Marriage is a covenant between two loving people, established first by the church and then by the state. What is a covenant? If you turn to the explanatory dictionary of T.F. Efremova, then the second meaning of this word will be "promise." When people enter into legal marriage, registering with the relevant government agencies, they are issued a marriage certificate. It is not just a factual document, or as it is also called "a stamp in a passport." And, a kind of "agreement" between them about loyalty, love and care. And in the church, in the mysterious wedding, this covenant is reinforced by the key phrase - "until death do us part."
Do I need to get married?
Now in modern society, it is believed that an official marriage is no longer relevant. And they give out such a term as "civil marriage". Like, we will live together and understand if we are suitable for each other. And you don't have to be bound hand and foot by the law. Wanted - came together and fled. Nobody owes anything to anyone. So it turns out that such an alliance is “worthless”. This is just cohabitation, not responsibility for each other.
And what is better for a person in our time? This is comfort. And such a word as "sacrifice", that is, to give to another more than oneself, is perceived by the modern generation as "antiques", something ancient and museum. And a man entering into an official union with a woman almost considers himself a "victim" of a love incident that happened to him. As comrade Ukupnik once sang that he would never marry and would eat his passport in front of the registry office. So everyone for himself and concludes, is in comfort - in a civil marriage, or take a commitment for the chosen one and sacrifice his "ego" by entering into an official alliance with him.
How long does it take to get married?
This period of time is viewed differently by each person. Some will say that there is nothing wrong and after a month of dating, they say, we already live in marriage, for more than a dozen years together. And many will give parting words from their personal experience that it takes more than a year to see a partner's shortcomings, and then only register their relationship. There are exceptions in life. But you must have wisdom. And a good saying about "measure seven times" is just in place.
The beginning of a relationship, for many, may not consist in dating, but in that very cohabitation. And this fact is sad. People immediately start sleeping, eating, and spending time together 24 hours a day. In such a relationship, they do not set themselves the goal of getting to know each other better, but simply fulfill their needs and "lust" (in a religious concept, this word means "pleasure that cannot be satisfied") Therefore, ultimately, their something begins to dislike in his partner. They scatter. Thus, people lose that very zest in their romance, excluding long dates and unforgettable meetings from their relationships.
When to get married after starting a relationship?
How to hint at marriage?
You can, of course, watch the show “let's get married” together every day. But there is a special design in men. They don't take hints. And even more so from their side there is a special resistance when they begin to press on their male "ego" or put a "question squarely" in front of them. The best advice would be to give your beloved freedom in his choice.
So what should a woman do for a man to tell her: "let's get married." First, you need not to impose, but to love him sincerely and easily. Show patience and respect for your chosen one. Be wise!
On October 4, 1957, the former USSR launched the world's first artificial Earth satellite. The first Soviet satellite made it possible for the first time to measure the density of the upper atmosphere, to obtain data on the propagation of radio signals in the ionosphere, to work out the issues of launching into orbit, thermal conditions, etc. The satellite was an aluminum sphere 58 cm in diameter and weighing 83.6 kg with four whip antennas 2 long, 4-2.9 m. The equipment and power supplies were located in the sealed body of the satellite. The initial parameters of the orbit were: perigee height 228 km, apogee height 947 km, inclination 65.1 degrees. On November 3, the Soviet Union announced the launch of a second Soviet satellite into orbit. In a separate pressurized cabin there were Laika the dog and a telemetry system for recording its behavior in zero gravity. The satellite was also equipped with scientific instruments for studying solar radiation and cosmic rays.
On December 6, 1957, the United States attempted to launch the Avangard-1 satellite using a carrier rocket developed by the Navy Research Laboratory. After ignition, the rocket rose above the launch pad, but after a second the engines turned off and the rocket fell on the table, exploding from the impact ...
On January 31, 1958, the Explorer 1 satellite was launched, the American response to the launch of Soviet satellites. By size and
Massé was not a champion candidate. Less than 1 m long and only ~ 15.2 cm in diameter, it weighed only 4.8 kg.
However, its payload was attached to the fourth, final stage of the Juno-1 launch vehicle. The satellite together with the rocket in orbit had a length of 205 cm and a mass of 14 kg. It was equipped with sensors for external and internal temperatures, erosion and shock sensors for determining the flows of micrometeorites and a Geiger-Muller counter for registering penetrating cosmic rays.
