Until the 20th century, scientists did not know about this state. The history of the Hittite kingdom became known to researchers relatively recently. Although traces of civilization were read in ancient writings. In particular, the Bible mentions the "Heteyans", in the Assyrian sources - about the country "Hatti". Egyptian letters also told about the country of Het, from which as early as 1300 BC. warlike people fought with the ancient Egyptians, trying to defend their right in the territory of Palestine and Syria. Sources say that the war ended in a draw then, which means that the rivals were worthy.
Excavations
At the end of the 19th century, archaeologists began excavating the central regions of Asia (the territory of modern Turkey). It was there that the center of the Hittite kingdom turned out to be, and here was the capital - Hattusa.
About language
At the excavation site, clay tiles covered with inscriptions were found. Researchers have established that this is Akkadian cuneiform, which the Hittites adopted from the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia.
Despite the fact that it was Akkadian cuneiform, the inscriptions were in Hittite, therefore it was difficult to read them. The decryption was carried out only in 1915, as a result of which it was revealed that the Hittite language is related to the Germanic and Slavic languages, which means that it constituted the Indo-European language family. This was an unusual phenomenon, because the entire Ancient East spoke the languages of the Afro-Asian family (the ancestors of the Arabic and Hebrew languages).
Where do you come from
Where exactly the Hittites came from, historians find it difficult to say. Perhaps they appeared in Asia Minor from the west, coming from the Balkan Peninsula. Although they could have appeared from the mountain passes of the Caucasus.
The Hittites not only had a different language compared to their contemporaries, but also the area they inhabited. While the neighbors lived in the river valleys of the Tigris, Nile and Euphrates, the Hittites lived in small plains, near the foothills and mountains. Such plains were separated from each other by gorges and ridges, as well as by small rivers.
Such natural conditions allowed the Hittites to succeed in raising livestock, and they did it much better than agriculture. In the world they were known as excellent horse breeders, and the army from chariots constituted a serious threat to the opponents.
Rulers
Given the isolated location of individual regions and districts of the Hittite state, the rulers of the Hattusa sent their nobles to rule. This is how small independent principalities were formed. Some went too far, trying to break away, but not many succeeded and most returned "home", subdued by the formidable rulers.
Military power
Most historians give us an idea of the Hittite state as flimsy and weak in comparison with other states of that time, but the Hittites could fight back their opponents and did it with all their greatness.
The Hittite kingdom existed from 1650 to 1200. BC, and during this time they did not lose battles nirazu. Only at the last stages, when the state weakened and dried up, the formidable Assyria was able to take part of the territories from the Hittites (1265 - 1200 BC). But until then, the Hittites terrified their opponents.
Chronology of military victories
1595 BC - captured and destroyed, led by King Mursili I.
1400 BC - the kingdom of Mitanni was defeated and control was established in the territories of the Upper Euphrates and Northern Syria. The army was led by King Suppilulium.
1312 BC - The 30 thousandth army led by King Muwatali captured the army of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II in a trap. The latter then managed to miraculously escape, losing most of his detachment.
The Hittites showed themselves well in battles with semi-savage peoples - helmets, who constantly attacked foreign borders.
The secret of military greatness
The military power of the Hittites was not accidental. They settled in areas with rich ore deposits. There was a lot of wood and metal, in which the states in the river valleys were deprived. The Hittites did not seek help and mediation from the merchants of Assyria and Babylon; they preferred to engage in their own production, taking advantage of the natural benefits of their home. They did not have claims to trade interchanges and cities, as did the same rulers of Egypt and Assyria, since they had enough of their own. They were interested in the territories as such and, accordingly, they planned their campaigns in a different way than was typical of neighboring states.
Kingdom structure
The Hittites differed from their contemporaries in terms of the structure of the state. The monarchs did not have absolute power, as was the case in Babylon and Egypt. The tsar relied only on his nobility, and all the rest remained free "pure" inhabitants, uniting in "pankus" - assemblies of warriors who had already chosen a leader from the royal family. Some kind of slaves were only those who fulfilled their duties.
Disappearing
As we wrote above, the history of the Hittite kingdom ends in 1200. BC, when small tribes made spontaneous invasions from the Balkan Peninsula. When Hattusa fell, the Hittite kingdom ceased to exist.
Hittites. Babylon Destroyers Gurney Oliver Robert
3. EMPIRE (NEWOCHETIAN KINGDOM)
About Tudhaliya II, the founder of the dynasty that later created the Hittite Empire, we only know for certain that he captured and destroyed Aleppo. Consequently, the Hittite kingdom restored internal political stability and was again able to dictate its will to the rebellious tributaries.
We do not know the exact date and circumstances of this attack on Aleppo, and this event has yet to be written into the annals of Syrian history of the 15th century BC. NS. During the long period of turmoil, which began with the assassination of Mursili I, Northern Syria managed to fall under the rule of Hanigalbat, a political union of the Hurrian tribes, organized around 1500 BC. NS. The impotence of the Hatti kingdom is evidenced by the fact that the Syrians, being themselves tributaries of the Hurrians, could raid the Hittite lands with impunity. In 1457 BC. NS. the victories of Thutmose III in the eighth military campaign put an end to the rule of the Hurrians, and for 30 years Syria fell into dependence on the Egyptians. However, after the death of the energetic Thutmose, the Egyptians could not hold North Syria for a long time and were soon forced to retreat before the new Hurrian power - Mitanni. During the dynasty of the kingsarians, the state of Mitanni achieved dominance over all of Western Asia. What were the internal political factors of this process, we do not know, since the archives of the kings of this dynasty have not yet been found. But from the next century, when the power of Mitanni had already declined, many monuments have survived, from which it is clear that the Hurrian language and the Hurrian culture in general managed to exert a very noticeable influence in all territories from Hittite Anatolia to Canaanite Palestine.
