XIX dynasty. He reigned for 66 years (1317 -1251 BC). Under him, Egypt (see Ancient Egypt) for the last time in the era of the New Kingdom achieved significant power. After the accession to the throne of Ramses II, he waged long wars with the Hittites (armies, mountain tribes inhabiting the central part of Asia Minor), as a result of which Egypt secured Palestine and South Syria. During the struggle, Ramses II showed an outstanding soldier. abilities (see Cadet).
Used materials of the Soviet military encyclopedia. vol. 7: Radio control - Tachanka. 688 s., 1979.
Ramses II (throne name - User-maat-Ra-sotep-en-Ra) - pharaoh of the XIX dynasty (1317-1251 BC). Under him, Egypt for the last time in the era of the New Kingdom achieved significant power. Continuing the campaigns of his father Seti I, Ramses restored Egyptian power in Palestine; in Syria, Ramses faced the Hittites, who also claimed it. After the Battle of Kadesh (1312 BC), he continued to fight the Hittites until 1296, when he concluded a peace treaty with the Hittite king Hattusili III (the Hittite and Egyptian versions of this first international treaty known in history have come down to us). The war with the Hittites prompted Ramses II to move his residence to the northeastern Delta, where the city of "Per-Ramses" ("House of Ramses", later Tanis) was built. Ramses is characterized by an extremely broad construction activity. He built temples in Abydos, Thebes (Ramesseum), extensions in Karnak and Luxor, both cave temples of Abu Simbel, a temple in Edfu, etc. and priests. The poor were enslaved, and the middle strata gradually lost their economic independence. Ramses II had to resort to mercenaries, which weakened the military potential of the country.
I. S. Katsnelson. Moscow.
Soviet Historical Encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 11. PERGAM - RENUVEN. 1968.
Literature: Reader on the history of the Ancient East, M., 1963, p. 119-30; Drioton E. et Vandier J., L "Egypte, 4 éd., P., 1962 (" Clio ". Introduction aux études historiques); Gardiner A., Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxf., 1961.
Watering the garden with shadufs. Painting from the tomb of Ipui in Thebes. Egypt. Dynasty XIX.
Literature:
Avdiev V.I., History of the Ancient East. Ed. 3rd. M., 1970;
Essays on the history of the Ancient East. M., 1956.
Reader on the history of the Ancient East, M., 1963, p. 119-30;
Drioton E. et Vandier J., L "Egypte, 4 éd., P., 1962 (" Clio ". Introduction aux études historiques);
Gardiner A., Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxf., 1961.
25.01.2017
The history of Ancient Egypt is unusually mysterious, full of interesting facts. The names of the great rulers of the past are shrouded in legends. One of them was Pharaoh Ramses 2, whose long, 66-year reign fell on 1290-1224 BC. NS. The affairs of this ruler were reflected in the documents of that era, thanks to which today much is known about his life.
Military campaigns of Ramses 2
Ramses II became famous as one of the last great Egyptian pharaohs. He came to power at a very young age, he was only 20 years old. Meanwhile, this did not prevent Ramses 2 from becoming a brilliant commander, whose military victories amazed his contemporaries.
Ramses II created a strong and well-organized army. He was the main military leader and commander in his country, he himself led the troops into battle. The documents characterize Ramses II as a fearless and brave warrior.
Having barely ascended the throne, Ramses II won victories over the Nubians and Libyans. These peoples were previously conquered by Egypt. The time of the transfer of power from one ruler to another could be successful for organizing an uprising against the oppressors. This is exactly the situation after the death of Seti 1, the father of Ramses 2.
Ramses 2 personally traveled to Numibia and easily suppressed the unrest in this country. Documentary evidence has also survived that at the beginning of his reign the Pharaoh defeated the Libyans. In the second year of his reign, Ramses II defeated the Sherdans. From the sources it follows that the Egyptians took these representatives of the "sea peoples" by surprise on their own ships. The captured Sherdans were accepted into the army of the young pharaoh and fought safely in subsequent campaigns of conquest.
The main task of the pharaoh was to strengthen his dominance in the Middle East and Palestine. This was the reason for the wars with the Hittites, which were fought from 1285 BC. NS. and ended in 1269 BC. NS. the conclusion of peace.
During this period, hostilities took place with varying degrees of success. During the first campaign, when Ramses II tried to enslave the city of Kadesh in Central Syria, he almost himself was captured. The defectors falsely informed Ramses II that the Hittites had withdrawn their forces from the city. In fact, on the approaches to Kadesh, Ramses' troops were attacked by Hittite chariots. The Egyptians managed to escape thanks to the reinforcements that arrived in time. Ramses 2 completely shifted the blame for this defeat onto his military leaders, and presented himself as the savior of the army.
After such a defeat, Ramses became more circumspect. During the next military campaign, he managed to capture a number of fortresses and cities, but the Hittites were strong as the inspirers of the small peoples of Syria and Palestine. The result of the wars with the Hittites was the conclusion of a peace treaty separating the sphere of influence of the Hittites and the Egyptians. The parties agreed on mutual non-aggression, on the extradition of criminals and defectors. In general, the wars with the Hittites played a great role in strengthening the position of Egypt in the Middle East.
State activity of Ramses 2
The merits of Ramses 2 are not limited to victories over external enemies. He became famous as a ruler who strengthened the might of his country. In Egypt, under this pharaoh, trade developed rapidly, cities and temples were built.
Having barely ascended the throne, Ramses II took action to strengthen his power. He put in the place of the first priest the faithful Nebunenef. It was extremely important for the young pharaoh that there were people around him whom he could fully trust. Ramses II announced his divine origin. This was done with the aim of strengthening power. From now on, everyone was to see him as a descendant of the god Ra.
Under Ramses II, a huge number of all kinds of statues, colossi depicting the pharaoh, and structures of a cult nature were built. All this, again, was supposed to confirm the divine origin of Ramses 2 and remind him of his chosenness by higher powers.
An important act of Ramses II was the construction of a new capital, the location of which contributed to the development of ties between Egypt and the Middle East. The capital was named Per-Ramses (City of Ramses), over time it turned into a large prosperous city, where, in addition to Egyptian temples, there were also Asian ones. This is evidenced by the stay of Asian merchants in Egypt and the conduct of trade with them.