An important scientific result of the satellite flight was the discovery of the radiation belts surrounding the Earth. The Geiger-Muller counter stopped counting when the device was at its apogee at an altitude of 2530 km, the perigee height was 360 km.
On February 5, 1958, the United States made a second attempt to launch the Avangard-1 satellite, but it also ended in an accident, like the first attempt. Finally, on March 17, the satellite was launched into orbit. In the period from December 1957 to September 1959, eleven attempts were made to put Avangard-1 into orbit, only three of them were successful.
In the period from December 1957 to September 1959, eleven attempts were made to put Avangard
Both satellites contributed a lot to space science and technology (solar panels, new data on the density of the upper atmosphere, accurate mapping of islands in the Pacific Ocean, etc.) On August 17, 1958, the United States made the first attempt to send from Cape Canaveral to the vicinity Moon probe with scientific equipment. It turned out to be unsuccessful. The rocket rose and flew only 16 km. The first stage of the rocket exploded on 77 seconds of flight. On October 11, 1958, a second attempt was made to launch the Pioneer-1 lunar probe, which was also unsuccessful. The next few launches also turned out to be unsuccessful, only on March 3, 1959, the Pioneer-4, weighing 6.1 kg, partially fulfilled its task: it flew past the Moon at a distance of 60,000 km (instead of the planned 24,000 km).
Just as with the launch of the Earth satellite, the priority in launching the first probe belongs to the USSR; on January 2, 1959, the first man-made object was launched, which was launched into a trajectory passing close enough to the Moon, into the orbit of the Sun satellite. Thus, "Luna-1" for the first time reached the second cosmic speed. Luna-1 had a mass of 361.3 kg and flew past the Moon at a distance of 5500 km. At a distance of 113,000 km from Earth, a sodium vapor cloud was released from a rocket stage docked to Luna-1, forming an artificial comet. Solar radiation caused a bright glow of sodium vapor and optical systems on Earth photographed the cloud against the background of the constellation Aquarius.
Luna-2, launched on September 12, 1959, made the world's first flight to another celestial body. The 390.2-kilogram sphere contained instruments that showed that the moon had no magnetic field and no radiation belt.
The automatic interplanetary station (AMS) "Luna-3" was launched on October 4, 1959. The weight of the station was 435 kg. The main purpose of the launch was to fly around the Moon and photograph its opposite, invisible from Earth, side. The photographs were taken on October 7 for 40 minutes from an altitude of 6200 km above the Moon.
Man in space
On April 12, 1961, at 09:07 am Moscow time, a few tens of kilometers north of the village of Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, at the Soviet Baikonur cosmodrome, an intercontinental ballistic missile R-7 was launched, in the nose compartment of which the manned spacecraft Vostok was located with Air Force Major Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin on board. The launch was successful. The spacecraft was launched into an orbit with an inclination of 65 degrees, a perigee altitude of 181 km and an apogee altitude of 327 km, and made one orbit around the Earth in 89 minutes. On the 108th minute after launch, he returned to Earth, landing in the area of the village of Smelovka, Saratov region. Thus, 4 years after the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the Soviet Union for the first time in the world carried out a manned flight into outer space.
The spacecraft consisted of two compartments. The descent vehicle, which is also an astronaut's cabin, was a sphere with a diameter of 2.3 m, covered with an ablative material for thermal protection when entering the atmosphere. The ship was controlled automatically, as well as by the astronaut. In flight, it was continuously supported with the Earth. The atmosphere of the ship is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen under a pressure of 1 atm. (760 mm Hg). "Vostok-1" had a mass of 4730 kg, and with the last stage of the launch vehicle 6170 kg. The Vostok spacecraft was launched into space 5 times, after which it was announced that it was safe for human flight.
Four weeks after Gagarin's flight on May 5, 1961, Captain 3rd Rank Alan Shepard became the first American astronaut.
Although it did not reach low-Earth orbit, it rose above the Earth to an altitude of about 186 km. Launched from Cape Canaveral in the Mercury-3 spacecraft using a modified Redstone ballistic missile, Shepard spent 15 minutes 22 seconds in flight before landing in the Atlantic Ocean. He proved that a man in zero gravity can exercise manual control of a spacecraft. The spacecraft "Mercury" was significantly different from the spacecraft "Vostok".