In a document reporting on the Hittite campaign against Aleppo, it is explained that this was a punitive campaign undertaken in punishment for the fact that the city came under the rule of Hanigalbat. Consequently, it took place no later than 1457 BC. e., when Khanigalbat was defeated by Thutmose III. It is possible that the Hittites timed their campaign to the campaign of the Egyptians, speaking in alliance with the Egyptian pharaoh: it is known that at that time Thutmose received gifts from the "Great Hetah". This version allows us to explain why there is no mention of the capture of Aleppo in the reports on the Egyptian campaign.
The rise of the Mitanni plunged the Hittite kingdom into yet another crisis. Many principalities that had previously fallen into the orbit of Hittite influence have now come under the rule of the Hurrian state or declared their independence. Under Khatgusili II and Tudhaliya III, the kingdom came to the very edge of the abyss. Apparently, the description of a critical situation left by one of the later kings refers precisely to this period:
“In the old days, the Hatti lands were plundered from abroad (?). The enemy from Kaska came and plundered the Hatti lands and laid Nenassa as his line. From beyond the Lower Lands, an enemy came from Artsava, and he also plundered the Hatti lands and laid Tuvan and Udu as his border.
An enemy from outside, from Araunna, came and plundered the whole land of Gassia.
And again an enemy from outside, from Azzi, came and plundered all the Upper Lands and laid his border on Samuhu. And the enemy from Isuva came and plundered the land of Tegarama.
And the enemy also came from outside, from Armatana, and he also plundered the Hatti lands and laid the city of Kizzuwatnu as his border. Hattusa was burned to the ground and<…>but home hasti <…>survived. "
It seems quite improbable that all these attacks would occur simultaneously, for in that case, only a piece of barren land south of Galis would remain of the entire kingdom. But this description partly corresponds to the known facts about the situation of that time: the raids of the eastern neighbors of Hatti can be explained by the support that the Mitannian empire provided them, and the facts of independence and expansion of Artsava are confirmed by letters from the Egyptian pharaoh to the king of this state found in the archives of El-Amarna.
The end of this period of weakening and the beginning of a new era was marked by the accession of Suppiluliuma I. He ascended the throne around 1380 BC. NS. under not entirely legal circumstances, despite the fact that he was the son of Tudhaliya III and accompanied his father on several campaigns.
We do not know much about the struggle to unite and fortify the Hatti lands, to which this king, in all likelihood, devoted the first years of his reign. Suppiluliuma must have erected the massive defensive wall along the southern border of Hattusa and other fortifications in the capital city, which will be discussed below. And only after that he was able to begin his main task - settling accounts with Mitanni, a formidable enemy, through whose fault the Hittite kingdom fell into decay under the previous rulers.
The first campaign against Syria through the Taurus ridge turned into defeat and heavy losses; part of the spoils of war captured from the Hittites, the king of Mitanni Tushratta sent to his ally, the king of Egypt. The next campaign was prepared more carefully. Apparently, the Hittites managed to find out that the main means of defense of the Mitannians were concentrated in Northern Syria. But one way or another, the new plan was to cross the Euphrates at Malatya and attack the Mitannian kingdom itself from the rear. It was a dangerous route, since wild tribes lived in the northern mountains, and in order to conquer them, they first had to make a separate trip. As a result, a peace treaty was concluded with a certain kingdom, called Azzi in some texts, and Hayas in others, sealed by marriage between the sister of Suppiluliuma and the leader of this mountainous country. So the Hittites secured themselves from the left flank. Having ferried an army across the Euphrates, Suppiluliuma easily regained the previously lost region of Isuvu under his rule and, suddenly falling upon the capital of Mitanni, the city of Vashukanni, captured and plundered it. Apparently, the Mitannian king could not offer resistance and avoided the battle. After this, Suppilulium again crossed the Euphrates and returned to Syria, where the local kings, who had lost the support of Mitanni, hastened to show him complete obedience. Apparently, the conflict with Egypt was not included in the plans of the Hittite king, and it is possible that he would have been content with establishing the border along the Orontes River. But the prince of Kadesh - a city that was at that time an outpost of Egyptian influence - himself came out against him in battle. He could not resist the Hittite chariots, and as a result, the Hittite army moved further south as far as Abina (biblical Hova, Gen. 14:15), a city near Damascus, and Suppiluliuma declared the ridge of Lebanon as its border. Fortunately for him, the Egyptian kings during this period stopped paying attention to the defense of the borders and engaged in religious reform within the country.