In general, Ramses II is known as a ruler, under whom many temples were built. As soon as he ascended the throne, he began the construction of his own tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Under him, the Luxor temple in Thebes was expanded, a monumental colonnade was erected in Karnak, and a memorial temple complex was laid in Thebes. In Nubia, right in a sheer cliff, a huge cave temple was carved out, the entrance to which was decorated with four statues of Ramses 2, each 20 m high.
Everything that was built under Ramses II was almost always decorated with monumental statues depicting his figure. This served as a reminder of the power and greatness of the pharaoh.
Ramses family 2
Ramses II lived a long life, dying at the age of 87. Of these, he ruled Egypt for 66 years. The pharaoh's family was large, it consisted, according to the documents, of 4 legitimate wives, countless concubines, 111 sons and 67 daughters. Ramses 2 managed to outlive not only his wives, but also many children. American archaeologist Keth Weeks found a not very noticeable crypt in the Valley of the Kings, where, in all likelihood, members of the royal family were buried. There were buried 52 of the pharaoh's sons, who did not manage to survive their father.
Pharaoh's heir was his son Merenptah, who at the time of his ascension to the kingdom was over 60 years old.
Nefertari was considered the Pharaoh's favorite wife. In numerous documents of that time, her name is often mentioned, as well as many images of the Egyptian queen, where she is shown as a slender beauty.
Apparently, Ramses II had the most tender feelings for Nefertari, as evidenced by the epithets with which he awarded her. Pharaoh called the great queen “lovely lady”, “beautiful-faced”, “sweet love”. In honor of Nefertari in Abu Simbel, next to the temple of Ramses 2 himself, a cave temple was cut down. After the death of Nefertari, the place of the main queen was taken by her daughter, whom Ramses II took as his wife in order to preserve the "purity of blood."
When entering into marriages, the pharaoh was sometimes guided by questions of politics. So one of his marriages was concluded with the Hittite princess Hattusili in order to consolidate peace with the Hittites. Later, guided by all the same considerations, he married another Hittite princess.
The posthumous fate of the great pharaoh
The events after the death of the legendary pharaoh developed unusually. The fact is that he was buried 5 times. It was necessary to reburial Ramses 2 because of the tomb robbers. The first time he was transferred from his own tomb to the tomb of his father. After her plundering, the mummy ended up in the tomb of Queen Imhapi. Then, after another plunder, the pharaoh ended up in the tomb of Aminhotep 1. In the end, the mummy of Ramses 2 was placed by the priests in the cache of Herihor in Deir el-Bahri.
In the 19th century, the burial was again found by a family of tomb robbers. These people gradually sold off the treasures from the cache to tourists, thanks to which they came to the attention of the Egyptian authorities. As a result, the mummy of the great Ramses 2 was found, which has since become the property of science.
Interesting facts related to the name of Ramses 2
Ramses II was the only pharaoh to hold a modern Egyptian passport. In 1974, scientists discovered that the mummy had begun to deteriorate, and it was decided to send it to France for restoration. The mummy was issued a real passport, which indicated the owner's occupation. This column indicated “king (deceased)”.
Upon arrival in France, the mummy of Ramses 2 was greeted with all the honors befitting a king.
Another interesting fact is related to the assumption that the pharaoh was left-handed, had red hair. It was determined in the same way, of course, only presumably that Ramses 2 was born on February 22, and began to rule on October 20. These days, the light in the Abu Simbel temple hits the chest and crown of the statue of the pharaoh.
Conclusion
Ramses 2 is a unique and legendary personality. He left a noticeable mark in world history thanks to his deeds and undertakings. This great pharaoh immortalized his name, becoming the initiator of the creation of numerous architectural monuments, as well as statues and sculptures. Tourists today, as, indeed, many years ago, come to Egypt to see unique evidence of the past and will once again be amazed at how interesting the history of this beautiful country is.
Biography of Ramses 2
5 (100%)From this article you will find out - who really ruled Egypt in the era of its power and prosperity.
Beautiful companion of Nefertari
Nefertari Mary-en-Mut(Nefertari means "Beautiful companion" and Marytenmouth - "Beloved [of the goddess] Mut - the first wife of Ramses II, who was considered the main queen already in the first year of the independent reign of the pharaoh.
A woman in Egypt is more than a woman. She is also a queen.
The fact is that elements of matriarchy were preserved in Ancient Egypt for a long time. It should be remembered that the pharaohs ascended the throne after marriage with an heiress.
Margaret Murray in the book "The splendor of Egypt"Describes the nature of the relationship between the sexes and marriage laws:
“The marriage laws of ancient Egypt were never formulated, and you can learn them only by studying marriages and genealogy. Then it becomes clear why the pharaoh married the heiress, not paying attention to incest, and if the heiress died, then he married another heiress. Thus, he remained in power ... the throne passed strictly along the female line. The king's wife was the heiress. By marrying her, the king ascended the throne. The royal origin did not play any role. A contender for the throne could be of any origin, but if he married the queen, he immediately became a king. The queen was a queen by birth, the king became king by marrying her. "
And yet, it was not easy for an Egyptian woman to reach such social heights. The traditions of male domination nevertheless made themselves felt in ancient times.
Monuments were erected to the queens. Such was the tomb of the beautiful wife of Ramses II, Nefertari , "The one for which the sun shines."
Nefertari in adoration in front of the sacred bull and cows.
Nefertari, beloved Queen of Ramses II, known for the myriad of her images on the walls of temples and the colossi of the great pharaoh, which were dedicated to her, together with the goddess Hathor, these images show her great influence on Ramses II.
Nefertari was not the only wife of Ramses II. Four of his other wives are attested in the inscriptions of his reign and are known to have been crowned queens. She was not an ordinary queen, however, her situation was superior to that of the previous ones.
Her name was translated as "The Most Beautiful of Them ";superlative degree, which denotes its most exclusive position, while the designation"Crown Princess"listed for her on several occasions is a sign of her high-ranking origin in society.
Her involvement in the affairs of the state is unprecedented outside the Amarna Period and is reflected in her titles applicable to her: "The Wife of the Great King". Her political role is also reflected in the current designation "Lady of Upper and Lower Egypt" and "Mistress of Two Lands".