It consisted of only one module - a piloted capsule in the form of a truncated cone 2.9 m long and a base diameter of 1.89 m. Its sealed nickel alloy shell had titanium plating to protect it from heat when entering the atmosphere.
The atmosphere inside the "Mercury" consisted of pure oxygen at a pressure of 0.36 at.
On February 20, 1962, the United States reached low-earth orbit. From Cape Canaveral was launched the ship "Mercury-6", piloted by Lieutenant Colonel of the Navy John Glenn. Glenn stayed in orbit for only 4 hours 55 minutes, having completed 3 orbits before landing successfully. The purpose of Glenn's flight was to determine the possibility of human work in the spacecraft "Mercury". The last time "Mercury" was launched into space on May 15, 1963.
On March 18, 1965, the Voskhod spacecraft was launched into orbit with two cosmonauts on board - the commander of the spacecraft, Colonel Pavel Ivarovich Belyaev, and the co-pilot, Lieutenant Colonel Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov. Immediately after entering orbit, the crew cleaned themselves of nitrogen by inhaling pure oxygen. Then the airlock was deployed: Leonov entered the airlock, closed the spacecraft hatch cover and for the first time in the world made an exit into space. The cosmonaut with an autonomous life support system was outside the spacecraft cabin for 20 minutes, at times moving away from the spacecraft at a distance of up to 5 m. During the exit, he was connected to the spacecraft only by telephone and telemetry cables. Thus, the possibility of the cosmonaut's stay and work outside the spacecraft was practically confirmed.
On June 3, spacecraft Gemeni 4 was launched with Captains James McDivitt and Edward White. During this flight, which lasted 97 hours 56 minutes, White exited the spacecraft and spent 21 minutes outside the cockpit, checking the ability to maneuver in space using a hand-held compressed gas rocket pistol.
Unfortunately, space exploration was not without sacrifices. On January 27, 1967, the crew preparing to make the first manned flight under the Apollo program died during a fire inside the spacecraft, having burned out for 15 seconds in an atmosphere of pure oxygen. Virgil Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee became the first American astronauts to die at KK. On April 23, the new Soyuz-1 spacecraft was launched from Baikonur, piloted by Colonel Vladimir Komarov. The launch was successful.
On the 18th orbit, 26 hours 45 minutes after launch, Komarov began orientation to enter the atmosphere. All operations went well, but after entering the atmosphere and braking the parachute system failed. The cosmonaut died instantly when the Soyuz hit the Earth at a speed of 644 km / h. In the future, the Cosmos took away more than one human life, but these sacrifices were the first.
It should be noted that in terms of natural science and production, the world is facing a number of global problems, the solution of which requires the combined efforts of all peoples. These are the problems of raw materials, energy, environmental control and preservation of the biosphere, and others. Space research, one of the most important directions of the scientific and technological revolution, will play a huge role in their cardinal solution.
Cosmonautics vividly demonstrates to the whole world the fruitfulness of peaceful creative work, the benefits of combining the efforts of different countries in solving scientific and national economic problems.
What are the problems faced by astronautics and the astronauts themselves?
Let's start with life support. What is life support? Life support in space flight is the creation and maintenance during the entire flight in the living and working compartments of K.K. such conditions that would provide the crew with sufficient efficiency to perform the assigned task, and the minimum likelihood of pathological changes in the human body. How to do it? It is necessary to significantly reduce the degree of human impact on unfavorable external factors of space flight - vacuum, meteoric bodies, penetrating radiation, weightlessness, overloads; to supply the crew with substances and energy without which normal human activity is impossible - food, water, oxygen and a set; to remove waste products of the body and substances harmful to health, emitted during the operation of systems and equipment of the spacecraft; to ensure human needs for movement, rest, external information and normal working conditions; organize medical monitoring of the crew's health and maintain it at the required level. Food and water are delivered into space in appropriate packaging, and oxygen is chemically bound. If you do not restore waste products, then for a crew of three people 11 tons of the above products will be required for one year, which, you see, makes a considerable weight, volume, and how will all this be stored throughout the year ?!
