"Language-thinking" or "thinking and language"? Stalin's answer and Marr's answer Then Stalin answered Krasheninnikova's second question: “2. Question. Marx and Engels define language as "the immediate reality of thought", as "practical ... real consciousness."

Medieval Latin: Observations and Reflections Part One Man muß das Mittellatein historisch zu verstehen suchen (K. Strecker) In this series of essays, we intend to examine some aspects of the history of the Latin language in the Middle Ages. The first essay is dedicated to the book by Karl Strecker “Introduction to Medieval Latin”. We used the second edition of this manual, which was published in 1929.1 Based on the observations of a German source historian, let us reflect on specific issues of medieval Latin spelling, morphology, and syntax. Note that one of the main goals of Strecker was to provide a bibliography on various issues of medieval Latin philology that was up-to-date at the time of the publication of the book. We do not touch on this bibliography here, referring interested readers to the original source, as well as to one of the subsequent essays in our series, which will focus specifically on the history of the study of medieval Latin in the late 19th and 20th centuries. The order of consideration of the departments of the history of language will be somewhat different for us than for Strecker, more appropriate to our tasks. It is planned to devote a separate essay to lexics, in which, as a starting point, in addition to Strecker's manual, it is supposed to involve the works of some other researchers. First of all, let us turn to spelling, which is extremely important for medieval Latin, but to which Strecker devoted only one page. Most of the medieval texts are documents and manuscripts. As a software specialist 1 Strecker K. Einführung in das Mittellatein. Berlin, 1929. Last, a German historian and writes exclusively about the spelling of manuscripts. The first comment of the author is that it varies greatly depending on the chronological and geographic reference of the manuscript under study, as, to summarize for him, all the phenomena of medieval Latin vary greatly. However, as Strecker justly clarifies, universal mechanisms of spelling variation, common, for example, for Spanish and Irish manuscripts, can also be found. In Italy, since the early Middle Ages, the influence of the folk language on the literary one has been noted. The author does not ask why this is so, but the main reason was the proximity of languages. That is why, in the Romance world, we more often find the influence of the morphology and syntax of popular dialects on the Latin substratum. This phenomenon was widely affected by spelling, as well as pronunciation, as evidenced by some rhymes allowed in medieval Latin poetry2. Using observations of the figural verses of the Carolingian time, Strecker concludes that their spelling did not differ much from the restored spelling of the Latin classics of the golden age that we are accustomed to. Forms with contracted diphthongs and the opposite phenomenon of hypercorrection, observed, say, in Raban Maurus (que instead of quae, Egyptus instead of Aegyptus, and, conversely, aecclesia instead of ecclesia or praessus instead of pressus) are the forerunners of the widespread in manuscripts of the 11th-13th centuries ... mixing diphthongs and monophthongs corresponding to them in timbre. Only humanists have restored the true state of affairs. Strecker's observation is true, but the noted fact cannot be considered in isolation, taking into account only commonly used texts. In the folk language, as is known, in the language 2 Strecker examples: abscondi-profundi, amicus-antiquus, dimis-sum-ipsum, intus-cinctus, amnis-annis. 2 inscriptions on tombstones, in peripheral manuscripts of Latin classics, mixing of vowels in the sequence: (eu) = e = ae = oe = / i = y = u = (au) = o, that is, all diphthongs and all vowel sounds, dol - dim and short, except for a, is a widespread phenomenon, covering all eras, almost as universal as the doubling of a single consonant between vowels, or, conversely, the use of one consonant instead of a double one. In this light, the observation that spellings like Talia instead of Thalia by the same Raban Maurus reflect a later tendency towards complete mutual mixing of t and th, f and ph, p and ph, ti and ci looks somewhat limited. Further, Strecker has numerous examples of such confusions from later literature. In this case, the German historian clearly links together a number of phonetic and purely orthographic phenomena that have different origins. Let's talk about this in more detail, drawing on the examples of Strecker. In the phonological system of the ancient Greek language, there was an opposition of aspirated and voiceless stop consonant phonemes, which formed pairs π-φ (p-ph), κ-χ (c-ch), τ-θ (t-th), smooth ρ (r) always was aspirational (rh). Hardening of aspirates is a characteristic phenomenon for the history of many languages, therefore, the cases of writing p instead of ph, with instead of ch, t instead of th and vice versa are the result of a mixture of stopping and aspirated phonemes of the Greek language in Latin, mainly medieval ... The transfer of this process to Latin words proper is a secondary phenomenon, spelling