As a result of this brilliant expedition, carried out around 1370 BC. BC, the Hittite kingdom included Halpa (Aleppo) and Alalah (Atshana). Apparently, it was at that time that the treaties that have come down to us were concluded with the kings of Nukhasi (Central Syria) and Amurru, which included the territory of Lebanon and most of the coastal strip. However, Karkemish, who controlled the main crossing of the Euphrates, and the region known to the Hittites as "Astatha" and stretching along the Euphrates from Karkemish south to the mouth of the Khabur, did not obey the Hittites and could still count on the support of the Tushratta, at the cost of his own reputation for preserving the army.
Suppiluliuma was called back to the capital for urgent matters. The task of keeping Syria, which the king entrusted to his son, Telepin the "priest", turned out to be very difficult. The Syrian principalities split into two warring factions: one supported the Hittites, the other the Mitannians, and both closely followed the struggle between the two great powers. But, fortunately for the Hittites, the kingdom of Mitanni itself was mired in civil strife. King Tushratta and his predecessors maintained allied relations with Egypt, and the dynasties of these two countries were linked by diplomatic marriages. But in the light of recent events, it turned out that there was little hope for Egypt, and a rival branch of the Mitannian royal family decided to seize power, taking advantage of the shame of Tushratta. This group turned for help and support to the power-hungry Assyrian king Ashuruballit, whose predecessors paid tribute to the kings of Mitanni. As a result, Tushratta was killed, and the new king Artadama and the son of Shuttarna who succeeded him recognized the independence of Assyria and rewarded its king with rich gifts.
Despite all the dangers that this sudden rise of a new state on the Tigris full of young forces was fraught with for the Hittites, after the collapse of the Mitanni, it was no longer difficult to conquer Syria. Returning to Syrian lands around 1340 BC. BC, Suppiluliuma captured the huge fortress of Karkemish after only eight days of siege, and all of Syria from the Euphrates to the sea fell into dependence on the Hittites. Telepin became the king of Aleppo, and another of the royal sons, Piyassili, became the king of Karkemish. The kingdom of Kizzuwatna was isolated and was forced to make peace with the Hittites, who recognized it as a friendly state.
How widely known Suppiluliuma gained in his time can be judged by one incident that happened at a time when the Hittite army was camped at the walls of Karkemish. An envoy from Egypt arrived at Suppilulium with a letter from his queen, which said: “My husband has died, and I have no son, but they say about you that you have many sons. If you sent one of your sons to me, he would become my husband. I will never marry any of my subjects. I am very afraid". Suppiluliuma was so surprised that he sent his messenger to the Egyptian court to make sure he was not being deceived. The ambassador returned with a second letter from the queen: “Why do you say:“ They are deceiving me ”? If I had a son, would I write to a stranger, publicly announcing my misfortune and the misfortune of my country? By saying this, you insult me. The one who was my husband is now dead, and I have no son. I will not marry my subject for anything. I have not written to anyone but you. Everyone says you have many sons; Give me one of them, so that he becomes my husband. " The Egyptian queen who wrote these letters is none other than Ankhesenamun, the third daughter of the heretic king Akhenaten, who in her early youth became the widow of King Tutankhamun, who did not live to be eighteen years old. Left childless, she had the right (at least formally) to choose a second husband on her own and thereby decide the further fate of the Egyptian throne. Of course, Suppiluliuma did not want to miss such an incredible chance. But the plan failed. The Hittite prince was killed immediately upon arrival in Egypt - apparently on the instructions of the court priest Ey, who later became the successor of Tutankhamun, concluding a fictitious marriage with Ankhesenamun and thereby legitimizing the usurpation of the throne. There is no doubt that it was from this marriage that Ankhesenamun tried to escape with the help of the Hittite king.
Soon after that, the son of the late Tushratta, who himself narrowly escaped death, turned to Suppilulium for help. A subtle politician, the Hittite king was quick to seize this opportunity to create a buffer state that would protect the Hittites from the rapidly gaining strength of Assyria. He sent the young petitioner under the command of Piyassili. Together, the two princes crossed the Euphrates at the head of a large army and seized the Mitannian capital Vashshukanni for the second time. As a result, a new dependent kingdom of Mitanni was formed, which, however, turned out to be too weak and could not withstand the onslaught of Ashuruballit, who soon after the death of Suppiluliuma annexed this territory to his possessions. After that, only the Euphrates separated the Hittite lands from the Assyrian ones.
But the domination of the Hittites in Syria was no longer threatened. Even when the disease took the king Suppiluliuma to the grave, and soon his eldest son Arnuvand II, and the throne passed to the inexperienced youngest son Mursili II, the governors of Aleppo and Karkemish remained loyal to him. The threat now came mainly from the western regions of the empire, but in this respect, much remains unclear, since it has not yet been possible to establish the exact location of most of the settlements mentioned in the documents of that period. The powerful kingdom of Artsava, once conquered by Labarna himself, separated from the Hittite kingdom when it fell into decay, and the king of Artsava even conducted friendly correspondence with the Egyptian king. Suppiluliuma conquered Artsava again, but during the reign of Mursili II, she rebelled again, and a number of city-states joined this rebellion: Mira, Kuvaliyya, Hapalla and "the land of the Sekha River".
However, Mursili turned out to be his father's true son. As a result of a large-scale military campaign that lasted two years and about which a detailed account has been preserved, Artsava was crushed, its king was killed, and Hittite governors were placed on the thrones of several small kingdoms. At least one of the latter had already been linked to the Hittite royal house by ties of kinship: he was married to a Hittite princess. This state of affairs continued until the death of Mursili, but peace on the western outskirts of the Hittite Empire was always fragile, and each successive king had to suppress another uprising.