In the near future, regeneration systems will make it possible to almost completely reproduce oxygen and water on board the station. For a long time they began to use water after washing and showering, purified in the regeneration system. Exhaled moisture is condensed in the refrigeration dryer and then regenerated. Breathing oxygen is extracted from purified water by electrolysis, and hydrogen gas, reacting with carbon dioxide from the concentrator, forms water that feeds the electrolyzer. The use of such a system makes it possible to reduce in the considered example the mass of stored substances from 11 to 2 tons. Recently, the cultivation of various types of plants has been practiced directly on board the ship, which makes it possible to reduce the supply of food that must be taken into space, Tsiolkovsky mentioned this in his writings.
Space science
Space exploration helps a lot in the development of sciences:
On December 18, 1980, the phenomenon of the runoff of particles of the Earth's radiation belts under negative magnetic anomalies was established.
Experiments carried out on the first satellites have shown that near-earth space outside the atmosphere is not at all "empty". It is filled with plasma, permeated by streams of energetic particles. In 1958, the Earth's radiation belts were discovered in near space - giant magnetic traps filled with charged particles - high-energy protons and electrons.
The greatest intensity of radiation in the belts is observed at heights of several thousand km. Theoretical estimates showed that below 500 km. There should be no increased radiation. Therefore, the discovery during the flights of the first K.K. areas of intense radiation at altitudes up to 200-300 km. It turned out that this is due to the anomalous zones of the Earth's magnetic field.
The study of the natural resources of the Earth by space methods has spread, which largely contributed to the development of the national economy.
The first problem that space researchers faced in 1980 was a complex of scientific research, including most of the most important areas of space science. Their goal was to develop methods for thematic decoding of multispectral video information and their use in solving problems of earth sciences and economic sectors. These tasks include: the study of global and local structures of the earth's crust to understand the history of its development.
The second problem is one of the fundamental physical and technical problems of remote sensing and is aimed at creating catalogs of the radiation characteristics of terrestrial objects and models of their transformation, which will make it possible to analyze the state of natural formations at the time of shooting and predict their dynamics.
A distinctive feature of the third problem is the orientation towards the radiation of the radiation characteristics of large regions up to the planet as a whole, using data on the parameters and anomalies of the Earth's gravitational and geomagnetic fields.
Exploring the Earth from Space
Man first appreciated the role of satellites for monitoring the state of agricultural land, forests and other natural resources of the Earth only a few years after the onset of the space age. The beginning was laid in 1960, when with the help of the meteorological satellites "Tyros" were obtained map-like outlines of the globe lying under the clouds. These first black and white TV images provided very little understanding of human activity, and yet it was the first step. Soon, new technical means were developed that made it possible to improve the quality of observations. Information was extracted from multispectral images in the visible and infrared (IR) regions of the spectrum. The first satellites designed to make the most of these capabilities were Landsat vehicles. For example, the Landsat-D satellite, the fourth in a series, carried out observations of the Earth from an altitude of more than 640 km using improved sensitive instruments, which allowed consumers to receive significantly more detailed and timely information. One of the first areas of application of images of the earth's surface was cartography. In the pre-satellite era, maps of many areas, even in the developed regions of the world, were inaccurate. Landsat satellite imagery has allowed some existing US maps to be corrected and updated. In the USSR, images obtained from the Salyut station turned out to be indispensable for aligning the BAM railway line.
In the mid-70s, NASA and the USDA made a decision to demonstrate the capabilities of the satellite system in predicting the most important crop of wheat. Satellite observations, which proved to be extremely accurate, were later extended to other crops. At about the same time in the USSR, observations of agricultural crops were carried out from satellites of the Kosmos, Meteor, and Monsoon series and from the Salyut orbital stations.
The use of information from satellites has revealed its indisputable advantages in assessing the volume of timber in the vast territories of any country. It became possible to manage the deforestation process and, if necessary, make recommendations on changing the contours of the deforestation area in terms of the best forest preservation. Thanks to satellite images, it has also become possible to quickly assess the boundaries of forest fires, especially the "crown-shaped" ones characteristic of the western regions of North America, as well as the regions of Primorye and southern regions of Eastern Siberia in Russia.