r instead of rh is also a secondary phenomenon that has become a logical continuation of the above. These include cases cited by Strecker that spelling Talia instead of Thalia, choruscare instead of coruscare (proper Latin), pasca instead of pascha, crisma instead of chrisma, scisma instead of schisma, Phitagoras instead of Pythagoras (there are also 3 metathesis of aspirated-bowedness), Protheus instead of Proteus, thaurus instead of taurus, eptathecus instead of heptateuchus (again aspirate-bowed metateus), spera instead of sphaera, emisperium instead of hemisphaerium, antleta instead of athleta. As you can see, all examples are Greek, except for coruscare, which is highly characteristic and confirms our thesis. In contrast to the above cases, writing f instead of ph and vice versa is a phenomenon of a different order. In the Greek language there was no sound similar to the Latin [f], except for the sound [w], denoted in the Eastern alphabets by the digamma (Ϝ). Therefore, the transition of the aspirated (φ) to the fricative voiceless [f] is actually a Latin innovation, the manifestation of which dates back to the late period of the history of the Latin language (180-600 AD). Initially, it also covered only Greek words, because, of course, ph was found only in them, but later the opposite phenomenon of hypercorrection took over Latin words proper. In Strecker we find the following medieval examples: Feton = Phaeton, cifus = scyphus, fantasma = phantasma, filomena = philomela, fisica = physica, prophanus = profanus. Another late Latin innovation was the funny ti and ci before the vowel. The transition of the voiceless stop [t] in front of the anterior one into the affricate corresponding in position is just as typical a phonetic process as the hardening of aspirates. In Latin, this happened before the next vowel, that is, in positions where [i] was deliberately short by the rule that the vowel before the vowel was reduced. It is possible that the short [i] was more forward in articulation than the corresponding long, which is the root of the phenomenon. This phenomenon did not cover words where ti was preceded by [t] or [s], that is, one of the two elements of a potential affricate, which prevented its formation according to the principle of dissimilation. In addition, in the Gothic, the mixing of c and t was facilitated by their similar style. Strecker examples: precium = pretium, accio = actio, Gretia = Graecia, fatio = facio. In the general list of spelling inaccuracies, the German historian also includes cases where spelling variation is explained by metathesis, although he does not use such a concept. These are antestis instead of antistes (obviously influenced by the word ante), hanelare instead of anhelare, Phitagoras above instead of Pythagoras, eptathecus instead of heptateuchus, spalmus instead of psalmus, fragrare and fraglare instead of flagrare, neupma instead of pneuma. Remain in the Strecker's list of the most frequent and known from the inscriptions from the second century BC writing e instead of ae, oe and vice versa, as well as the interchange of vowels and diphthongs i / y, a / au, i / e and others, in accordance with the above sequence of spelling variation: tropeum = tropaeum, Pheton = Phaeton, Danem = Danaem (here at the junction of morphemes), mestus = maestus; cenobium = coenobium, cęmens = coemens (here at the junction of morphemes, which is reminiscent of the spelling with cedilla); limpha = lympha, sydera = sidera; agurium = augurium, agustus = augustus, ascultare = auscultare (restoration of the internal form of the word also gives bizarre morphological variants: abscultare, obscultare); analetica = analytica (through the analitica stage), yconomus, iconomus = oeconomus (through the economus stage), Ysopus = Aesopus (through the Esopus, Isopus stages), emunitas = immunitas. The interchangeability of labiovelar qu and velar c has been known since ancient times, therefore one should not follow Strecker to see something specifically medieval in the spellings of scalores instead of squalores, doctilocus instead of doctiloquus and the like. Equally ancient was the phenomenon of falling away or, conversely, a hypercorrectional insertion [h] at the beginning of a word before a vowel or in the middle of a word between two vowels, although in the Middle Ages this phenomenon became widespread, becoming more complicated by purely spelling variation of spellings h = ch = c, for example, habundare instead of abundare, veit instead of vehit, hortus instead of ortus, abhominari instead of abominari (here, obviously, the meaning of the word played a role, forcing it to be associated not with omen, ac homo), agiographus instead of hagiographus; michi = mihi, nichil, nicil = nihil. Finally, a purely medieval phenomenon was the mixing of finite voiced and voiceless stops, especially [d] and [t], this manifested itself in spellings like capud instead of caput, inquid instead of inquit, adque instead of atque. The few remaining examples of Strecker already relate, rather, to the peculiarities of vocabulary and morphology, rather than to the actual spelling, so we omit them here and pass on to the section on pronouncing, stress and pronunciation in medieval Latin, which is also very briefly outlined by the German