5 form zones of death in which organisms of a given species cannot exist.
Ecological niche

An ecological niche is a set of all connections of a species with its habitat, which ensure the existence and reproduction of individuals of a given species in nature.
The term ecological niche was proposed in 1917 by J. Grinnell to characterize the spatial distribution of intraspecific ecological groups.
Initially, the concept of an ecological niche was close to that of a habitat. But in 1927 C. Elton defined the ecological niche as the position of the species in the community, emphasizing the special importance of trophic relations. Domestic ecologist GF Gause expanded this definition: an ecological niche is a place of a species in an ecosystem.
In 1984 S. Spurr and B. Barnes identified three components of a niche: spatial (where), temporal (when) and functional (how). This niche concept emphasizes the importance of both the spatial and temporal components of the niche, including its seasonal and daily changes, taking into account circus and circadian biorhythms.

A figurative definition of an ecological niche is often used: a habitat is the address of a species, and an ecological niche is its profession (Yu. Odum).

In 1957-1965. J. Hutchinson defined an ecological niche as a part of ecological hyperspace in which the existence and reproduction of a species is possible. In ordinary physical space, the position of a point is described using its projection onto three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes. Adding a time coordinate axis creates a four-dimensional space-time that can no longer be represented graphically. Ecological hyperspace is an n-dimensional space in which the coordinates of points are determined by projections on the axis of gradations of a variety of environmental factors: abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic. Ecological hyperspace differs from the ecological spectrum in that it takes into account the interaction of ecological factors with each other in space and time.
An ecosystem is any unity that includes all organisms and the entire complex of physicochemical factors and interacts with the external environment. Ecosystems are the basic natural units on the Earth's surface.
The doctrine of ecosystems was created by the English botanist Arthur Tensley (1935).
Ecosystems are characterized by various kinds of metabolism, not only between organisms, but also between their living and nonliving components. When studying ecosystems, special attention is paid to functional relationships between organisms, energy flows and the circulation of substances.
The spatio-temporal boundaries of ecosystems can be allocated rather arbitrarily. The ecosystem can be idol-long (for example, the Earth's biosphere), and short-term (for example, ecosystems of temporary water bodies). Ecosystems can be natural or artificial. From the point of view of thermodynamics, natural ecosystems are always open systems (they exchange matter and energy with the external environment); artificial ecosystems can be isolated (they exchange only energy with the external environment).
Biogeocenoses. In parallel with the doctrine of ecosystems, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, created by Vladimir Nikolaevich Sukachev (1942), also developed.
A biogeocenosis is a combination of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, vegetation, fauna and microorganisms, soil, rocks and hydrological conditions) on a known extent of the earth's surface, which has its own specific interactions between the constituent components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy between themselves and other phenomena. nature and representing an internally contradictory unity, which is in constant motion, development.
Biogeocenoses are characterized by the following features:
- biogeocenosis is associated with a specific area of ​​the earth's surface; unlike an ecosystem, the spatial boundaries of biogeocenoses cannot be drawn arbitrarily;
- biogeocenoses have existed for a long time;
- biogeocenosis is a bio-inert system, which is a unity of living and inanimate nature;
- biogeocenosis is an elementary biochorological cell of the biosphere (that is, a biological-spatial unit of the biosphere);
- biogeocenosis is the arena of primary evolutionary transformations (that is, the evolution of populations takes place in specific natural-historical conditions, in specific biogeocenoses).
Thus, like an ecosystem, a biogeocenosis is a unity of a biocenosis and its inanimate habitat; the biogeocenosis is based on the biocenosis. The concepts of ecosystem and biogeocenosis are outwardly similar, but, in reality, they are different. In other words, any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not any ecosystem is a biogeocenosis.

Productivity of trophic levels
The amount of energy passing through the trophic level per unit area per unit of time is called the productivity of the trophic level. Productivity is measured in kcal / ha · year or other units (in tons of dry matter per 1 ha per year; in milligrams of carbon per 1 square meter or 1 cubic meter per day, etc.).
The energy supplied to the trophic level is called gross primary productivity (for producers) or ration (for consumers). Part of this energy is spent on maintaining vital processes (metabolic costs, or the cost of respiration), part - on the formation of waste products (litter from plants, excrement, molting skins and other waste from animals), part - on the increase in biomass. Part of the energy spent on biomass growth can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level.
The energy balance of the trophic level can be written in the form of the following equations:
(1) gross primary productivity = respiration + litter + biomass gain
(2) diet = respiration + waste + biomass gain
The first equation applies to producers, the second applies to consumers and reducers.
The difference between gross primary productivity (diet) and the cost of respiration is called net primary productivity of the trophic level. The energy that can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level is called the secondary productivity of the considered trophic level.
When energy passes from one level to another, part of it is irretrievably lost: in the form of thermal radiation (costs for breathing), in the form of waste products. Therefore, the amount of highly organized energy constantly decreases during the transition from one trophic level to the next. On average, it enters a given trophic level. 10% of the energy received at the previous trophic level; this pattern is called the ten percent rule, or the ecological pyramid rule. Therefore, the number of trophic levels is always limited (4-5 links), for example, already the fourth level receives only 1/1000 of the energy received at the first level.