The ability to observe almost continuously the vastness of the World Ocean, this "forge" of weather, is of great importance for humanity as a whole. It is over the strata of the ocean water that the monstrous force of hurricanes and typhoons arise, carrying numerous victims and destruction for the inhabitants of the coast. Early warning to the public is often critical to saving the lives of tens of thousands of people. Determining the stocks of fish and other seafood is also of great practical importance. Ocean currents often bend, change course and size. For example, El Nino, a warm current in a southerly direction off the coast of Ecuador in some years can spread along the coast of Peru up to 12 degrees. south latitude ... When this happens, plankton and fish die in huge quantities, causing irreparable damage to the fisheries of many countries, including Russia. High concentrations of unicellular marine organisms increase fish mortality, possibly due to the toxins they contain. Observation from satellites helps to identify the "whims" of such currents and provide useful information to those who need it. Some Russian and American scientists estimate the fuel savings, combined with the "extra catch" from the use of infrared information from satellites, yields an annual profit of $ 2.44 million. The use of satellites for survey purposes has made the task of plotting the course of ships easier. ... Satellites also detect icebergs and glaciers dangerous for ships. Accurate knowledge of snow reserves in mountains and the volume of glaciers is an important task of scientific research, because as the development of arid territories, the need for water increases dramatically.
The help of astronauts in creating the largest cartographic work - the Atlas of the World's Snow and Ice Resources is invaluable.
Also, with the help of satellites, they find oil pollution, air pollution, and minerals.
Space science
Within a short period of time since the beginning of the space age, man not only sent automatic space stations to other planets and stepped onto the lunar surface, but also made a revolution in space science, which has not been equal in the entire history of mankind. Along with the great technical advances caused by the development of astronautics, new knowledge was obtained about the planet Earth and neighboring worlds. One of the first important discoveries, made not by the traditional visual, but by a different method of observation, was the establishment of the fact of a sharp increase with height, starting from a certain threshold height of the intensity of cosmic rays that were previously considered isotropic. This discovery belongs to the Austrian V.F. Hess, who in 1946 launched a gas balloon-probe with equipment to great heights.
In 1952 and 1953. Dr. James Van Allen conducted research on low-energy cosmic rays when launching small rockets at an altitude of 19-24 km and high-altitude balloons - balloons in the vicinity of the North magnetic pole of the Earth. After analyzing the results of the experiments, Van Allen proposed to place cosmic ray detectors on board the first American artificial satellites of the Earth.
With the help of the Explorer-1 satellite launched by the United States into orbit on January 31, 1958, a sharp decrease in the intensity of cosmic radiation at altitudes of more than 950 km was discovered. At the end of 1958, the Pioneer-3 spacecraft, which covered a distance of more than 100,000 km during the flight, registered with the help of the sensors on board the second, located above the first, radiation belt of the Earth, which also encircles the entire globe.
In August and September 1958, at an altitude of more than 320 km, three atomic explosions were made, each with a power of 1.5 kW. The purpose of the tests, codenamed "Argus", was to study the possibility of radio and radar communications being lost during such tests. The study of the Sun is the most important scientific problem, the solution of which is devoted to many launches of the first satellites and AMS.
The American "Pioneer-4" - "Pioneer-9" (1959-1968) transmitted from the solar orbits by radio to the Earth the most important information about the structure of the Sun. At the same time, more than twenty satellites of the "Interkosmos" series were launched to study the Sun and the solar space.
Black holes
Black holes were discovered in the 1960s. It turned out that if our eyes could only see X-rays, then the starry sky above us would look completely different. True, the X-rays emitted by the Sun were detected even before the birth of astronautics, but they did not even suspect about other sources in the starry sky. We stumbled upon them by accident.
In 1962, the Americans, deciding to check whether X-rays were emanating from the lunar surface, launched a rocket equipped with special equipment. It was then that, while processing the results of the observations, we were convinced that the instruments had noted a powerful source of X-ray radiation. It was located in the constellation Scorpio. And already in the 70s, the first 2 satellites, designed to search for studies of X-ray sources in the universe, went into orbit - the American Uhuru and the Soviet Kosmos-428.
By this time, something had already begun to clear up. Objects emitting X-rays have been linked to faint stars with unusual properties. These were compact clumps of plasma, insignificant, of course, by cosmic standards, sizes and masses, incandescent to several tens of millions of degrees. With a very modest appearance, these objects possessed a colossal power of X-ray radiation, several thousand times higher than the full compatibility of the Sun.