historian. ke. Since prosody in the Middle Ages was studied according to classical models, primarily from poetry, it remained quite conservative. Although there are many deviations from the norms of the classics, they are difficult to generalize and should be studied in relation to each specific author, because they are very different in different texts. Typical examples of errors in longitudes Strecker gives the following: fortuĭto, bĭduum, gentĭlis, rēnuo, gratĭs, crědulus, laudăbilis, iŭgis, fluěbat. In general, the author of the guide notes, in the XII-XIII centuries. longitude and brevity were observed significantly better than in earlier epochs, which, we assume, was associated with the so-called. Renaissance XII century. The accents in the biblical proper names were interpreted in a very diverse way, and this is not surprising due to their foreignness to both Latin and Greek languages, and folk languages. Poor knowledge of the Greek language in medieval Western Europe led to the fact that brevity and longitude, as well as the associated stress in words of Greek origin, were often violated. The same words had an accent either according to the Greek original, then according to the Latin borrowing, then contrary to all the rules. This is evidenced by cases of the type éremus, ídolum, paráclitus, co-medía, sophía and sóphia, poetría and poétria, parádisus and paradísus, Égyptus and Egýptus. In poetry, there is often a very loose use of longitudes and abbreviations in Greek words: anathēma, bibliothěca, cātholicus, ecclěsia, erěmīta, mōnachus, phīlosophīa, prŏtoplastus, Theōphilus and Thēophilus. Let us add that the stress transfer is also sporadically observed in Latin words, especially those containing the muta cum liquida group: muliéris, tenébrae, cathédra (of course, Greek), intégrum. In the early Middle Ages, Strecker notes, diphthongs au, eu were often chanted in two syllables, which, we add, was a continuation of the ancient tendency according to which eu in poetry and when it had a junction of morphemes was also chanted in two syllables. Let's move on to morphology. It is customary to describe the late antique and medieval Latin morphology as a set of deviations from the classical morphology; Strecker also follows this path, noting the uneven distribution of morphological variability over epochs: up to 800 it was very large, starting from the 12th century. decreases significantly, in the interval it is distributed moderately. Avoiding the formulation of general laws, the German historian gives individual examples. Let's consider them in groups, trying to trace the general trends. There is a mixture of different types in declension. The third instead of the second: dia- 7 conem, diaconibus. The second instead of the pronoun: Dat. illo, nullo. Mixing of neuter pronoun endings –um and –d: ipsud. Universal for medieval Latin was the ending of the ablative singular of the comparative degree of adjectives in the vowel type –i: maiori. Analytical forms of a comparative degree are becoming widespread instead of synthetic ones: magis regulares, plus communem, they are combined: magis incensior, irregular forms are formed instead of supportive ones: bonissimus. The comparative degree is used instead of the excellent one: de omnibus meliores, especially often also instead of the positive one: devotius orare. Violations of ancient grammar are manifested in the transition of nouns to another genus (locellum instead of loquela, frons - m instead of f), the use of the singular in pluralia tantum (cuna instead of cunae [this is still antique], insidia instead of insidiae). Among the verbs, Strecker points out, deviations from the classical norm are more frequent. Fugio moves from the third conjugation to the fourth, odi from the defective one also becomes a verb of the fourth conjugation: odio, odire. Third instead of second: resplendit. Replacement of the basis of the perfect by the basis of the infect: linquerat, cernisti. Original tul-tus instead of ablatus. Future by type I-II conjugation of the verb of the third conjugation: faciebo. Regular formation of irregular verbs: exiebant instead of exibant, iuvavi instead of iuvi. There are deferred forms instead of urgent ones and vice versa, active participles instead of passive ones and vice versa. Descriptive constructions became popular in the medieval period, reflecting the general movement of Latin from synthetism to analyticism. Moreover, as an auxiliary verb in them, not only sum can act, as it was in the classics, but others, for example, fio, evenio. As a result, one can find constructions: utens sum, locutus fui, assatus fieret, fit sepultus, interfectus evenerit, cenaturi erunt, refecturus fuero. It is interesting to observe Strecker's observation that the present participle is often replaced by the gerund ablative: gratulando rediit, and the gerund is finally interpreted as a passive future participle, sometimes mixing in meaning with the active one. Impersonal verbs are periodically used as personal: penites, pigeamus. Summarizing, we can say that the heterogeneous observations of Strecker as a whole testify to the mixing of various grammatical types in medieval Latin, a phenomenon characteristic of the history of many living languages, which, however, did not give rise to a stable