Nefertari and God Thoth. (Thoth is the God of wisdom, science, magic and the moon. He was considered the author of the foundations of astronomy, medicine, geomentia, religious texts and the "Book of the Dead". As the lord of the moon, he guarded and rescued her, returning to his place in the sky, he was the lord of the account and kept counting the years, tk. the calendar was based on the phases of the moon. Being surrounded by the gods, he played the role of a judge. ")
Some Egyptologists think that she was probably the daughter of Pharaoh Seti the First, and thus the sister or half-sister of Ramses II. Other Egyptologists, however, think that its designation as "Crown Princess" could be in some way related to the fact that she was a representative of the nobility of Tebais. These Egyptologists claim that nothing is known about her parents, but it appears that she was of royal ancestry.
Others say that she is the granddaughter of Ahmose ... There is a shrine to Ramses II in Gebel el-Silsileh, where descriptions show him and Queen Nefertari performing religious functions before various deities. This shrine contains an indication that Queen Nefertari was already married to Ramses II when he ascended the throne (1290 BC).
The title of Nefertari meant"God's wife"emphasized the apparent emulation of Queen Ahmes-Nefertari, who was also the wife of the god ... Her title and name show clearly that Nefertari played a special role in her day. The fact that Ramses II was eager to show her accompaniment, an unusual feature, suggests that she might have influenced his position in the country.
Alas, the divine Nefertari passed away early.
None of the Egyptian queens, as far as we know, was honored to have a temple, as Nefertari had in Abu Simbel ..
The facade of the temple has six statues, each 33 feet high, four of them represent the Pharaoh and two belonged to the queen. The walls of the temple are decorated with various scenes; some represent the pharaoh conquering his enemies while the queen supports him, others represent the king and queen carrying offerings to the goddesses and deities, asking for their blessings.
The most interesting scene is the coronation of Nefertari Isis and Hathor.
Nefertari and Isis. (The name Isis (Isis), consisting of parts Is-Is ("step-step") refers to the psychic world, to internal energy and health. Isis patronizes magic, night and lunar magic, so she was given a gift milk, plant juice, fruits, as well as incense)
(Still not knowing such a background, I chose just such a papyrus from all - I really liked it :))).
Ramses II has a grave for Nefertari carved in the Valley of the Kings, named by the ancients "Place of Beauty" this tomb is the most beautiful in the Valley of the Kings, and is overall worthy of its position in history. The decorative motifs on the walls and ceilings are mythological and tell about life in hell, meetings with gods, deities, spirits and monsters, and about entering the kingdom of eternity. In these scenes, Nefertari is always represented in long, transparent white garments, with two long feathers on a gold headdress. She wears rich jewelry, in addition to royal items and a wide gold collar.
"Place of Beauty" -the most beautiful monument of the necropolis. The murals occupy 520 sq. m. This is one of the best works of art of the New Kingdom era.
Above the portico, you can still read the words:
"Hereditary nobility, Great grace, beauty, sweetness and love, Lady of Upper and Lower Egypt, the reassured Lady of both lands, Nefertari, Beloved Mut."
Nefertari (In Ancient Egypt, the vulture is a protective symbol. The vulture was represented by Nehbet, the great goddess of Upper Egypt. She was the protector of the pharaoh, whose wife wore a headdress in the form of a vulture head)
Diodorus in the Historical Library says that the Egyptians "The queen has more power and receives more honors than the king"
Divorces were rare. The main reason for the divorce was the absence of children. If a woman initiated a divorce, she had to return to her husband half or a third of the property (amount). If a man was the initiator of the divorce, he lost everything.
One of the surviving documents (a kind of prenuptial agreement) said:
"If I hate you or if I fall in love with another man, I will return your silver and relinquish any title to the land."
This kind of agreement was necessary, for marriages in Egypt were concluded not only between newlyweds.
Isis will present the ankh to Nefertari. (Ankh is a symbol of eternal life) 
People of different ages, who were previously married, entered into marriage. And here it was impossible to do without defining property rights, including land rights. It was also important that if a woman decided to divorce, the common child, apparently, remained with the father.
Characteristically, among the Aramaic population, women enjoyed even greater privileges. So, they did not work and often acted as the chief economists in the family. They could give a loan to a man and, as they say, were the head of the family, holding the men tightly in their hands.
The ancient Egyptian game "Senet". Image from the tomb of Nefertari, wife of Ramses II. Not everyone then could touch this type of entertainment. Many of the first board games were diplomatic gifts, status symbols, the prerogative of the elite.
Maspero writes about the situation of the then Egyptian woman in such a spirit that some of her contemporaries in Europe might even envy her:
“The common and middle class Egyptian is more respected and independent than anywhere else. As a daughter, she inherits from her parents a share equal to that of her brothers; as a wife, she is the true mistress of the house (nibit pi), whose husband is nothing more than a beloved guest. She leaves and returns when she pleases, talks to whomever she wants, and no one interferes with it; she is shown in front of men with bare face, in contrast to Syrians, always wrapped in a more or less dense veil. "
And yet, recognizing the significant role of Egyptian women, we also note that the man occupied the first places in the hierarchy.
The Egyptians adored their mothers, wives, brides, daughters ... Abbas Mahmoud al-Akkad wrote:
“We cannot understand how conservative or rebellious an Egyptian is, if we do not understand his love for the family and his dedication to traditions and family customs. He is a conservative in the sense of preserving the family heritage, and in the name of this preservation of conservatism, he is ready to revolt in order to protect his traditions. The Egyptian can forget everything, except for the feeling of condescension, mercy and the norms of behavior in his family. "
The residence of the "consort of God" was built on the west bank of the Nile, opposite Karnak, and here was once one of the most famous schools for women priestesses in the whole country.
The sage of the times of the Ancient Kingdom of Ptahotep, who left the book of wise advice for the edification of his descendants, wrote:
“If you are a person of high standing, you should start your own house and love your wife properly. Fill her stomach and dress her body; cover her skin with oil. May her heart rejoice all the time you are alive, she is a fertile field for her master. You don't have to argue with her in court; don't piss her off. Share with her what falls to your lot; it will keep her in your house for a long time. "
Another saying reads:
“If you are a young man and you take a wife and bring her into your house, remember that your mother gave birth and raised you. Do not bring your wife to curse you, complain to the gods and they would hear her ... Do not burden your wife with custody if you know that she is in perfect health ... Keep quiet and watch - this is the only way you will recognize her abilities. " ...
These and other confessions point to the respectful and extremely careful attitude of Egyptian men towards their women and wives.
The family ties of the Egyptians are strong. For the first time in history, a woman here stood on a par with a man and the family began to be built on the basis of mutual respect between the sexes (from 2700–2500 BC).