The northern borders also caused a lot of trouble, albeit for a different reason. Here the problem was not in the neighborhood with a powerful rival, but, on the contrary, in the fact that from the north to the Hittite Empire there was no state at all with which a peace treaty could be concluded. Hittite garrisons were stationed at strategically important points, but, apparently, they did not have enough strength to contain the raids of the violent barbarian Helmets who inhabited the mountain valleys north of Hatti. We have no reason to believe that the helmets received any help from other opponents of the Hittite kingdom; but, despite this, once every few years the king had to lead an army to the northern mountains and pacify these violent tribes. Mursili II conducted ten such campaigns - in the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 19th, 24th and 25th years of his reign (detailed descriptions have been preserved these trips). All campaigns ended successfully, but it was not possible to achieve complete victory: as soon as the empire began to show the slightest signs of weakness, the raids resumed. Therefore, one can suspect that the reasons for these troubles were hidden deeper than it seemed to the Hittites themselves.
In the seventh year of Mursili's reign, the kingdom of Azzi-Hayas separated from the Hittite Empire, and it had to be conquered again. At the first stage, the command was entrusted to one of the royal generals, since the king at that time performed the religious duties prescribed for him by law in the city of Kummanni (ancient Comana).
Meanwhile, even Syria rebelled (here, apparently, it was not without incitement from Egypt, where at that time the power was usurped by the commander Haremkheb). The governor of Karkemish Shar-Kushukh, brother of Mursili, who successfully ruled the lands entrusted to him for ten years, also went to the holiday in Kummanni, but there he fell ill and died. During his absence, someone apparently captured Karkemish. One way or another, the need arose for the personal intervention of the king, and in the ninth year of his reign, Mursili led an army to Syria. To pacify the Syrian kings, the appearance of the Hittite army was enough. Shar-Kushukh's son ascended the throne in Karkemish, and in the same year Mursili was able to move further north and lead the fighting against Azzi-Hayasa.
It is not possible to correlate other campaigns of this king with known geographical points. Oddly enough, the documents of the period of his reign do not say anything about the campaign against Kizzuwatna, although it is known that soon after Mursili's accession to the throne, this area rebelled. Since after the death of Suppiluliuma I, mentions of the kings of Kizzuwatna completely disappear from documents, and under Mursili II this state, apparently, completely lost its independence and became part of Hatti, it would be natural to assume that Mursili conquered it again, and the text with a description this campaign is simply lost.
To his son and heir Muwatali, King Mursili II left a strong empire surrounded by many dependent kingdoms. During his accession to the throne, Muwatali did not face any serious difficulties. It is only known that a demonstration of force was required on the western borders, but history has not preserved the name of the enemy who disturbed the peace of the new tsar. Muwatali confirmed the powers of the kings of Artsava, who remained tributaries to Hatti, and concluded a new peace treaty with a certain Alaksandu, king of Vilusa, a country that was part of Artsava, but had always remained loyal to Hatti since the time of King Labarna. By thus securing the western borders, Muwatali was able to focus on a new threat from the south. The Egyptian colossus has awakened from a long sleep. The pharaohs of the XIX dynasty were eager to reconquer the Syrian lands, once conquered by Thutmose III, but lost during the reign of Akhenaten, who paid attention only to his religious reforms. Around 1300 BC NS. Seti I set out on a campaign against Canaan. Having restored law and order there, he moved on and reached Kadesh itself, which is on Orontes. But the Hittites, apparently, quickly rebuffed him, and until the end of the reign of Seti I, peace remained between Egypt and the Hittite state. However, upon accession to the throne of Ramses II in 1290 BC. NS. it became clear that it would no longer be possible to avoid a large-scale clash between the two rival empires. Muwatali gathered troops from all the allied states. A list of them is given by Egyptian scribes (the Hittite annals of the reign of Muwatali have not survived), and here for the first time there are references to the Dardans, known to us from the Homeric Iliad, and the Philistines, as well as the Sherdans, a people whose name is often found in Egyptian inscriptions. But in the Hittite documents that have come down to us, none of these peoples are mentioned, and since we do not have Hittite chronicles of that period, we can only guess about the reasons for their participation in the war on the Hittite side. The armies of the two empires met at the walls of Kadesh in the fifth year of Ramses' reign (1286/1285 BC). Inscriptions on the walls of one of the Egyptian temples praise the pharaoh for the valor shown in this campaign, but in fact the Hittites held on to Syria. Muwatali even managed to expand his possessions by conquering Abu (Abina), a region near Damascus. Thus, there is no doubt that the battle for Kadesh ended in victory for the Hittites. Some details of this battle will be outlined below.
During the reign of Muwatali, the northeastern regions of the Hittite state acquired the status of a principality with the capital in Hakpi, where the talented and ambitious brother of the king, Hattusili, ruled. The king himself moved his residence to the south, to the city of Datassu, closer to the theater of operations in Syria. As a result, the position of Hattusili was too strong, and it is not surprising that Urhi-Teshub (3), the young son of Muwatali, who succeeded him on the throne around 1282 BC. e., tried to take away part of the land from his uncle. He probably suspected that Hattusili was making plans to seize power in the country. But records from a short period of the reign of this king also have not survived, and information about him can only be gleaned from the tendentious story of Hattusili. The latter claims that for seven years he suffered undeserved insults from Urhi-Teshub, then declared war on his nephew and overthrew him. From the fact that the coup was a success without difficulty, it can be concluded that Urhi Teshub was an unpopular and short-sighted ruler. For some time, his uncle kept him in captivity in the city of Samukh (near Malatya), but treated him condescendingly, and later sent him into honorary exile in Nuhassee, one of the distant Syrian regions.