tendency in Middle Ages Latin, which would have forced to change the entire system of the language, as happened, for example, in the Romance languages ​​that inherited Latin. Quite different phenomena are collected by Strecker under the heading "Syntax". Some, on the other hand, have ended up in other sections of the syntax. According to our observations, the use of the infinitive of the verb in the meaning of a non-declining noun (vestrum velle meum est, pro posse et nosse, sine mandere), mentioned among morphological irregularities, is a feature that sporadically comes across in classical authors, lived through the entire Middle Ages and remained with the humanists and later, the verb volo was especially often used in this way. Strecker's "Syntax" includes a number of observations on the functions and meaning of pronouns in medieval Latin. First, the difference in the use of the demonstrative pronouns is, ea, id and hic, haec, hoc is lost, the first of which in the classical language meant “this, that”, and the second - “the last mentioned”. Let us add on our own that this was only part of the general tendency of medieval Latin to confuse all indicative tenses, and with them the relative qui. As Strecker himself rightly writes, ille = iste = ipse = idem = is. In addition, in indirect cases, the interchange his = hiis = iis = eis is due to the spelling reasons outlined above. Secondly, instead of demonstrative pronouns, clericalisms with the meaning “above” are often used: praesens, praedictus, praefatus, supranominatus, memoratus and the like. As is known from literature, this feature was borrowed by medieval Latin from the language of the late Roman imperial chancellery. Third, the system of possessive pronouns is destroyed. The adjective proprius can be used instead of any of them. “My”, “your”, “his” are replaced by “yours”, and also vice versa: milites se prodiderunt, pater suus. Instead of the possessive pronoun, the genitive case of the personal is used (in fairness, we note that this happened periodically in antiquity): ira tui, nostri deliciae. Fourthly, indefinite pronouns are mixed: quis-que = quisquis, quivis. Fifth, pseudoarticles appear, definite: ille, iste, indefinite: quidam, unus (note that this phenomenon is especially characteristic of the Romance world and is associated with the influence of folk languages). When forming a comparison, quam (also quantum) is often used in the meaning of "very", "more", as well as the prefix per- and the words nimis, nimium: quam cito, quam strennuiter, quam latenter, quan tum religiosius, quam plures = quam plurimi , perplures, perplurimus, per- maximus, nimis magnus. Similar constructions: satis firmus, bene felix, multum terribilis, infinitum altus, praepulcher, tam lucidissimus. In general, medieval Latin treats the degrees of comparison and comparative constructions very freely, as well as with the prepositions that we will consider when talking about innovations in the field of vocabulary. As is well known, already the early Middle Ages introduced great confusion in the use of unions, especially double ones. The main tendency was to identify the meanings of various unions, as the examples cited by Strecker demonstrate. In the meaning of the conjunction “and”, in addition to et, ac / atque and post-positive -que, vel, seu / sive, quin, quoque, etiam, nihilominus, pariter, pariterque, simul, necnon, necne, and also -que are also used but not postpositively, but like et; aut-aut = et-et. Much more often than in antiquity, compositional conjunctions are used at the beginning of a sentence to connect two adjacent phrases or periods. According to Wackernagel's law, formulated primarily for classical languages, they, as a rule, are placed in the second place in a sentence and represent clitics. This is how nam, namque, enim, etenim, autem, vero, itaque, igitur, siquidem were used. Sed and at are used at the beginning of the clause. The replacement of the temporary conjunction cum with the conjunction dum, used both with the indicative and the conjunctiva of the verb, is becoming widespread. New subordinate unions arise, for example, marked by Strecker as "just like": mox ut, mox ubi, statim ubi. Under the influence of the language of the Bible (see the second sketch of our series), the replacement of the classical accusativus cum in-finitivo with explanatory subordinate clauses with the conjunctions quod, quia, quoniam, qualiter becomes universal. The desire to diversify alliances of the same meaning is also manifested in the fact that, in addition to the classical ut (finale), quo, qua- tenus (quatinus), quod, quoad, qualiter are also widely used to designate a goal. Having begun this essay, which contains a short commented retelling of the classical guide to medieval Latin, as well as 11 available to us generalization and clarification of the observations of Strecker, with a quote from his manual, I would like to end it with a very indicative quote from the same place: “So, it is impossible to write a unified grammar of medieval Latin, and it is impossible to answer in general terms the frequently heard question “Is this and that phenomenon - is it Middle Latin?” On the other hand, the opinion that the Middle Age Latin had absolutely no rules should disappear ”3. 3 Ibid., S. 27.12