Ecosystem dynamics
In emerging ecosystems, only a part of the increase in biomass is spent on the formation of secondary production; an accumulation of organic matter occurs in the ecosystem. Such ecosystems are naturally replaced by other types of ecosystems. The natural change of ecosystems in a certain area is called a succession. Example of succession: lake> overgrown lake> swamp> peat bog> forest.
The following forms of succession are distinguished:
- primary - arise in previously unpopulated areas (for example, on unsold sands, rocks); biocenoses that initially form under such conditions are called pioneer communities;
- secondary - occur in disturbed habitats (for example, after fires, in clearings);
- reversible - a return to a pre-existing ecosystem is possible (for example, birch forest> burnt forest> birch forest> spruce forest);
- irreversible - a return to a pre-existing ecosystem is impossible (for example, the destruction of relict ecosystems; a relict ecosystem is an ecosystem that has survived from past geological periods);
- anthropogenic - arising under the influence of human activity.
The accumulation of organic matter and energy at trophic levels leads to an increase in the stability of the ecosystem. In the course of succession, under certain soil and climatic conditions, the final climax communities are formed. In climax communities, the entire increase in the trophic level biomass is spent on the formation of secondary production. Such ecosystems can exist indefinitely.
In degrading (dependent) ecosystems, the energy balance is negative - the energy supplied to the lower trophic levels is insufficient for the functioning of the higher trophic levels. Such ecosystems are unstable and can exist only with additional energy costs (for example, ecosystems of settlements and anthropogenic landscapes). As a rule, in degrading ecosystems, the number of trophic levels decreases to a minimum, which further increases their instability.

The concept of the biosphere as a "region of life" and the outer shell of the Earth goes back to JB Lamarck. The term "biosphere" was introduced by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1875), who understood the biosphere as a thin film of life on the earth's surface, which largely determines the "face of the Earth." However, a complete doctrine of the biosphere was developed by the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1926).
Currently, there are many approaches to defining the concept of "biosphere".
The biosphere is the geological shell of the Earth, formed in the course of the historical development of the organic world.
The biosphere is the active shell of the Earth, in which the aggregate activity of living organisms manifests itself as a geochemical factor on a planetary scale.
The biosphere is the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and energetics of which are determined by the aggregate vital activity of living organisms; it is the largest known ecosystem.