Hattusili III ascended the throne in 1275 BC. e., at the age of about 50 years, being already an experienced military leader. Under his rule, the Hittite Empire entered a period of relative peace and prosperity. True, at first there were some frictions with Egypt, and the Kassite king Kadashman-Turgu even promised Khattusili to provide military assistance if it comes to a conflict. But the differences were settled peacefully. Obviously, Hatti and Egypt were forced to rally in the face of a formidable new enemy - the gaining strength of Assyria. Since then, the friendship between the two former rivals has grown stronger every year, and in 1269 BC. NS. the famous peace treaty was concluded, designed to ensure peace and security in the lands of the Levant. Congratulatory messages on this occasion were exchanged not only by the kings, but also by the queens of the two powers; one of these letters has survived. Finally, 13 years after the conclusion of the treaty, the two empires sealed their friendship by marriage: the Hittite princess became the wife of Ramses II. The fact that 69-year-old Khattusili had a daughter of marriageable age is explained by the fact that he himself married Puduhepa, the daughter of a priest of Kizzuwatna, only twenty-nine years earlier, upon returning from a campaign against the Egyptians, in which he participated under the command of his brother.
Under Hattusili III, Hattusa again became the capital of the Hittite kingdom, during Muwatali's stay in the south, plundered by the Kaska tribes. The city was rebuilt; in addition, by order of the tsar, scribes made copies of the archives. Hattusili and his wife Puduhepa issued many religious and administrative decrees, which at first glance can be taken as evidence of order and prosperity in the country.
However, the only small fragment that has survived from the annals of Hattusili suggests that things were not so good in the western part of the empire. Apparently, the need arose for military operations against the ancient enemy - Artsava; but the details of this campaign are unknown to us. Relations with Babylonia after the death of Kadashman-Turgu in 1270 BC NS. also worsened. In a letter that has come down to us to the young Kadashman-Enlil, Hattusili expresses his displeasure that this new king of the Kassites, since his accession to the throne, has not sent his envoy to Hatti. Perhaps, it was not without the intrigues of Urhi-Teshub, since in one of the documents Khattusili reports that the exiled king was seen in connections with the Babylonians and for this reason was exiled from Nukhasi "away to the sea." The meaning of this phrase is not entirely clear, but perhaps the island of Cyprus was meant. The fact that later Urhi-Teshub lived in a foreign land - it is possible that it was in Cyprus - we learn from another document. Here he tried to gain confidence in the king of Egypt. But if he sought to enlist the help of the pharaoh in order to regain the throne, then he clearly did not achieve success.
King Hattusili is the author of one very remarkable document, which we will discuss in detail in Chapter VIII. Apparently, he set himself the task of justifying the usurpation of the throne and the expulsion of the rightful king. Hattusili states that he did so only under the pressure of circumstances and on the direct instructions of the goddess Ishtar, the patroness of the city of Samukh. Naturally, one cannot completely trust such a tendentious description of events, but as evidence of a highly developed political consciousness, this document has no equal in the Ancient World.
Since Hattusili ascended the throne at a mature age, it can be assumed that he died shortly after his daughter married the Egyptian pharaoh. His son and heir, Tudhaliya IV, apparently paid special attention to religion and carried out a series of reforms related to religious holidays and other ceremonies. It is possible that it was Tudhaliya IV who ordered to decorate the rock in Yazilikaya with reliefs, for on the main gallery this king is depicted with his “monogram” (Fig. 8, 64), and on the side one - in the arms of his patron god (photo 15). All this suggests that at least in the first years of his reign, peace and prosperity reigned in the country. Only in the west was it still restless, but in the end order was established there too: the lands of Assuva (later - the Roman province of Asia, whose name is now the entire Asian continent) became part of the Hittite Empire.
But shortly before the end of Tudhaliya's reign, a new threat came from the west. The territories of the dependent countries in the far west of Anatolia began to be devastated by the Ahaivash tribes (possibly Achaeans) of the Ahhiyava country and the leader Attarissia. Someone Madduvatta (whose name the researchers compared with the names of the ancient kings of Lydia - Aliatta and Sadyatta), expelled from his country by Attarissia, appeared before the Hittite king and received a gift of a small dependent kingdom somewhere in the west of Asia Minor. From this it can be concluded that Tudhaliya was still strong enough to repel further attacks.