Latin language

Latin language(lingua Latina)- one of the ancient Indo-European languages. family, together with other languages ​​of Italy constituting the so-called. an italic group; in the period of antiquity - the language of the peoples of the Roman Empire; in the Middle Ages - the language of book culture Zap. Europe; up to the present. time - official. language of the Catholic Church and the Vatican state.

Historical sketch

Initially L.ya. was the language of the tribe latinas, inhabiting the territory. Latium on the Apennine Peninsula, the center of which was Rome. By the beginning. 1st century BC. L.ya became common to the entire population of Italy and began to spread to the Mediterranean territories conquered by Rome by this time. (Spain, North. Africa, etc.) as a state. Language.

The first written evidence of the existence of L.Ya. belong to the VII century. BC.; in the main. these are inscriptions that give an idea of ​​the archaic spoken language. Since the III century. BC. appear lit. monuments on L.Ya. - the epic poems of Nevi and Ennius, the comedies of Plautus and Terence. 1st century BC. characterized as the era of classical lit. L.Ya., for the perfection of grammar, a variety of genre and stylistic means called golden Latin. This period includes unsurpassed examples of antique literature: Op. Cicero, Julius Caesar, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Catullus and many others. etc. In the I century. AD completed the creation of unified language standards for lat. poetry and prose (so-called. silver Latin); traditions of classical lit. L.ya were continued in Op. Seneca, Titus Livy, Tacitus, Petronius, Marcial, Juvenal. L.ya II-IV centuries, also called late Latin, characterized by increased penetration of elements of the spoken language into lit. forms. The most important event of this period was the appearance of Christ. Latin. It was in this capacity that L.Ya. ensured himself a centuries-old life, becoming the language of the liturgist. texts and prayers for millions of Catholic Christians. religion.

Although on the terr. ex. Zap. Rome. the empire also existed the languages ​​of the barbarian conquerors, the colloquial L.Ya. as a cult language, tradition in the conglomerate of tribal dialects remained dominant until the end. VI century However, it is watered and economical. disunity of the department. parts of Europe in the Middle Ages contributed to the increasing linguistic isolation. Gradually, the speech of the population in the department. areas of the former empire began to differ so significantly that we can talk about the formation of independent nat. languages: this is a group of Romance languages, the basis for which was the colloquial L.Ya. (the first written evidence of Italian, Spanish and French spoken languages ​​date back to the 8th century AD). But also later, throughout the history of all Europe. languages, L.ya. continued to have a significant impact on their grammar and vocabulary.

In its lit. Latin form on terr. Europe was a common language in all regions. science, education, interstate. relationships. Extensive middle-century. lit-pa, called Latin, includes ist. chronicles ( History of the Franks Gregory of Tours, The story is ready Jordan), novels and collections of short stories (Acts of the Romans) numerous. poems and songbooks (CarminaVigapa) and many others. other main. place in the middle century. lat. literature belongs to the works of Christ. theologians and historians of the Church.

During the Carolingian Renaissance, Charlemagne united the greatest scholars of all Christ in the Palatine Academy. world, who collected and studied the manuscripts of classical lat. authors and tried to reproduce their style in their works; so, Einhard wrote Vita caroli magni(Life of Charlemagne) in imitation Biographies of 12 Caesars Suetonius.

The Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries) is characterized, in particular, by the appeal of its leaders to the Latin of the classical period as a living language. On L.ya. written a number of works by Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio - the creators of the Italian. lit. language; N. Copernicus, J. Bruno, G. Galilei, T. Campanella, Thomas More, Erasmus of Rotterdam and many others wrote in Latin. other Wed-century. Latin humanists considered "spoiled" in comparison with the samples of antique literature. However, although the revival by the leaders of this era L.Ya. the classical period was quite long, it could not stop the development and improvement of the nat. languages: to the XVIII century. in secular literature, they finally ousted L. Ya.

In the field of science and education, L.Ya. held positions in almost all countries of the West. Europe to the end. XVIII century (works by R. Descartes, F. Bacon, I. Newton, K. Linnaeus, R. Boschkovich, M.V. Lomonosov, etc.). In the XVIII century. based on L.Ya. formed scientific. and technical terminology in all branches of knowledge. Only since the 19th century. Latin as a scientific language. compositions gave way to nat. languages. Until now time due to a clear, almost excluding polysemy, system of word formation L.Ya. remains an irreplaceable source for the formation of a scientific and terminological base, constantly replenished with lexical new formations, reflecting changes in the conceptual and subject areas. For new languages, L.Ya., along with Greek, is also basic in the formation of internats. vocabulary.