Biosphere structure
The biosphere includes in its composition both the vitasphere (a set of living organisms) and the total results of the activity of pre-existing organisms: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere.
The area in which living organisms are regularly found is called the eubiosphere (the biosphere itself). The total thickness of the eubiosphere. 12-17 km.
In relation to the eubiosphere, the following layers of the biosphere are distinguished:
- the apobiosphere - lies above the parabiosphere - living organisms are not found;
- parabiosphere - lies above the eubiosphere - organisms enter by accident;
- eubiosphere - the biosphere itself, where organisms are found regularly;
- the metabiosphere - lies under the eubiosphere - organisms enter by accident;
- abiosphere - lies under the metabiosphere - living organisms are not found.
Aerobiosphere - includes the lower atmosphere. The aerobiosphere includes:
a) tropobiosphere - up to an altitude of 6 ... 7 km;
b) altobiosphere - to the lower boundary of the ozone screen (20 ... 25 km).
The ozone shield is a layer of the atmosphere with a high ozone content. The ozone screen absorbs the hard ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which has a detrimental effect on all living organisms. In recent decades, “ozone holes” have been observed in the circumpolar regions - areas with low ozone content.
Hydrobiosphere - includes the entire hydrosphere. The lower boundary of the hydrobiosphere. 6 ... 7 km, in some cases - up to 11 km. The hydrobiosphere includes:
a) aquabiosphere - rivers, lakes and other fresh waters;
b) marinobiosphere - seas and oceans.
Terrabiosphere is the land surface. The terrabiosphere includes:
a) phytosphere - the habitat of terrestrial plants;
b) pedosphere - a thin layer of soil.
Lithobiosphere. The lower boundary of the lithobiosphere. 2 ... 3 km (less often - up to 5 ... 6 km) on land and. 1 ... 2 km below the ocean floor. Living organisms in the lithobiosphere are rare, however, sedimentary rocks in the biosphere arose under the influence of the vital activity of organisms.
IN AND. Vernadsky identified 7 types of substances in the biosphere: living matter, biogenic matter (fossil fuels, limestones), inert matter (igneous rocks), bioinert matter (soil), radioactive matter, scattered atoms and matter of cosmic origin.
The functions of living matter in the biosphere are diverse:
- Energy - accumulation of solar energy during photosynthesis; all life phenomena on Earth occur due to solar energy.
- Gas - the composition of the modern atmosphere (in particular, the content of oxygen and carbon dioxide) was formed, to a large extent, under the influence of the vital activity of organisms.
- Concentration - as a result of the vital activity of organisms, all types of fossil fuels, many ores, soil organic matter, etc. have developed.
- Redox - in the course of the life of living organisms, redox reactions constantly occur, ensuring the circulation and constant transformations of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron and other elements.
- Destructive - as a result of the destruction of dead organisms and products of their vital activity, the transformation of living matter into inert, biogenic and bioinert occurs.
- Environment-forming - organisms transform physical and chemical factors of the environment in various ways.
- Transport - the transfer of matter against gravity and in the horizontal direction.

The relationship between the components of the biosphere
Plants are producers of organic matter, therefore, it is with them that chain feeding, or pasture chains, always begin in ecosystems. Microorganisms-reducers carry out the transfer of elements from the organic form to the extraorganic. Chemosynthetic organisms change the oxidation states of elements, convert them from an insoluble form to a soluble one, and vice versa.
Thus, with the help of plants and microorganisms, the cycle of carbon, oxygen and mineral nutrients is carried out.
The total mass of living matter in the biosphere is 2.500.000.000.000 tons (or 2.5 trillion tons). The annual plant production of the Earth exceeds 120 billion tons (dry matter basis). At the same time, approximately 170 billion tons of carbon dioxide are absorbed, 130 billion tons of water are split, 120 billion tons of oxygen are released and 400 · 1015 kilocalories of solar energy are stored. About 2 billion tons of nitrogen and about 6 billion tons of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron and other elements are annually involved in the processes of synthesis and decomposition. For 2 thousand years, all the oxygen in the atmosphere passes through the plants.
The movement of elements along food chains (networks) is called biogenic migration of atoms. Moving animals (birds, fish, large mammals) facilitate the movement of elements over considerable distances.

The basic laws of ecology are popularly formulated by the American ecologist B. Commoner.
The first law: "Everything is connected with everything." A small shift in one place in the ecology
a network can have significant and long-term consequences in a very different way.
The second law: "Everything must go somewhere." In essence, this is a reformulation of the well-known law of conservation of matter. B. Commoner writes: “One of the main reasons for the current environmental crisis is that huge quantities of different substances have been extracted from the earth, where they were bound, transformed into new, often very active and far from natural compounds” (“Closing circle ", 1974).
The third law: "Nature knows best." Stable natural ecological systems are the most complex formations, and their organization occurred as a result of evolutionary development, selection from a variety of options. Therefore, it is logical to assume that natural is the best option and each new option will be worse. But this does not mean that nature cannot be changed, improved, adapted to the interests of man, it is just necessary to do it competently, relying on strict scientific knowledge about nature and foreseeing all possible negative consequences.
The fourth law: "Nothing is given for free" or "You have to pay for everything." The meaning of this law is that the world ecosystem is a single whole and, changing it to some insignificant extent in one
place, we must scientifically foresee what shifts may occur in other places. What a person took from nature or spoiled, he must correct and return. Otherwise, such shifts will begin that are difficult not only to correct, but even to foresee. Changes may develop that will threaten the existence of human civilization.