These are tiny, about 10 km in diameter. , the remains of completely burnt-out stars, compressed to a monstrous density, should have somehow declared themselves. Therefore, neutron stars were so eagerly "recognized" in X-ray sources. And everything seemed to fit together. But the calculations refuted expectations: the newly formed neutron stars should immediately cool down and stop emitting, and these were emitted by X-rays.
With the help of the launched satellites, the researchers discovered strictly periodic changes in the radiation fluxes of some of them. The period of these variations was also determined - usually it did not exceed several days. Only two stars revolving around themselves could behave this way, one of which periodically eclipsed the other. This has been proven by observation with telescopes.
Where do the X-ray sources get their colossal radiation energy from? The main condition for the transformation of a normal star into a neutron star is the complete attenuation of its nuclear reaction. Therefore, nuclear energy is excluded. Then maybe this is the kinetic energy of a rapidly rotating massive body? Indeed, it is large in neutron stars. But it only lasts for a short time.
Most neutron stars do not exist alone, but are paired with a huge star. In their interaction, theorists believe, the source of the mighty power of cosmic X-rays is hidden. It forms a disk of gas around the neutron star. At the magnetic poles of the neutron ball, the matter of the disk falls on its surface, and the energy acquired by the gas is converted into X-ray radiation.
Cosmos-428 also presented its own surprise. His equipment registered a new, completely unknown phenomenon - X-ray flares. In one day, the satellite detected 20 bursts, each of which lasted no more than 1 second. , and the radiation power increased by tens of times. Scientists named the sources of X-ray flares BARSTERS. They are also associated with binary systems. The most powerful flares, in terms of their energy output, are only several times inferior to the total radiation of hundreds of billions of stars located in our Gallaktka.
Theorists have proven that "black holes" that are part of binary star systems can signal themselves with X-rays. And the reason for the occurrence is the same - gas accretion. True, the mechanism in this case is somewhat different. The inner parts of the gas disk settling into the "hole" must heat up and therefore become sources of X-rays.
Only those luminaries whose mass does not exceed 2-3 solar masses end their "life" with the transition to a neutron star. Larger stars suffer the fate of a "black hole".
X-ray astronomy told us about the last, perhaps the most turbulent, stage in the development of stars. Thanks to her, we learned about the most powerful cosmic explosions, about gas with a temperature of tens and hundreds of millions of degrees, about the possibility of a completely unusual superdense state of substances in "black holes".
What else does space give just for us? In television (TV) programs, it has not been mentioned for a long time that the transmission is via satellite. This is further evidence of the tremendous success in the industrialization of space, which has become an integral part of our lives. Communication satellites literally enmesh the world with invisible threads. The idea of creating communication satellites was born shortly after the Second World War, when A. Clarke in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine. presented his concept of a relay communication station located at an altitude of 35880 km above the Earth.
Clarke's merit was that he determined the orbit in which the satellite is stationary relative to the Earth. This orbit is called the geostationary or Clarke orbit. When moving in a circular orbit with an altitude of 35880 km, one orbit is completed in 24 hours, i.e. for the period of the Earth's daily rotation. A satellite moving in such an orbit will constantly be above a certain point on the Earth's surface.
The first communications satellite "Telstar-1" was nevertheless launched into low-earth orbit with parameters 950 x 5630 km, this happened on July 10, 1962. Almost a year later, the Telstar-2 satellite was launched. The first telecast showed the American flag in New England in front of the Andover station. This image was transmitted to the United Kingdom, France and to the American station in the piece. New Jersey 15 hours after satellite launch. Two weeks later, millions of Europeans and Americans watched the negotiations between people on opposite shores of the Atlantic Ocean. They not only talked but also saw each other, communicating via satellite. Historians can consider this day as the date of birth of space TV. The world's largest state-owned satellite communications system was created in Russia. It began in April 1965. the launch of satellites of the Molniya series, launched into highly elongated elliptical orbits with an apogee over the Northern Hemisphere. Each series includes four pairs of satellites orbiting at an angular distance of 90 degrees from each other.