As a basis for exploring new Europe. languages ​​and acquaintance with the ancient heritage of L.Ya. to this day remains an important part of Europe. education. For many years in different European countries, symposia "Colloquia didactica classica" have been held, journals have been published on the teaching of ancient languages ​​( Vox latina and etc.).

Latin in Russia

To Russia, the traditions of L.Ya. penetrated relatively late.

In the XVI century. only a few state. employees (for example, in the Ambassadorial Prikaz) owned L.ya. Inclusion in Ros. states of Ukraine and Belarus, where there were long traditions of Latin-language education and science, led to the emergence of a church in Moscow. figures educated in educational institutions Zap. Europe (Simeon Polotsky, Epiphany Slavinetsky, Paladiy Rogovsky, Arseny the Greek, etc.). Regular teaching L.ya. in Russia began with the establishment in Moscow in 1687 of the Slavic-Greek-Lat. academy. Later L.ya. taught as a compulsory subject in high fur boots, gymnasiums and seminaries until 1918; knowledge of L.ya. in many ways contributed to the assimilation of the heritage of Western Europe by Russia. civilization. In owls. time this tradition was interrupted for almost 70 years (the study of L. Ya. was preserved only in high fur boots and in-takh for some categories of specialists). From the beginning. In the 1990s, there is a revival of interest in L.Ya. and it is introduced into the curriculum of some humanitarian colleges and grammar schools (for example, St. Petersburg classical grammar school, grammar school in the Greco-lat. study of Yu.A. Shichalin in Moscow).

Latin in the Church

The beginning of Christian Latin. Monuments to the spoken L.Ya. christ. communities are numerous. gravestone inscriptions preserved on the territory. former Rome. empire. The earliest written Latin-language works, dating back to the end. II - early. III century, reveal a rather developed state of the early Christ. Latin these are originating from the North. African Passio martyrum Scillitanorum, Passio Felicitatis et Perpetuae, as well as the works of Tertullian, dialogue Octavius Minucius Felix, Op. Cyprian of Carthage. Relatively early they were transferred to L.Ya. and fragments of Holy Scripture. Nevertheless, the Greek remained official for a long time. in the language of Rome. Christians: Latin did not appear in the official. the epistles of Rome. bishops to the beginning. III century, and in the Eucharist. liturgy - until mid. IV century

The first Latin translations of the Bible. The style and language of the early lat. Bible translations that appeared by the beginning. III century, from the point of view of classical norms were "exotic"; often they did not correspond to the generally accepted rules of grammar and stylistic practice lit. Latin. To some extent, they still retained the Semitic character of priest. texts, and not only in the books of the OT, but also (albeit to a lesser extent) in the NT. In contrast to the ancient tradition, which strictly delineated lit. and colloquial styles, in these translations the general influence of the spoken language of Christ is clearly felt. communities and their literature.

Nar. the nature of the language of ancient lat. Bible translations reflects DOS. the specifics of the early Christ. Latin. In L.ya. a whole layer of neologisms arose to designate Christ. concepts: salvator(savior), carnalis(carnal), spiritualis(spiritual), vivificare(to give life), glorificare(to praise) sanctificare(to sanctify) and many others. etc. Even more often already existing lat. words were won in christ. circles new meaning: word sacramentum, which originally had the meaning of an oath came to mean the church. sacrament; verb confiteri, preserving the classical meaning of "to acknowledge, recognize", received a new one - "to confess." Moreover, the result of the isolated, special way of life of the first Christ. communities in the surrounding world was not limited to the creation of neologisms and semantic innovations to denote Christ proper. Concepts: These communities have also created new words for generic concepts not related to Christianity. Perhaps pl. of them were formed by the first translators of the Bible in an effort to follow the original as closely as possible: agniculus(lamb), appretiare(evaluate), beneplacitum(discretion) cervicatus(stubborn) and many others. etc. These words have become common in the colloquial speech of Christians; they are not found in pagan texts.

In addition, in Christ. Latin there were many Greek (angelus- an angel; apostolus- the apostle; baptisma- baptism; ecclesia- church) and a number of Hebrew (gehenna- Gehenna) borrowings to designate specific biblicals. concepts. These terms represent the legacy of the first, "Greek" period of Christianity in the West; thanks to their unusual shape, they distinguish Christ proper. concepts from similar concepts in the pagan world.