Even at the afterlife tribunal, the importance of a husband's relationship to his wife was seen as one of the most important factors in a specious life. The husband was told:
“If you are wise, stay at home, love your wife tenderly, cherish and dress her well, and also gently soothe her and fulfill her desires. If you are far from her, your family will fall apart, so open your arms to her, call her, show her all your love. "
Nefertari and Anubis are the god of the dead, who makes her “the breath that draws in life. prana "
Although in everyday life everything happened, apparently, husbands beat their wives, but in general the family is sacred.
All Egyptians are one big family. Rozanov even argued:
“The Egyptians opened a family - nepotism, nepotism ". He further wrote: “To open Egypt, it was necessary to actually open a family in oneself "
With great amazement, he writes that none of the luminaries of Egyptology - Brugsch, Maspero and others - did not guess in their discoveries and works to glorify and glorify the Egyptian woman , « the mother, over whom the hands are raised. " In this praise of their family traditions, Rozanov is categorical:
"Only the Egyptians had a MOTHER, and all the others had a mother."
The goddess of the cosmic order, Maat, guards the Nefertari cartouche with her wings.
The Egyptians knew how to appreciate the love of a woman. They paid tribute to her art of pleasing men and giving him the highest pleasure. Women are the source of love, fire and light. In terms of love, we can say about them that they are lovely, like a delicate flower of a blossoming lotus: they are the ones, because of love for which the sun rises.
Historical background: Ramses II - the husband of Queen Nefertari, Son of the Sun - Ramses the Great
.... Under Ramses II, Egypt reached its maximum borders. In the last years of his reign, Ramses II was deified as the "Great Soul Ra-Horakhte" - the embodiment of the sun god on earth ..
… The reign of Ramses II was reflected in the works of many ancient historians (for example, Herodotus, who calls him Rampsinite) and in the Bible ...
To this day, not one of the rulers of Egypt managed not to repeat, and not surpass the success of Pharaoh Ramses II
edition Svetlana Feya
Here's some more material for those interested in Egypt:
Ramses II family
The size of the Ramses II family is well known. In addition to the countless concubines of the harem, four of his legal spouses are known, at least 111 sons and 67 daughters. 13
The first legal wife of the young Ramses II was the famous beauty Nefertari, “beloved Mut”, who was considered a queen, as evidenced by the inscription in the tomb of the priest Amon Nebunenef, already in the first year of her husband's independent reign. Surprisingly, practically nothing is known about the origin of the queen. There is not a single mention of her hypothetical family ties with the reigning house. In her title, there is no title “daughter of the king”. But, nevertheless, she is called a "noble lady" or "hereditary nobility", i.e. a very noble lady, by birth belonging to one of the court families. The find made in the tomb of Nefertari at the beginning of the century - a "button" for sealing the chest, can shed light on this riddle. This miniature item is made of earthenware; on its surface there is a cartouche with the name of Ey, the penultimate king of the 18th dynasty. This find aroused great interest and became the reason for putting forward many hypotheses about the relationship between Nefertari and the last Amarna kings. In view of the long duration of the reign of Horemheb, it becomes clear that the queen, by age, could not be the daughter of Ay, but rather is his granddaughter or even great-granddaughter.
The collection of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo contains a statue of the royal scribe and military leader Nakhtmin, better known from the fragments of the famous broken sculptural group that once depicted him with his wife. 14 The inscriptions on the statue mention that he was “born of the priestess of Mina and the singer of Isis,” by the name of Iuya. A military of the highest rank already during the reign of Tutankhamun, connected by name and relatives with the city of Ahmim, he, called in the texts "the son of the king from his flesh", was probably the son of Ey, who for some unknown reason could not take the throne after the death of his father ... Considering the close affection the daughters of Nefertari had for Ahmim, it can be assumed that the queen was the granddaughter of Eye, the daughter of the military leader Nakhtmin. 15 Of course, this is just another hypothesis, but, nevertheless, due to the lack of sources, this is all that can be said about the origin of the beloved wife of Ramses II.
Nefertari appears next to the king on the back of a pylon in Luxor, next to an inscription dated to the third year of Ramses' reign; 16 the queen was permanently depicted next to the colossus of her husband until, in this capacity, she was replaced by the princesses, who after her death became queens - Bentanat and Meritamon. 17 The statue of Nefertari, magnificent in decoration, but very badly damaged, is kept in Brussels. 18 She is shown standing next to the famous sculpture of Ramses from the Turin Museum. 19 Presumably Nefertari also depicts the famous statue of the "unknown" queen from the Berlin Museum (Inv.10114; comparison of the contour of the legs of the statue and the base from the statue of Nefertari from Heliopolis made it possible to establish their initial unity). 20 The grandiose temple of Ibshek was dedicated to Nefertari at Abu Simbel in Nubia, north of the sanctuary of Ramses II himself. The façade of the sanctuary is decorated on both sides of the entrance with paired colossal figures of Ramses, between which are the colossi of Nefertari herself in the image of the goddess Hathor.
“Ramses, he erected a temple, carved in grief for eternity,” says a large dedicatory inscription on the facade, “for the sake of the Tsar's Great Consort Nefertari, Beloved Mut, in Nubia, in eternity and infinity ... for Nefertari, who pleased the gods, the one who for the sake of which the sun shines ”. 22
In the interior of the sanctuary, the queen receives as much attention as her husband. The Egyptian queen was honored with such an honor only once: the pharaoh of the XVIII dynasty Amenhotep III erected a temple for his famous wife Teye in Sedeing, where she was revered, like Nefertari, as the goddess Hathor. 23
After the conclusion of a peace treaty between Egypt and the Hittite state in 1259 BC. (21st year of Ramses II), apparently actively participating in the political life of the country, Nefertari established a friendly correspondence with the Hittite queen Puduhepa. 241
In the 24th year of the reign of Ramses II, the construction of the grand temples in Abu Simbel was completed. For the consecration of the complex and the foundation of the cults of deities, the royal fleet sailed from Thebes to Nubia. Ramses and Nefertari were accompanied by princess Meritamon and the “royal son of Kush” Hekanakht. This event is narrated by the Hekanakhta stele, carved into the rocks next to the temples. 25 The nobleman is depicted offering gifts to the queen, sitting on the throne. This was the last event associated with the name of the early deceased beauty Nefertari.