But the power of the Hittite Empire had already been undermined. Under the next king, Arnuvanda III, the situation in the west deteriorated sharply. Madduvatta went over to Attarissia's side, and although the Hittite king in his lengthy rescript calls him nothing less than a treacherous servant, it is easy to see that the balance of power in the region has changed significantly. In particular, it is reported that Madduvatta "captured the entire land of Artsava." At the same time, in the eastern mountains, where the kingdom of Hayas was formerly, another enemy appeared - a certain Mitas. The identity of his name with the name of the king of the "land of flies", who ruled in the VIII century BC. NS. and which is usually identified with the Phrygian Midas - a character in Greek myths, may be nothing more than a coincidence, but it is possible that the Phrygian flies had already invaded this area and that the name "Mitas" was dynastic. However, be that as it may, we reliably know that at that time there was a great migration of peoples; and although in the decrees of Arnuvanda we do not find any foreshadowing of impending disaster, it was already obvious that the fragile union of states that were part of the Hittite Empire would not withstand the onslaught of migrants. Arnuanda was succeeded by his brother, Suppilulium II, but his reign, apparently, turned out to be short, since the name of this king is not mentioned anywhere, except for the record of how several dignitaries and officials swore allegiance to him. The annals of Ramses III tells how the Hittites and other peoples fled to Syria from certain conquerors who, with the hordes of the so-called "Sea Peoples", found themselves dangerously close to the borders of Egypt and drove the Philistines to the coast of Palestine (which thus received its modern title). According to Homeric tradition, it was during this period that Asia Minor came under the rule of the Phrygians.
From the book Empire - I [with pictures] the author2. "Mongol" empire and the famous Christian kingdom of Presbyter John. The story of the legendary kingdom of Presbyter John is one of the most exciting mysteries in the Scaligerian history of Europe and Asia.
the author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich From the book Reconstruction of True History the author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich6. The Tsar-Grad Kingdom of the XI-XII centuries and the Horde Empire of the XII-XVI centuries are the originals of all the main "ancient kingdoms" of the Scaligerian history.
From the book of Rus of Great Scythia the author Petukhov Yuri Dmitrievich From the book World History: In 6 volumes. Volume 1: The Ancient World the author Team of authorsNEW KHETTIAN KINGDOM FROM XIV century BC NS. the Hittites again sharply intensified their external activities. Tudhaliyas 1 (11) (c. 1400 BC), who ascended the throne, successfully acted in the western direction, conquering the kingdoms of Artsava and Assuva, in the southeast he captured and destroyed
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The first inhabitants of Asia Minor were the Hutts. Their language is related to the modern Adyghe-Abkhazian languages. Indo-European tribes found them in the last third of the 3rd millennium BC. They adopted the name of their country “Hatti” from the Hutts and adopted many elements of material and spiritual culture from the Hutts. The Hutt influence is especially strong (in religion, state cult, court life and other spheres of life) in the era of the Old Hittite kingdom (18-16 centuries BC). The beginning of the Hittite statehood dates back to the royal dynasty from the city-state of Kussar. The king of this city, Pithana, conquers Mesa and makes his son Anitta king there. He subjugates the city-states of Buruskhanda and Hattuas. By the time of the formation of the Hittite kingdom, the royal dynasty from Kussar retained its predominance. The first kings were crowned at Qussar.
The connections of Asia Minor with representatives of a higher culture (Akkadians, Assyrians) accelerated the advance of the ancient Anatolians to civilization.
Hittite history is divided into 3 periods: Ancient, Middle and New Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom is commonly referred to as the “dark period” in Hittite history due to the lack of written sources. But it is known that in the "dark period" in the life of the state, Hurrian political and cultural influence appeared.
The founder of the kingdom of Labarna began his campaigns of conquest, creating a state from the Black to the Mediterranean seas. Mursilis I conquered Babylon, thereby putting an end to the I Babylonian dynasty (heirs of Hammurabi).
In the initial period of Hittite statehood, the power of the kings was limited by the assembly of the people and the council of the nobility. Subsequently, after a successful policy of conquest, there is an increase in the real power of the kings. The Hittite kingdom waged almost continuous wars. They led to a constant influx of prisoners of war and stolen civilians into the country. Compared to other countries of Western Asia, the Hittites had a higher level of use of slave labor in the economy.
In the following time, the Ancient Hittite kingdom on all borders was subjected to fierce attacks by the Hurrians. They violated external borders and internal order in the country. Troubles began in the court environment with bloody outcomes. Stabilization took place under the 8th king of the Tempinus dynasty: by streamlining the legal inheritance of the throne, order was introduced in the court environment.
In the "troubled" middle kingdom, the Huritte influence increased. The kings had two names: one of them is the Hittite throne, the second is actually Hurrian.
The New Hittite kingdom (about 1400-1200 BC) begins with the successful conquests of the first little-known kings. And after them the next usurper Suppiluliumas I creates a new powerful Hittite state. By this time, the warlike Kask tribes from the northeast became a constant strong enemy of the Hittites. The Hittites established their influence in northern Syria and the Hittite-Egyptian confrontation began. In 1296. a peace treaty was concluded between Ramses II and Hattusilis III, who united against the growing power of Assyria. The strongest and most dangerous enemy in the west was the Achaean Greeks.
At the end of the XII century. BC. from the Balkans and the islands of the Mediterranean to the countries of Asia Minor, a half of the "peoples of the sea" poured out. After they destroyed the Hittite capital of Hattuas, the last king, Suppiluliumas II, was forced to flee to the island of Cyprus. So the Hittite kingdom ceased to exist. As a result of the Aegean migration of peoples, the ethnic composition of Asia Minor has changed significantly. The remnants of the Hittite population retreated to the southeast, to Northern Syria, where they formed small states. Part of the population retreated to the northeast in the Transcaucasian region.