The development of Christian literary Latin. The creator of lit. forms of christ. L.ya Tertullian is considered, and it was he who was already at the beginning. III century. was the first to introduce into his Op. elements of christ. spoken language; later Cyprian of Carthage followed his example. In the IV century. Lactantius pointed to the abundance of Christ innovations in the language and style of Bible translations. period; he himself, referring to the circle of educated readers, tried (not always successfully) to avoid using the elements of Christ. colloquial L.ya

After Edict of Milan(313) a new period of early Christ's development began. Latin. The end of the persecution of Christians led to the entry into the Church of many new converts, to the interpenetration of the Church and the world and, as a result, to the enrichment of literature. language. Greater linguistic freedom made it possible to be more tolerant of the pre-Christ linguistic tradition. era; in bogos. lat. terminology created at this time by Ambrose of Mediolansky, Augustine, Hilarius of Pictavia, except for Greek. christ. borrowings, there is also the influence of ancient Greek. philosophy, especially neo-Platonism.

Around 382-405, Jerome adapted early Bible translations for the emerging Christ with amazing stylistic flair. L.ya IV century; preserving the archaic style of translations, he removed outdated elements only in those cases where their use interfered with the understanding of the text. The result was Vulgate Jerome, which became for subsequent generations a model of the perception of the style of the Bible as an independent tradition, d. on early christ. language practice, and an example of the preservation of this tradition.

In Zap. Greek churches. lang. retained its position in the liturgy for several. centuries since early Christ. Latin, which was strongly influenced by Nar. of the spoken language, undoubtedly, was considered by the Romans as unsuitable for the priest. use. It was Rome, which is most closely associated with the old pagan tradition, that most of all resisted the introduction of Latin into the liturgy. Only after Christ. Latin was fully formed as a literary, and especially biblical, language, early Christ. communities began to introduce Latin into the liturgy.

Most of the characteristic stylistic features that transformed Latin into Rome. liturgy in priest. language (syntactic parallelism, lapidary structure of sentences, accumulation of synonyms and almost legal accuracy in the way of expression), borrowed from the old priest. traditions of pagan Rome. In the canon of the Mass and in prayers, many are used. ancient roman. sacred terms (for example, instead of the more common verb in the colloquial speech of Christians orare- to pray - used in ancient Rome. precari). Traditional officers Rome. terms pontifex and antistes are used instead of episcopus(bishop); ancient roman. praesul- instead of presbyter(presbyter). Obviously, the vocabulary of Christ. spoken language in the IV-V centuries. was perceived as a household one. For priest language needed other, little-used vocabulary, other sentence structure and style not used in everyday life. Ancient sacred terms and stylistic devices that were previously rejected by the early Christ. communities, due to their connection with paganism, were now perceived as special solemn elements corresponding to the priest. prayers of the Church.

So during the IV-V centuries. the liturgy arose. language and style Rome. Church, which originated on the basis of early Christ. and bibl. Latin, but also used the heritage of ancient Rome. style of prayer. Greatness of the Bible and Ancient Rome. gravitas(solemnity), merging, formed a new liturgy. a style that proved to be viable for many years. centuries. With the adoption of Latin as the language of the liturgy, the Latinization of the West. communities has been completed. The transition of the liturgy to L.Ya. did not mean that everyday language was introduced into worship, it was a deliberate stylization, DOS. on various traditions; the resulting liturgy. the language was not always easy to understand, but retained a sense of the greatness and holiness inherent in worship.

The development of the curial style. In the process of consolidation Zap. The Church expanded the functions of Rome. curia as an officer. center of the church. administration; the language formed in her was different from Christ. spoken language; often he followed the official model. documents Rome. empire, inheriting incl. judicial style, decorated with accented endings and other traditional roman. stylistic devices. Curial Latin, which, unlike the freely developing language of the first generations of Christians, was extremely conservative, became the main one. the source of the language of canon law.

Medieval Latin and Carolingian Revival. Towards the end of early Christ. period with a general decline in the culture and education of the church. lat. the tradition seemed to be interrupted. At this time, deviations from the classical norms of L.Ya. (for example, relative clauses instead of infinitive constructions for verbs of speech). Church. L.ya was saved thanks to the flourishing of the Irish-Anglo-Saxon monastic culture in the 7th-8th centuries. and the preservation of the original lat. continuity in dep. parts of Italy and Spain, primarily in Rome.