The Tomb of Nefertari, carved into the rocks of the Valley of the Queens, is the most beautiful monument of this necropolis; her paintings, which occupy an area of 520 m 2, are rightfully considered one of the best works of art of the entire era of the New Kingdom. 26 The paintings of the tomb illustrate some of the chapters of the book “Utterances of the Day Out” (Book of the Dead) and show the path of the queen, led by the gods to the afterlife to the judgment of Osiris.
Eighteen steps lead from the entrance carved into the rocks to the inner chambers of the tomb. The portico of the door in front of the first chamber is badly damaged, but the titles of the queen are still read on its right side:
"Hereditary nobility, Great grace, beauty, sweetness and love, Lady of Upper and Lower Egypt, reposed, Lady of both lands, Nefertari, Beloved Mut, Right-Wing before Osiris." 27
The first chamber of the tomb “C” (5x5.2 m) is equipped with an offering table carved into the wall. Its walls are covered with images - fragments of the 17th chapter of the Book of the Dead. The queen is represented in three incarnations: playing senet, in the form of the soul of Ba, and, finally, worshiping Aker, the lion-headed god of the earth, who is at the same time the horizon - a symbol of the rebirth of the solar deity. Shown next to the "soul of Ra" - the snow-white phoenix Benu, symbolizing the eternal cyclical return of life, as well as a kiosk, inside which the mummy of Nefertari is reclining on a lion-headed bed; at the head and at the feet of the mummy are accompanied by two mourning falcones - Nephthys and Isis. The god of Nile water Hapi bestows Nefertari a palm leaf, symbolizing millions of years, and the syncretic sign shen-ujat, which guarantees the deceased eternity and resurrection. Nearby are the Heavenly Cow Nut and the four sons of Horus - the guardians of the deceased and her entrails, laid in canopies. To the right of the entrance to the tomb, Nefertari appears before Osiris and Anubis. She is depicted entering the room, and the faces of the gods, the “lords of the Duat,” the true inhabitants of this place, are shown facing the exit and the queen walking towards them. Nefertari is dressed in the magnificent snow-white linen clothes for which Egypt was so famous in antiquity; they are tied under the bust with a red belt in the form of a tete-knot amulet of Isis. On the shoulders of Nefertari is a rich ussekh necklace. On the head of the queen there is a ceremonial dress of a jester, consisting of a dark blue wig, decorated with golden wings of a kite of the goddess Mut, a stand, a golden solar disk and two ostrich feathers.
The passage from the first chamber leads to an additional room on this level. Passage “D” is flanked on both sides by the figures of standing Osiris and Anubis; above the door is a frieze consisting of ureis, ostrich feathers, symbols of the goddess Maat, and a human figure in the center, resting on the already mentioned syncretic amulets shen-ujat. On the sides of the passage are two goddesses - Neith and Selket, giving Nefertari "protection, life, steadfastness, power, all protection, like Ra, forever." The goddesses pronounce magic spells and sayings to protect the queen:
“It is said by Selket, Lady of Heaven, Queen of all gods. I walk in front of you, oh (...) Nefertari (...) 28, Right-Vowed before Osiris, dwelling in Abydos; I have granted you stay in the sacred land (Ta-Dzhessert), so that you can appear victoriously in heaven like Ra ”. 29
Further the passage widens (“E”); the pilasters formed during the expansion are decorated with images of the anthropomorphic pillar of the Jed - the symbol of Osiris, the sign of inviolability and constancy. On the left side of the passage, the goddess Isis, wearing a necklace of menat, leads the queen by the hand to the god of the morning sun, Khepri, who has a head in the form of a scarab; on the right, Horus, the son of Isis, leads the deceased to the thrones of Ra-Horakhta and Hathor, the ruler of the Theban necropolis. Between the thrones of Khepri and Hathor is the door to the side chamber (“G”). The kite-goddess Nekhbet, the patroness of Upper Egypt, hovers over the door, clutching the symbols of eternity shen in her hands. The visual perspective of the passage through this door ends with the figures of Atum and Osiris, depicted on the opposite wall, sitting back to back. Two figures of the goddess Maat on the inner sides of the door symbolize the passage to the Hall of Two Truths - the hall where psychostasia takes place - the judgment of the gods and the determination of the weight of the sins accumulated in the human heart.
Camera “G” (3x5 m) contains images of Nefertari's standing before Ptah, the ruler of Memphis, and Thoth, the master of “divine sayings” - writing, as well as magic.
“Behold, the great one who sees her father, the ruler of the letter, Thoth. Here, I come with a soul, mighty, knowing the Scriptures of Thoth ... Bring me a vessel, bring me a palette of Thoth with their secrets in them. Oh Gods! Here I am a scribe ... Bring me writing supplies so that I can carry out the orders of Osiris, the great god, beautifully every day ... About Ra-Horakht, I will follow the Truth, I will comprehend the Truth ”. thirty
On the long eastern wall of chamber “G” rich gifts are shown: meat, bread, vegetables, which Nefertari donates to Osiris and Atum, holding the Sherep scepter in her right hand. Two great deities - the personification of immortality and the creator of the universe are united here in an almost symmetrical composition. The next scene, illustrating chapter 148 of the Book of the Dead, occupies the entire south wall of the chamber. In the frame of the sign of the sky and the scepters of the yas, seven cows and a bull are depicted in two registers, in front of each of which there is a small altar with offerings. All animals “walk” towards the queen, who is standing in a pose of adoration. The text of chapter 148 speaks about the purpose of these seven cows to supply the spirit of the deceased with milk and bread. Steering oars are also mentioned here, which help the deceased swim among the stars. None of the enemies of the queen recognizes her thanks to these “nominal” oars and the god Ra - the ruler of the boat. Next to the figure of the queen is one of the most famous scenes of the tomb: a deity in the form of a mummy with the head of a ram, crowned with a solar disk, stands on a small podium; on both sides it is supported by Nephthys and Isis. Each wears a white afnet wig with a long end, tied with red ribbons. Between the figures of the goddesses and the ram-headed deity are two columns of the text "This is Osiris, resting in Ra" and "This is Ra, resting in Osiris." The scene is of the highest quality of performance and is very important from the theological point of view, illustrating, as already mentioned, the central idea of the Egyptian memorial texts - the union of Ra and Osiris in the form of a single eternal deity.