On the basis of the Molniya satellites, the first Orbita long-range space communications system was built. In December 1975. The family of communications satellites has been supplemented by the Raduga satellite operating in geostationary orbit. Then the Ekran satellite appeared with a more powerful transmitter and simpler ground stations. After the first development of satellites, a new period began in the development of satellite communications technology, when satellites began to be put into a geostationary orbit along which they move synchronously with the rotation of the Earth. This made it possible to establish round-the-clock communication between ground stations using satellites of a new generation: the American Sinkom, Earley Bird and Intelsat, the Russian ones Raduga and Gorizont.
A great future is associated with the placement of antenna complexes in a geostationary orbit.
On June 17, 1991, the geodetic satellite ERS-1 was launched into orbit. The satellites would focus on observing oceans and ice-covered land areas to provide climate scientists, oceanographers and environmental protection organizations with data on these little-explored regions. The satellite was equipped with the most modern microwave equipment, thanks to which it is ready for any weather: the "eyes" of its radar devices penetrate through fog and clouds and provide a clear image of the Earth's surface, through water, through land, and through ice. ERS-1 was aimed at developing ice charts that would later help to avoid many disasters associated with collisions of ships with icebergs, etc.
For all that, the development of shipping routes is, in other words, only the tip of the iceberg, if you only remember the decoding of the ERS data on the oceans and ice-covered spaces of the Earth. We are aware of the alarming forecasts of a general warming of the Earth, which will lead to the fact that the polar caps will melt and the sea level will rise. All coastal zones will be flooded, millions of people will suffer.
But we do not know how correct these predictions are. Long-term observations of the polar regions with ERS-1 and its subsequent satellite ERS-2 in late autumn 1994 provide data from which to draw conclusions about these trends. They are creating an "early warning" system for melting ice.
Thanks to the images that the ERS-1 satellite transmitted to Earth, we know that the ocean floor, with its mountains and valleys, is, as it were, "imprinted" on the surface of the waters. So scientists can get an idea of whether the distance from the satellite to the sea surface (measured with an accuracy of ten centimeters with satellite radar altimeters) is an indication of sea level rise, or whether it is a "footprint" of a mountain on the bottom.
Although originally developed for ocean and ice observations, ERS-1 very quickly proved its versatility with respect to land. In agriculture, forestry, fisheries, geology and cartography, specialists work with data provided by a satellite. Since the ERS-1 is still operational after three years of its mission, scientists have a chance to operate it together with the ERS-2 for general missions, as a tandem. And they are going to receive new information about the topography of the earth's surface and provide assistance, for example, in warning about possible earthquakes.
The ERS-2 satellite is also equipped with the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment Gome, which takes into account the volume and distribution of ozone and other gases in the Earth's atmosphere. With this device, you can observe the dangerous ozone hole and the changes taking place. At the same time, near-ground UV-b radiation can be diverted from the ERS-2.
Against the backdrop of a multitude of global environmental problems that both ERS-1 and ERS-2 must provide fundamental information to address, route planning appears to be a relatively marginal outcome of this new generation of satellites. But this is one of those areas where the commercial potential of satellite data is being exploited most intensively. This helps in funding other important assignments. And this has an effect in the field of environmental protection that cannot be overestimated: fast shipping routes require less energy. Or think of oil tankers that ran aground during a storm, or crashed and sank, losing their environmentally hazardous cargo. Reliable route planning helps to avoid such disasters.
In conclusion, it will be fair to say that the twentieth century is rightfully called the "age of electricity", "atomic age", "age of chemistry", "age of biology". But its most recent and, apparently, also its just name - "space age". Humanity has embarked on a path leading to mysterious cosmic distances, by conquering which it will expand the scope of its activities. The cosmic future of mankind is the guarantee of its continuous development on the path of progress and prosperity, which was dreamed of and which is being created by those who have worked and are working today in the field of astronautics and other sectors of the national economy.
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Space colonization is a hypothetical creation of autonomous human settlements outside the Earth. The project of the orbital colony "Stanford Tor" torus with a diameter of 1.6 km and a cross-sectional diameter of about 150 m The colonization of space is one of ... ... Wikipedia
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Space exploration.
Yu.A. Gagarin.
In 1957, under the leadership of Korolev, the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile R-7 was created, which in the same year was used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite.
November 3, 1957 - the second artificial satellite of the Earth, Sputnik-2, was launched, which for the first time launched a living creature into space - the dog Laika. (THE USSR).