Worship in Latin was introduced throughout the Carolingian Empire; Vulgate came into general use. In parallel with the development of nat. languages ​​have survived, thanks to the teaching in Latin, the ecclesiastical spirit. and cult, connections of the peoples of the West. Europe. Simultaneously with the desire to preserve the traditions of Christ. Latin in the Church, no less important feature of the education of this time was the study of L.Ya. antique authors. All this helped to keep the connection with Christ. past and the unity of the language of the Church, and to ensure the survival of the ancient and Christ. literature and lay the foundations of the Middle-century. app. Cultures.

Scholastic Latin. In the XIII century. Greek language and philosophy again had a decisive influence on lat. language practice. At this time, under the influence of the Greek. Philos. thought Latin began to be used as a special language for the formulation of abstract philosophies. and bogos. ideas; often for the transmission of Greek. terms were formed by lat. neologisms (e.g. quidditas- what the value, what the value- at Thomas Aquinas, haecceitas- it is- from Duns Scotus, etc.). The universal Latin of the Middle Ages became a special philosophical and divine. a language that flourished in schools (including as a spoken language).

Latin in the Renaissance. Ital. The Renaissance had a much greater influence on the plastic arts and externally. forms (for example, to the ceremonial of the papal court) than to the linguistic tradition. Italian aspiration. humanists to revive the classical Latin prechrist. epoch left very few. footprints in the church. L.Ya., in particular in the curial style. In sacred poetry, attempts were made to replace the early Christ. tradition into classic antique forms. Humanist Pietro Bembo called on Pope Leo X to revive "the glorious style of better times." However, the Pope preferred to keep the liturgy. the legacy of the first centuries of Christianity. Attempts to "fix" L.Ya. Rome. sermons drew criticism of Erasmus of Rotterdam, who in the treatise Cicero defended the early Christ. and liturgy. the linguistic tradition of the Church. Only in one case did the Renaissance innovations prevail over the legacy of the first centuries of Christianity: the supporters of the classical trend remade some of the Breviarian hymns according to ancient models. Although this reconstruction did not correspond to the rhythmic structure and linguistic forms of the early Christ. tradition, was criticized (opponents complained: "Accessit latinitas et recessit pietas" - "Latin improves, piety decreases"), the new edition of the breviary was approved by the bull of Pope Urban VIII Divinam psalmodiam.

Latin now. In the beginning. XX century liturgical texts used in the Catholic Church began to be translated into nat. languages, although until 1969 the worship of Rome. rituals were performed on L.Ya. II Vatican Cathedral in December. 1963 accepted const. i SacrosanctumConcilium, which, in particular, deals with the relationship between L.Ya. and nat. languages ​​in the church. practice. For example, during the transition to the liturgy, mainly on nat. languages, it is necessary to take care that Catholics "know how to pronounce and sing together, and also in Latin, the unchangeable parts of the rite of the Mass intended for them ..." (p. 54). After the liturgical reform, all services in the Catholic Church began to be performed, as a rule, on nat. languages. On L.ya. the papal mass is served (in most cases), as well as Sunday masses in some pulpits, cathedrals, and other major Catholics. temples (including masses in other languages); in addition, during solemn services, traditional hymns are often performed in L.Ya. ( Sanctus, Pater noster, AveMariaand etc.). Divine services on L.Ya. are performed in communities that have preserved, with the consent of the Holy See, the Tridentine rite of Mass (for example, in the Brotherhood of St. Peter).

Dec. 1998 Prefect Congr. creeds of card. J. Ratzinger in an interview with ital. magazine Lo stato noted the importance of preserving L.Ya. in the life of the Church. Teaching L.Ya. included in the curriculum of the Catholic. seminaries and many others. other educational institutions of the Catholic Church.

On L.ya. major churches are published. the documents. So, new Catechism of the Catholic Church, originally published in French. lang. and translated into a number of other languages ​​(including Russian), in 1997 it was published in lat. version, which became normative for subsequent editions of this document on nat. languages, in particular for the 4th Russian. editions of KKTs in 2002.

In the present. main time research work in the field of churches. L.ya conducted by the Papal Higher Institute of Lat. language (Pontificium Institutum Altioris Latinitatis). He instituted an apostle. constitution Veterum sapientia(v. 6) Pope John XXIII and approved motu proprio Pope Paul VI Studia Latinitatis dated 02.22.1964. The Institute is under the patronage of Kongr. Catholic education and from 4.06.1971 included in the Pontifical Salesian University as f-t christ. and classical literature. Officer publication in-ta - magazine Latinitas. In addition, there are still several. int. magazines dealing with modern issues. L.ya (e.g. Vita Latina).

M. Afanasyeva

A source: The Catholic Encyclopedia. M., 2005. T 2.S. 1552-1559.