A descending passage leads from chamber “C” to the lower level of the chambers of the tomb. On both sides of the doorway, on the paired pillars of the djed, cartouches of the queen are depicted, accompanied by the goddesses Wadzhet and Nehbet in the form of snakes with the heraldic attributes of Lower and Upper Egypt, respectively. The staircase itself is 7.5 meters long. The images of each wall are divided into two triangular registers. The upper left register shows the offering by the queen of the sacred vessels of Nemset to the goddesses Hathor, Selket and the winged Maat. On a similar scene in the right register, there are Isis, Nephthys, and the symmetrically located Maat, between whose wings is shown a shen - a symbol of eternity and the name of a queen in a cartouche, the shape of which, as is known, originated from this sign. On the “shelves” formed in the rock at both doors of the corridor, there are images of two anthropomorphic symbols of Osiris, Jed (the upper level of the stairs) and the goddess Neith and Selket (the lower level of the stairs). Jed, as a sign of inviolability, constancy is in this case a mighty pillar of "heaven" - a dark blue ceiling covered with golden stars of the night sky. In the lower registers of the walls, the god Anubis in the form of a jackal and Isis and Nephthys, kneeling on the signs of gold, is the sky. Both have their hands on the Shen signs. Nearby are voluminous spell-texts that are unique examples of calligraphy:
“The words spoken by Anubis Imiut, the great god dwelling in the sacred land (Ta-Dzhessert). I walk before you, O great royal wife, mistress of both lands, mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt, Reposed, Nefertari, beloved Mut, right-handed before Osiris, the great god who dwells in the West. I walk in front of you and I have given you a place in the sacred land, so that you can appear triumphant in heaven, like your father Ra. Place the tiaras over your head. Isis and Nephthys rewarded you and created your beauty, like your father's, so that you can appear triumphant in the heavens, like Ra, so that you can illuminate Igeret with your rays. The great host of gods on earth has given you a place. Nut, your mother, greets you, just as she greets Ra-Horakhte. May the souls of Pe and Buto rejoice, just as they rejoiced at your father, who is in the West ... Come to your mother and sit on the throne of Osiris. May the rulers of the sacred land accept you. May your heart rejoice forever, O great royal wife ... Nefertari ... right-minded before Osiris. " 31
The grandiose image of the flying goddess Maat crowns the space above the door leading to the “Golden Rest” - the burial chamber of the “K” tomb (10.4x8.2 m). Low “benches” around the entire perimeter of the room were once intended for grave goods. The walls of the cell are covered with images illustrating chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead, and contain a description of the kingdom of Osiris. The queen appears before the guards of the underworld and correctly names the names of the spirits and the names of the gates of the otherworldly regions. The top of the walls is ornamented with a hecker frieze; countless stars of the night sky cover the ceiling. The depression, which was the place for the sarcophagus, was in the middle of the room, framed by four pillars. Sixteen planes of the pillars have preserved the magnificent scenes of Nefertari's appearance before the deities - Anubis, Isis, Hathor, the mighty pillars of the Jed, as well as the figures of two priests of the funeral cult - Hor Yunmutef (“Choir-Support-Mother-Her”) and Choir Nezhitef (“Choir-Protector -His Father ”). The incarnations of Horus, the son of Isis, priests in leopard skins, represent Nefertari to Osiris:
“Words spoken by Chorus Iunmutef. I am your beloved son, my father Osiris. I have come to honor you. Forever I have cast down your enemies for you. May you allow the daughter of your beloved, the great royal wife ... Nefertari, beloved Mut, right-handed, to remain in the host of great deities, those who accompany Osiris ... ”. 32
Osiris, the king of the host of gods, is depicted on two planes of the pillars, facing towards the entrance to the chamber. In both scenes, he stands on a small plinth inside a yellow naos. On his head is the crown of the atef, in his hands is the scepter of heket and the whip of nehehu. On the shoulders of the great god is a necklace of useh, he is tied with a red belt, the symbol of his wife Isis. Inside the naos, next to Osiris, are the emblems of Anubis Imiut, consisting of a wooden stand and a leopard skin.
A small canopy niche is carved into the left wall of the chamber. Its walls are decorated with images of Anubis and spirits, the sons of Horus, the patrons of the canopics; on the central wall there is an image of the winged goddess of the sky Nut with the signs of eternal life ankh in her hands.
On three sides of the burial chamber, there are passages to small side chambers (“M”, “Q”, “O”) intended for storing burial items. The decoration was best preserved in cell “M”. The doorway is flanked by images of the goddesses Wadzhet and Nehbet in the form of snakes resting on Jed pillars. On the walls there are images of the anthropomorphic Osiris-Jed with the scepter uas in his hands, Nefertari herself in the form of a mummy, Isis and Nephthys with the four sons of Horus. Under their protection, the queen “follows” to the image of the legendary house of Osiris in Abydos.
On the walls of the chamber "O" there are preserved heavily damaged images of the queen reciting prayers before Hathor the Lady of the West. On the right side, Nefertari appears before Isis and Anubis, seated on thrones. Two altars with flowers and bread stand in front of the deities. The central wall is filled with the winged figure of Maat. The surviving fragment of the text on behalf of the goddess speaks of “the creation of a place for the queen in the house of Amun”. Perhaps there was a statue of Nefertari here.
The decoration of the “Q” chamber has practically not been preserved. The figure of Isis on the south wall, fragments of the procession of the gods, a pillar of the Jed between two amulets of Isis tet - these are the main images from this room that have come down to our time.
The tomb of Nefertari was discovered in 1904 by an Italian archaeological expedition led by Ernesto Schiaparelli. The poor quality of the limestone in which the tomb was cut down, as well as the salty soil waters, led to the fact that by the 70s of our century, the paintings of the unique monument were under threat of extinction. The special restoration project “Nefertari” of the Egyptian Antiquities Service and the Paul Getty Conservation Institute, carried out from 1986 to 1992, became one of the most important works of the 20th century to preserve the heritage of antiquity. 33 Unique restoration methods allowed the tomb to be reopened to the public in November 1995.