Socio-economic system... The Hittite economy was based on productive agriculture. Animal husbandry has become widespread. The craft is well developed.
The main social wealth - land - belonged to the state, or to the communal collectives of cities and villages, whose landownership went to the Warnes in the pre-class era. Large tsarist farms constituted a significant portion of state land. The temple lands were controlled by the king, but in reality were autonomous corporate farms. The main types of state exploitation were obligatory service to the tsar, payment of tax in kind and labor duties. In the communal sector, the purchase and sale of land was freely carried out. Communities were territorial in nature, and their elders were vested with judicial and administrative authority. In the private-communal and public sectors, the labor of slaves, mercenaries, etc. was widely used.
The Hittite estate division did not coincide with the class division. The entire population of the country was divided into 2 groups, differing in the free or compulsory nature of labor. The first group - the class of "free" - included persons exempted from duties in favor of the state and the temple (ranks of the communities of the indigenous Hittite cities). The second group - "not free" - included all persons who were subject to state and temple exploitation (direct producers, sitting both on state and communal land or engaged in a craft). But at the same time, this group included many officials, for whom Sahan was directly serving the king or temple.
The position of “non-free” direct producers outside the community was varied: among them were slaves, and indentured debtors, and mercenaries, and serf land users, as well as serf landowners, rich and having several slaves. The Hittite political system was distinguished by a certain looseness and some features of confederation. There was a system of appanage kingdoms connected with the central government by vassal-alliance treaties. The supreme power was represented by the “great king”. An important and independent role was played by the queen, who acquired the fullness of her status only after the death of her husband's mother. Sacred and cosmic origins were attributed to statehood.
First mentions
The rulers of these kingdoms called themselves "kings of the Hittites." In the second half of the 10th – 9th centuries. BC NS. most of the neo-Hittite kingdoms in Syria fell under the rule of the Arameans.
In contrast, the neo-Hittite kingdoms in eastern Anatolia retained their independence for much longer.
Solomon traded with these kingdoms (I C. 10:28, 29) and took wives from there (I C. 11: 1).
In the 9th century. BC NS. the military power of these kingdoms was sufficient to cause panic in the army of Dammesek (II Ts. 7: 6), but in the next century they fell under the rule of Assyria (Hammat in 720 BC, Karkemish in 717 BC . NS.).
In Assyrian and Babylonian documents (up to the New Babylonian kingdom), Syria, including Eretz Yisrael, is called the "country of the Hittites"; Sargon II in 711 BC NS. calls the inhabitants of Ashdod "unfaithful Hittites", and the Babylonian chronicle, narrating about the first campaign of Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem (598 BC), reports that "he went to the land of the Hittites"
In those books of the Bible in which the Hittites are mentioned in the context of the kingdom
Ancient Hittite kingdom
At the turn of the $ III-II $ millennium BC. in Asia Minor, city-states emerge on the basis of tribal alliances. These include Nesa, Kanes, Vuruskhanda, Kussar, Hattusa.
In the $ XVIII century. BC. Pithan, the ruler of the city of Kussar, united the cities of the eastern part of the peninsula and proclaimed himself the king of the created state. His successor Anitta, moving his capital to Nesa, soon captured the city of Tsalpa, and after a series of successful wars - Hattusu, built temples and fortifications there. Annita was the first king of a large state formation, later called the Ancient Hittite kingdom ($ XVIII-XVI $ centuries BC).
There were still strong tribal remnants in the kingdom. The Hittite kings exercised their power by focusing on the popular militia, the demands of which they had to reckon with. All men capable of carrying weapons gathered by the overlord for regular meetings - pan-kus. The Hittite nobility played an active role in governing the state and largely controlled the popular assembly. To solve important matters, she gathered for a council called "thulia". Among the nobles, members of the ruling clan played an important role: the king's brothers, his sons, all his male relatives and in-laws.
Remark 1
According to the old tradition, the king's heir was chosen from among the members of a large royal family, with priority given to the king's nephews, the sons of his sister. With the growth of foreign policy successes, the Hittite kings tried to free themselves from this tradition.
The unifying policy of the founders of the Hittite kingdom was completed by the $ 4 $ -th governor of Anitta, ruler of Labarna (Tabarna), ($ 1680-1650 BC). He waged successful wars of conquest, seized and annexed to his own kingdom almost all of the northern territories of Anatolia and part of the southern coast of the Black Sea. The successor of Annita Hattusili $ I $ ($ 1650-1620 $ B.C.), moved the capital to Hattusa, and, continuing to pursue an aggressive foreign policy, tried to seize the cities of Northern Syria - Khalpa and Byblos. But the campaign was terminated due to the unrest in the country that began in his absence.
The successor of Khattusili Mursili $ I $ ($ 1620-1590 $ BC) continued the policy of centralizing the country, seizing Halpa (Aleppo), thus placing under Hittite control the main trading point on the way from Mesopotamia to the Phoenician coast. Then Mursili $ I $ goes southeast to Babylon and, taking advantage of the internal political turmoil under the governors of Hammurabi, captures this large center of Western Asia in $ 1595 BC. NS. But the foreign policy successes of Mursili $ I $ were overshadowed by the tense internal situation in the country. The Hittite aristocracy did not want to strengthen the royal power on the basis of a firm order of succession, tried to return to a system that gave a chance to many candidates. Mursili fell victim to a conspiracy: he was killed by his sister's husband, who in turn died at the hands of his own son-in-law. The end of the unclear period was put by the ruler Telepin ($ 1520-1490 $ BC), in which the advantage of the king's son to the succession to the throne was recorded in a special decree. Under him, the Hittite statehood strengthened, but after his death, the kingdom again entered a troubled era.