January 4, 1959 - the Luna-1 station passed at a distance of 6,000 kilometers from the lunar surface and entered a heliocentric orbit. She became the world's first artificial satellite of the Sun. (THE USSR).
September 14, 1959 - the Luna-2 station for the first time in the world reached the lunar surface in the Sea of Clarity region near the craters Aristides, Archimedes and Autolycus, delivering a pennant with the USSR coat of arms. (THE USSR).
October 4, 1959 - Luna-3 is launched, which for the first time in the world has photographed the side of the Moon invisible from Earth. Also during the flight, for the first time in the world, a gravity assist was carried out in practice. (THE USSR).
August 19, 1960 - the first ever orbital flight of living beings into space was made with a successful return to Earth. The dogs Belka and Strelka made the orbital flight on the Sputnik-5 spacecraft. (THE USSR).
April 12, 1961 - the first manned flight into space (Yu. Gagarin) was made on the Vostok-1 spacecraft. (THE USSR).
August 12, 1962 - the world's first group space flight was completed on the ships Vostok-3 and Vostok-4. The maximum approach of the ships was about 6.5 km. (THE USSR).
June 16, 1963 - the world's first space flight of a woman-cosmonaut (Valentina Tereshkova) was made on the Vostok-6 spacecraft. (THE USSR).
October 12, 1964 - the world's first multi-seat spacecraft Voskhod-1 flew. (THE USSR).
March 18, 1965 - the first ever human spacewalk took place. Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov made a spacewalk from the Voskhod-2 spacecraft. (THE USSR).
February 3, 1966 - AMS Luna-9 made the world's first soft landing on the lunar surface, panoramic images of the moon were transmitted. (THE USSR).
March 1, 1966 - the Venera-3 station reached the surface of Venus for the first time, delivering a pennant to the USSR. This was the world's first flight of a spacecraft from Earth to another planet. (THE USSR).
October 30, 1967 - the first docking of two unmanned spacecraft Kosmos-186 and Kosmos-188 was performed. (CCCP).
September 15, 1968 - the first return of the spacecraft (Zond-5) to Earth after flying around the Moon. There were living things on board: turtles, fruit flies, worms, plants, seeds, bacteria. (THE USSR).
January 16, 1969 - the first docking of two manned spacecraft Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 was performed. (THE USSR).
September 24, 1970 - the Luna-16 station took and then delivered to the Earth (by the Luna-16 station) samples of lunar soil. (THE USSR). It is also the first unmanned spacecraft that delivered rock samples to Earth from another space body (that is, in this case, from the Moon).
November 17, 1970 - soft landing and start of operation of the world's first semi-automatic remotely controlled self-propelled vehicle controlled from the Earth: Lunokhod-1. (THE USSR).
October 1975 - soft landing of two spacecraft Venera-9 and Venera-10 and the world's first photographs of the surface of Venus. (THE USSR).
February 20, 1986 - launching into orbit of the base module of the orbital station [[Mir_ (orbital_station)] Mir]
November 20, 1998 - Launch of the first block of the International Space Station. Production and launch (Russia). Owner (USA).
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50 years of the first manned spacewalk.
Today, March 18, 1965, at 11.30 am Moscow time, during the flight of the Voskhod-2 spacecraft, a person entered outer space for the first time. On the second loop of the flight, the co-pilot, pilot-cosmonaut, Lt. Col. Leonov Aleksey Arkhipovich, in a special spacesuit with an autonomous life support system, made an exit into space, retired from the spacecraft at a distance of up to five meters, successfully carried out a set of planned studies and observations, and returned safely to the spacecraft. With the help of the on-board television system, the process of Comrade Leonov's exit into outer space, his work outside the ship and his return to the ship were transmitted to Earth and monitored by a network of ground points. Comrade Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov feels good during his stay outside the ship and after returning to the ship. The commander of the ship, Comrade Pavel Ivanovich Belyaev, feels just as well.
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The present day is characterized by new projects and plans for space exploration. Space tourism is actively developing. The manned astronautics is again going to return to the moon and turned its gaze to other planets of the solar system (primarily to Mars).
In 2009, the world spent $ 68 billion on space programs, including $ 48.8 billion in the US, $ 7.9 billion in the EU, $ 3 billion in Japan, $ 2.8 billion in Russia, and $ 2 billion in China.