The second great royal wife was Isitnofret. 34 We know practically nothing about its origin. Among her titles there is no epithet “daughter of the king” - the blood of the pharaohs did not flow in her veins. In view of the fact that her eldest daughter, Bentanatus, bore a Syrian name, many experts assume that Isitnofret was not Egyptian; however, this hypothesis is far too dubious. Interestingly, the ushabti Bentanath were found by J. Martin's expedition to Sakkara, in the tomb of Horemheb. It is well known that Bentanatus was buried in Thebes. How then to explain the presence of her burial items in the tomb of a man whom fate made a pharaoh at the junction of two colossal dynasties? Was there not some kind of relationship between Horemheb and Bentanath's mother, Queen Isitnofret? 35 This assumption is confirmed by one more fact: having ascended the throne, Horemheb ordered to carve in the granite rocks Gebel Silsile a rocky sanctuary dedicated to Hapi, the deity of the flood. Inside, many of the embossed decoration additions made during the Ramessid era have survived. If the image of Nefertari is completely absent here, then Isitnofret, on the contrary, is depicted more than once with her husband. Whether this was a deliberate emphasis on family relations is extremely difficult to say today.
She is shown along with Ramses II on a stele from Aswan, installed in this place in honor of the second celebration of the ceremony of Sed Ramses, in 33-34 years of his reign. 36 On this monument, as, indeed, on almost all others where her name is found, she was depicted only thanks to the efforts of her son, Haemuas, while Ramses himself paid surprisingly little attention to her. It is absolutely known that she became a great royal wife even under Nefertari, but she was not honored to be portrayed by the colossus. There are remarkable sculptural images of Queen Isitnofret. The most interesting - the lower part of a quartzite statue of excellent finishing with a relief figure of Prince Haemuas on the side (E 7500) and a sandstone bust (E 5924) - are kept in the Royal Museum of Art and History in Brussels. 37
In Saqqara, near the Serapeum, fragments of an architectural structure erected in honor of Isitnofret Haemuas were discovered. 38 Apparently, the second wife of Ramses came from Memphis. 39
Around the 34th year of her reign, the wife of Isitnofret died and was buried in Thebes; the tomb of Isitnofret is not identified, but is recorded in the documentation of Deir el-Medine: 40 in the text of one of the ostracons of the Cairo Museum, Isitnofret and one of the sons of Ramses, Meriatum, are mentioned, the construction of the tombs for which was completed by the Theban masters. It should be especially noted that the tomb of Meriatum was found, and not just anywhere, but in the Valley of the Kings! 41 There is only one conclusion: either the tomb of the great queen has not yet been found, or we are talking about another, the second Isitnofret, the daughter of Ramses II, for some reason buried in one of the unfinished tombs of the necropolis. The assumption of some experts that the queen was buried in Memphis is more than doubtful, since all (!) The spouses and daughters of Ramses II found their last refuge in Thebes.
The paternal pride of Ramses II for his large family was expressed in numerous reliefs - “processions” of princes and princesses, accompanied by their names, on the walls of many temples built under their father; in these sources, 50 young men and 40 girls are recorded, for whom such an image provided protection in the face of one or another deity. 56 On both sides of the colossi that adorn the facade of the Ibshek temple in Abu Simbel, dedicated, as already mentioned, to Nefertari, six children of this queen are depicted: Amenkhepeshef, the eldest son of Ramses and the heir to the throne, Paraherunemef (3rd son), Princess Meritamon (4 th daughter) and Henuttaui (7th daughter), as well as princes Merira (11th son) and Meriatum (16th son); it should not be forgotten that Nefertari may have had several more children after the completion of the construction of the temple.
Four children of Queen Isitnofret are known: the eldest daughter Bentanatus, Ramses (2nd son), the most famous son of Ramses II - Haemuas (4th son) and Merneptah (13th son), who inherited the throne after the death of his father and eldest sons.
At the facade of the Mehu temple in Abu Simbel, the children of both queens are represented together: between the legs of the colossus Ramses II to the south of the front door, Amenkhepeshef is represented, next to the princesses Bentanat and Nebettawi (mother is unknown); at the colossus to the north - Prince Ramesses, as well as Princess Meritamon and Princess Nefertari (mother - unknown).
When calculating, it turns out that of the 16 eldest sons of Ramses II, seven were born Nefertari and Isitnofret, while the mothers of the other nine sons are unknown. Of the nine eldest princesses, only three were daughters of the two main wives, while the other six, and then all subsequent children of the king, were born by unknown harem ladies.
The sons of Ramses II are also depicted on temple reliefs with scenes of hostilities. In the earliest temple of Ramses II - in Bet el-Wali, the heir Amenkhepeshef “Senior military leader” is shown, as well as Sethkhepeshef, Haemuas and some other princes, whose names have not survived. 57 On the “military” reliefs in the first hall of the Mehu Abu Simbel temple, three eldest sons are participating in the battle in chariots, and Paracherunemef is called “the first brave of the army”. 58 In the scene of the battle of the Syrian city of Kadesh, made on the outside of the southern wall of the hypostyle hall of the Amun-Ra temple in Karnak, the king's 12 sons are leading the captives. In the Ramesseum, 18 princes are mentioned on the reliefs of the military campaigns of the eighth year of the reign of Ramesses. It should be remembered that often such images were fictitious, and the prince, who had barely learned to walk, was shown to be an active participant in the events. One way or another, only four of the eldest sons were born even before Ramses's accession to the throne; Princess Bentanatus, for example, was only seven years old in the first year of her father's reign. 59 Some of the sons of Ramses II are also known from other historical sources: Amenkhepeshef and Setkhkhepeshef are mentioned on cuneiform tablets of the Bogazkoy archive of the Hittite state. 60
Due to wars, diseases and accidents, many of Ramses II's sons died in childhood or adolescence. Around the 20th year of the reign of Ramses II, Crown Prince Amenherhepeshef died. Several of his younger brothers - Paraherunemef, Seti and Merira Sr. died even earlier. Among the eldest children of Nefertari were Meriatum, who became the crown prince, who inherited after him the title of Sethkhepeshef, mentioned in this capacity in the Hittite-Egyptian peace treaty in the 21 years of his father's reign. After him, Ramses, the son of Isitnofret, was mentioned as heir to the throne for almost twenty years; around the year 50, the sage Haemuas became the crown prince. This lengthy transfer of the title ended on his fifth holder, Merneptah, also the son of Isitnofret, who became king after his father's death.