The main (elementary) functional unit of the biosphere is the ecosystem. An ecosystem is a single natural complex formed over a long period by living organisms and the environment in which they exist, and where all components are closely linked by metabolism and energy. But, in accordance with the idea of ​​Y. Odum, not every combination of life-environment can be an ecosystem. It can only be an environment where there is stability and the internal circulation of substances clearly functions. There are microecosystems (a stump with mushrooms, a small swamp), mesoecosystems (a forest area, a lake, a reservoir) and macroecosystems (a continent, an ocean). The global ecosystem is the biosphere of our planet. An ecosystem is often identified with a biogeocenosis. I. Dedyu believes that the categories ecosystem and biogeocenosis coincide at the level of plant community and differ fundamentally only above and below this level. “Ecosystem” is a more general concept. Biogeocenosis components - biotope and biocenosis. A biotope is a space that is homogeneous behind abiotic environmental factors, occupied by a biocenosis (that is, the place of life of a species, organism), and a biocenosis is a community of organisms (producers, consumers and decomposers) that live within the boundaries of one biotope. The concept of "biocenosis" is conditional, since organisms cannot live outside the environment of existence, but it is convenient to use it in the process of studying the ecological connections between organisms.

Depending on the area, the attitude to human activity, the degree of saturation, usefulness, etc. distinguish between biocenoses of land, water, natural and anthropogenic, saturated and unsaturated, full and incomplete.

During the study of ecosystems characterize: 1) their species or population composition and the quantitative ratio of species populations; 2) the spatial distribution of individual elements; 3) the totality of all connections, first of all - food chains.

Ecosystems are open thermodynamic functionally holistic systems that exist due to the receipt of energy and partly matter from the environment and which self-develop and self-regulate.

One of the important ecological concepts is homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of internal dynamic balance of a natural system (ecosystem), which is supported by the regular restoration of its main elements and material-energy composition, as well as constant functional self-regulation of components. Homeostasis is characteristic and necessary for all natural systems - from the atom and organism to cosmic formations.

All populations have properties due to which they maintain their numbers at an optimal level in an environment that is constantly changing. These properties are homeostasis.

Species (biological) - a set of organisms with related morphological characteristics that can interbreed with each other and have a common gene pool. It is the basic structural unit in the system of living organisms. The species is subordinate to the genus, but has subspecies and populations. The species have morphological, physiological-biochemical, ecological-geographical (biogeographic) and genetic characteristics.

A population is a collection of individuals of the same species with the same gene pool, which has been living in a common area for many generations.

Basic environmental concepts and terms

Biomass is the total mass of individuals of one species, groups of species or the community as a whole (plants, animals, microorganisms), which is per unit of surface (volume), place. residence (raw or dry). Express biomass in kilograms per hectare, grams per square meter or cubic meter, or in joules (energy units). Invertebrates and ground microorganisms have the largest biomass on land among heterotrophs (the biomass of earthworms can reach 1000-1200 kg / ha), about 90% of the biomass of the biosphere falls on the biomass of terrestrial plants, which are used. photosynthesis - a biospheric process - assimilate free energy and ensure the existence of all living things. The beginning of the biological circulation of substances is precisely photosynthesis. But the mechanism of photosynthesis remains a mystery to scientists to this day. There are several hypotheses that explain the mechanism of this phenomenon. One of the last is the photovoltaic G. Komisarova.

The largest biomass is in tropical forests (up to 1700 t / ha), and the smallest - in tropical and subtropical deserts (about -2.5 t / ha). The biomass of meadow steppes is 250 c / ha (above ground), forest belt (Polesie) - up to 3500-4000 (above ground) and 960 c / ha (underground).

Terrestrial plants are almost 100 times larger in mass than terrestrial animals, and the mass of herbivores is just as many times greater than the mass of predators.

The rate of biomass production in a given area per unit of time is called bioproductivity. It can be primary (productivity, producers) and secondary (biomass produced by consumers and organisms that decompose).

The primary productivity of continents is about 53 billion tons of organic matter, of the World Ocean - up to 30 billion tons. On land, the main source of primary biomass is tropical forests, forests of Polesie and Siberia, in the ocean - zones of rise of deep waters enriched in phosphorus and nitrogen near continents in the tropics, as well as continental shoals of cold seas.

It is estimated that the current annual biomass of the planet, which mankind collects, is no longer enough to feed the Earth's population, and the entire biosphere is capable of feeding no more than 7-10 billion people. Therefore, in the near future, the depletion of the biosphere should be stopped and its productivity should be increased by a factor of two.

Over the past decades, the term "agrocenosis" has been used more and more often. Agrocenoses are young biocenoses that are formed in our time, are characterized by species poverty and uniformity and are supported by humans thanks to the system of agrotechnical and agrochemical measures developed by her. These are secondary biogeocenoses modified by man (fields, vegetable gardens, orchards, underwater mussel plantations, etc.).