Middle Hittite kingdom
After the death of Telepin, several kings were successively replaced on the Hittite throne in the period from the end of the $ XVI $ - the beginning of the $ XV $ century. BC. Due to the unstable political situation, the kingdom of the Hittites is declining. In addition, in the southeast of the Hittites a powerful state of Mitanni arose, and in the south the Hittites also began to be oppressed by enemies; the Hittites lost part of the previously conquered Cilicia. From the north, helmets that lived on the Black Sea coast began to threaten them. They cut off the Hittites' way to the Black Sea and took possession of their capital, Hattusu, defeating it. Within the country at this time, class contradictions became more complicated, discontent on the part of the poor strata of the population grew, unrest intensified, and uprisings began. The struggle for the throne continues. The danger of external opponents, internecine conflicts within the country bring the Hittite kingdom to the brink of destruction.
Great Hittite Power during the New Hittite Kingdom
By the beginning of the $ XIV $ c. BC. there is a restoration of the power of the Hittite kingdom, associated with the deeds of one of the most famous and outstanding Hittite kings - Suppiluliuma, an experienced diplomat, professional leader, prudent politician. Cleverly using the weakening of neighboring countries, he increases the military power of the Hittite state. Under the rule of the Suppiluliums, the Hittites adopted light, high-speed horse-drawn chariots. The chariot carried $ 3 of a soldier (driver, shooter and shield bearer). In a duel, the chariots inflicted significant damage to the enemy. Such chariots were used in the armies of the Hyksoss and Mitannians. Suppiluliuma fortified the Hittite cities with fortifications, and in the first place the capital of Hattusu. Applying diplomacy, coupled with military force and dynastic marriages, he conquers and conquers the surrounding countries, establishes political control over the states of the Eastern Mediterranean.
In the southwest, Suppilulium captures the Kingdom of Artsav, in the south - Cilicia and most of Syria.
The culmination of Suppiluliuma's foreign policy successes was the conquest of Mitanni. First, he took possession of the Syrian cities belonging to the Mitanni, turning them into his main strongholds. Then he intervened in the dynastic struggle for the throne of Mitanni after the death of the Mitanni king. Having married his daughter to the son of the late king Mattyvas, Suppiluliuma becomes his son-in-law and turns the king of the once great state of Mitanni into a ruler dependent on the Hittite kingdom.
Under the governor of the Suppiluliums - Mursili $ II $ ($ 1340-1305 BC), the power of the Hittite kingdom is increasing. The main military operations of the Hittite ruler are in the south-west of Asia Minor against the formed formidable coalition of the states of Peace and Lucca (later Lycia), led by the kingdom of Artsava. Mursili $ II $ was able to win over Mira, Lucca and thus weaken the coalition. A decisive battle between the armies of the Artsavian coalition and the Hittites took place near the town of Valma. Artsava's army was utterly defeated, the ruler of Artsava fled with his sons. Hittite troops took the city of Apasu and approached the shores of the Aegean Sea. The kingdom of Artsav fell into dependence on the Hittite king. Most of Asia Minor came under the full control of the Hittites. This was the apogee of the military and political power of the Hittites.
However, at the end of the reign of Mursili $ II $, the political situation in Western Asia changed. Under the Egyptian pharaohs Seti $ I $ and Ramses $ II $ ($ 1337-1235 $ BC), Egypt consolidated its military and political power and began to recapture the areas of the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Thus began a fierce struggle between the two powerful powers of that time - Egypt and the Hittite kingdom.
The war with Egypt stretched out, and in the east the Hittites had a new strong enemy - Assyria. At $ 1230 BC NS. Hittite ruler Hattusili $ III $ hastily made peace with Pharaoh Ramses $ II $, as he feared an Assyrian strike from the rear. At the same time, he tried to turn Babylonia against Assyria, with which he also concluded an alliance. However, the Assyrians defeated the Babylonians, took possession of the Mitanni and reached the limits of the Hittite kingdom. Hattusili $ III $ could hardly contain their pressure.
By the end of the $ XIII $ c. BC. a strong coalition of the "peoples of the sea" from the tribes of the Achaeans, Sherdans from Sardis, Etruscans and others fell upon the countries of Western Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt from the west. Egypt repulsed their attack with great difficulty. However, the Hittite kingdom could not resist. The hordes of the "Sea Peoples" defeated the Hittite troops. At $ 1190 BC NS. the capital of the Hittites, the city of Hattusa, was taken and completely destroyed. Under the onslaught of the "peoples of the sea", the formerly powerful Hittite state fell.
In its place in the $ XII-VIII $ centuries. BC NS. there were several small states that preserved the traditions and culture of the Hittites. The most successful of these were Tabal and Hatti, with their capital at Karkemish. By the end of $ VIII $ c. BC NS. a significant part of these states ended up in the hands of the Assyrian state. Hittite languages and writing disappear, and the very name of the Hittites is forgotten.