In agrocenoses, regulatory connections are very weakened, which leads to a sharp increase in the number of pests and pathogens of various diseases. But agrocenoses provide mankind with up to 90% of food products.

Agrocenoses are the result of extensive devastation of lands, super-irrigation and illiterate reclamation, active grazing, deforestation, super-chemization of land, as well as continuous cultivation of the same crops in the same fields. They exist in comparison with natural ones for a very short time (grain agrocenoses - a year, garden ones - 30-40 years).

Agrocenoses are a consequence of anthropogenic metabolism, which is ecologically very imperfect, unclosed, since natural resources are at the input of this exchange, and at the output are agrochemical, industrial and household waste, which are not returned to production, are not deposited and do not decompose, as is usually occurs in the biosphere for millions of years.

Also important is the concept of biological small and geological large circulation of substances, as well as the cycles of water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide as the most important, from an environmental point of view, components of the atmosphere, as well as the cycles of sulfur, phosphorus, carbon as the most important vital substances of the biosphere.

The circulation of substances is their repeated participation in natural processes that have eternally taken place in the geospheres. Living organisms play an important role in the circulation of substances, or rather chemical elements, which was first noticed by the French scientist J. Lamarck. V. Vernadsky investigated this issue and formulated the basic laws of biogeochemical circulation.

Small, or biological (biotic), circulation takes place within the boundaries of small ecosystems, large (geological) within the boundaries of the planet, between oceans and continents. During the circulation, there is a circular circulation of substances between air, soil, water, plants, animals and microorganisms, minerals necessary for life are absorbed, transformed, come from the environment into the composition of plant organisms, and from them through the food chain in the form of organic substances - to animals, then through the link of reducers - to the environment (soil, water, air) in the form of inorganic substances.

Due to the presence in the atmosphere and hydrosphere of a large reserve fund of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, cycles can relatively quickly self-regulate.

During the biological circulation, very characteristic energy changes occur during the transition from one trophic level to another. On average, about 1% of solar energy enters the trophic cycle of the ecosystem, only 10% of the energy assimilated by organisms goes to the next higher trophic equals from the lower ones, and 80-90% is dissipated in the ecosystem in the form of heat. Plants use solar energy with an efficiency of 0.1 to 1%. Plant-eating animals consume about 10% of the energy accumulated by plants, predators - up to 10% of the accumulated herbivores (their biomass), that is, only about 0.001% of the solar energy that goes to the Earth. This fact made it possible to build ecological pyramids of biomass, energy, ecosystems.

Here are some more important ecological concepts.

Homeostasis is a state of internal dynamic equilibrium of a natural system, which is maintained by regular restoration of its main structures, material-energy composition, i.e. constant functional self-regulation of its components. This state is characteristic of all natural systems - from the atom and organism to the Galaxy.

Hierarchy of ecosystems - functional subordination (belonging of small and simple systems to large and more complex) ecosystems of different levels of organization. The hierarchical series is as follows: biogeocenosis - biogeocenotic complex - landscape (landscape province) - natural belt - biogeographic area (subsphere of the biosphere, or ecosystem of land, ocean, atmosphere, depths of the Earth) - biosphere. Ecosystems of each level have their own circulation of substances.

Catacenosis is the final stage of the extinction of a biotic community, degradation of the biotic environment.

Climax is the final phase of biogeocenotic succession; the final stage of the development of biogeocenoses in the given conditions of existence; the final rather stable phase (does not change over decades) of the natural biogenocenotic su-ccession, which most closely corresponds to the ecological conditions of a given area at a certain period of geological time.

Negentropy is the reciprocal of entropy; a measure of remoteness from the state of energy balance, the desire for unevenness. Negentropy increases with an increase in the organization of the system. Organisms and ecosystems have significant negentropy.

Redi's principle - the living comes from the living, and between living and lifeless matter there is an intransitive boundary.

Succession is a sequential change in biocenoses that occurs in the same territory (biotope) under the influence of natural or anthropogenic factors.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site ecosoft.iatp.org.ua/

Biome... One of the largest ecosystems that form a common ecosystem. Each of them is characterized by a climatic community and a special climate in the region.

Renewable energy sources... Natural energy sources such as wind and water.

Deforestation... Massive deforestation for fuel or timber, as well as for clearing land for new arable land or cities.

Genetic Engineering... Changing the genetic code to create organisms useful to humans. Genes carry information about the basic properties of an organism.

Natural selection... Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. She argues that within each species, those organisms that have managed to adapt best to the conditions of the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. Therefore, changes that allow them to adapt to new conditions are passed on to subsequent generations, which ensures the evolutionary development of the species as a whole.

Pollution... The ingress of foreign substances into the soil and natural cycles, as well as the presence of artificial chemicals or excessive concentration of natural minerals in the soil, which causes great harm to it.

Protective coloration (mimicry)... The use by plants or animals of a special color that allows them to either be less noticeable against the background of the environment, or disguise themselves as other plants or animals.

Intensive farming... Apply the latest techniques to maximize yields, such as using chemical fertilizers, insecticides and other chemicals, and growing the same crops every year in the same fields. These methods severely damage soils and alter natural cycles.

Irrigation... Irrigation of land, mainly through canals. Inappropriate irrigation methods can increase the content of the topsoil and make the land infertile.

Sources of... All types of green plants that produce food from primary substances in the process of photosynthesis. They are the foundation for all food webs.

Disappearing... Extinction of animal and plant species and, as a consequence, their complete disappearance from the face of the Earth.

Acid rain... Rain and snow containing toxic chemicals that get into due to its pollution from industrial and automobile gases. These rains kill many animals and plants, especially trees and algae, and cause serious damage to buildings and human health.

Climate... The set of weather conditions (wind and humidity) typical for a given region.

Climate community... A community of species that remains largely unchanged until significant climatic or ecological changes occur in a given area (see also Continuity).

Integrated heat and power plants... Highly efficient power plants under construction in cities. Use the hot water generated from electricity generation to heat nearby houses, schools, etc.

Marginal (border) lands... Lands suitable only for pasture cattle breeding and not suitable for farming.

Desert advance... The process by which virgin soils (which are commonly used as pasture by the locals) are rendered barren by poor exploitation and overly intensive agricultural practices, or by climate change.

Necrophages... Organisms that feed on dead organisms and decompose them into mineral compounds. Niche, ecological. The place that a given organism takes in its ecosystem. It includes the features of its nutrition and interaction with other organisms.

Ozone layer... A layer in the atmosphere containing ozone gas, which traps the sun's very harmful ultraviolet radiation. However, some industrial gases destroy it gradually.

Organic matter... Substances that are or were part of the body. Contains carbon.

Greenhouse effect... Occurs when reflected solar heat is trapped by gases from the atmosphere and heats it up. Human activities, the result of which is an increase in the emission of gases into the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide), threaten a general rise in temperature on Earth.

A series of living organisms in which each previous species serves as food for the next. at the same time it is transmitted from one level (see Trophic levels) to another. All food chains in a single ecosystem are united into a single food web.

Consumers... Organisms that feed on other organisms.

Continuity... A sequence of natural changes in a given habitat, in which one community replaces another until a new climatic community is formed.

Crop rotation... The principle of farming, in which different, specially selected crops are grown each year in a new field, within a cycle of four to five years. This helps to control yields and avoid soil depletion.

Community... The collection of plants and animals in a given habitat.

Habitat... A defined area in which a community of plants and animals lives.

Territory... The area that one or more organisms occupy and defend from the invasion of rivals (most often - organisms of the same species).

Trophic levels... Different links in the food chain, corresponding to organisms that receive food and energy from the same sources.

Photosynthesis... The process by which plants use solar energy to make food (carbohydrates) from water and carbon dioxide.

Chlorofluorocarbons... Chlorine-based compounds used in aerosols, refrigerator freezers and in the production of polystyrene, which scientists believe are the main cause of ozone depletion.

Evolution... A long-term process of change in living organisms, lasting for millions of years.

Environmentally friendly technologies... Application of methods that do not conflict with natural cycles and do not violate the ecological balance in the region (there are environmentally friendly technologies in forestry, agriculture, etc.).

Environmentally friendly farming... Agricultural practices that take into account natural cycles - for example, using only organic fertilizers (manure), natural pest control, and crop rotation.

Environmentally friendly technologies... Equipment, mechanisms and methods that those who need them have (for example, manual equipment instead of tractors where there is no way to get machine oil and spare parts).

Ecosystem... A self-sufficient system consisting of a community of plants and animals in their environment, which are inextricably linked by the exchange of substances and energy.

Soil erosion... The process of destruction and death of the fertile topsoil - mainly due to rain and wind, as well as due to intensive farming, deforestation and insufficient artificial irrigation. Lands become barren as a result of erosion.