The fate of some minor sons was connected with the royal court only by the very fact of birth. So, the 23rd son, Sa-Montu married Iret, the daughter of Ben-Anat, the captain of the Syrian ship. For a time, Sa-Montu served at the vineyards of Ramses II in Memphis, the most cosmopolitan capital of Egypt, where he probably met his Syrian wife. We know about several princes only from the existence of the tomb. Prince Ramses-Neb-Uben was a hunchback and died when he was about thirty years old. He probably died in the royal harem in Mi-ur and was supposed to be buried in Thebes, but his death occurred so unexpectedly that the old sarcophagi of his great great-grandfather, Ramses I, made when he was still the vizier of Paramessus, were adapted for his burial, and remaining unused after his accession. 61
It is especially worthwhile to dwell on the fate of the most interesting personality among the children of Ramses II - Prince Haemuas. He first appears on reliefs depicting the first Syrian and Nubian campaigns of Ramses II, in which he took part (materials from Karnak and Ramesseum). As a result of the death of the king's eldest sons - Amenkhepeshef, Setkhkhepeshef (mother is Queen Nefertari) and Ramses (mother is Queen Isitnofret I), Haemuas receives the title of “heir to the throne”.
Becoming a priest, in the temple of Ptah in Memphis, the prince receives the title "chief of artisans", which was borne by the high priest of this god. According to sources, this happened shortly before the death of Apis (the sacred bull of the god Ptah) in the 16th year of the reign of Ramses II (1264/63 BC) 62 For the burial of the Apis at Haemuas, the underground galleries of the Serapeum were expanded - a burial and temple complex for bulls in the Sakkara necropolis. On the wall of the new burial chamber, there are images of Ramses II and Haemuas worshiping Apis, as well as the famous inscription:
“Osiris, priest-sem, prince Haemuas; he says: “O you, priests-sem, high priests, noble in the temple of Ptah ... and every scribe, skilled in knowledge, who will come to this temple, which I have erected for the Living Apis, who will see what is inscribed on these walls of magnificent stone ... Nothing like this has ever been created ... Gods, those in the temple, (their images) are made of gold with various precious stones ... ever donated. I appointed him priests and reciters, those who praise ... and all kinds of servants. I built a great burial ark in front of the temple, and in front of it - a great sacrificial altar of the finest white limestone of Tura with divine offerings and all sorts of beautiful things ... Remember my name, looking at what I have done and do the like! O Apis-Sokar-Osiris, the Great God, the lord of the ark Shetait, I am this priest, the son of the king (Haemuas) ”. 63
The connection of Haemuas with the Serapeum is also confirmed by the figurines of the ushabti, made in connection with the burial ceremony of the Apis bulls in 16, 26, 30 and in another unknown year of the reign of Ramses II. 64 In the 55th year of the reign of Ramses II, his brother Merneptah succeeded as high priest of Ptah Haemuasu.
Many of the monuments of Sakkara and Giza under Haemuas have been restored and provided with special texts containing interesting information about the restoration process. 65 Moreover, finding in the ruins of the mastaba a statue of Kawab, the eldest son of King Khufu, he ordered to transport the statue to the Ptah temple so that there she could “live forever”. 66 The two sons of Haemuas, Ramses and Hori, were part of the new Ptah temple management system created at this time.
The statues preserved in museums around the world depict Haemuas at different periods of his life. The famous British Museum monument (EA 947) shows the prince in his youth. 67 On his head is a short round wig, which is traditionally called “Libyan”, since it was dedicated to Onuris, the god of the hunt, patron of the Libyan desert 68 and “gained special popularity in the era of the Ramessids” 69.
The lock, as a symbol of the title of High Priest of Ptah, appears in the image of Haemuas from the Cairo Museum (JE 36720). 70 The statue of the prince-naofor, made of yellow sandstone, depicts Haemuas in a more respectable age. In his hands, the son of Ramses II holds a naos - a reliquary with the image of the god Ptah-Tatenen, the most ancient deity of Memphis.
A unique sculptural image of Haemuas is kept in Moscow, in the collection of the East Sector of the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts (Inv. No. I, Ia 6670). 71 The quartzite lid of a rare ritual vessel shows Haemuas young and stylistically very close to the monument from the British Museum. 72
Haemuas died in the 55th year of his father's reign and was probably buried in a special tomb adjacent to the galleries of the Serapeum. Among the monuments originating from his richest burial, discovered in 1852 by the French archaeologist Auguste Mariette during the excavation of the tombs of sacred bulls, there is a golden mask, a wooden sarcophagus, ushabti and a number of other items of burial implements. All monuments are currently in the Louvre. 73 The Haemuas mask may be the key to the history of this entire unconventional burial: stylistically, this monument is very close to the portraits of the Late era 74 and confirms the hypothesis of F. Gomaa, who suggested that the true burial of the prince did not survive, and the tomb in the Serapeum is secondary and was made for several centuries later. 75 This, however, often happened with the burials of members of the ancient Egyptian royal families. 76
Burial of the sons of Ramses II (KV5)
In 1987, an archaeological expedition of the American University in Cairo in the Valley of the Kings discovered the tomb of at least 50 sons of Ramses II (KV5). 77 For the first time this tomb was visited back in 1820 by the Englishman James Barton, however, at that time only a small part of the premises was open: the passage to the main part of the tomb was closed by the stone layers of the ceiling that had collapsed as a result of flooding. Under the leadership of K. Weeks, 95 previously unknown upper-level chambers were discovered in KV5 by 1995, making this tomb one of the largest burial complexes in ancient Egypt. The chambers are connected by a T-shaped corridor, at the intersection of the axes of which there is a massive statue of Osiris (1.5 m). The ceiling of the tomb and its supporting pillars are in a terrible state. Once upon a time, the walls of the premises were decorated with magnificent reliefs that have survived very fragmentarily; 78 images of Ramses II, representing Prince Amenkhepeshef Sokara and Hathor, have survived to our time, as well as the figure of Prince Ramses in front of the god Nefertum. In general, the decoration of the tomb was close to the paintings of the tombs of the sons of Ramses III in the Valley of the Queens. As a result of the clearing, fragments of ushabti, sarcophagi, canopics, and parts of the mummified remains were found. At opposite ends of the corridor, stairs were found leading to the lower level of the premises. The plan of the grandiose tomb, intended for the burial of the early dead sons of Ramses II, including Amenkhepeshef, Meriatum, Ramses, Seti, is unique. The sad fate of this burial is evidenced by the text of the testimony of the captured robbers stored in the Turin Museum:
“Here Userkhet and Patur were pulling the stones, those that were over the tomb of Osiris the king Usermaatr - Setepenr, the great god ... And Kenna, the son of Ruth, did the same over the burial place of the royal children of Osiris, the king Usermaatr - Setepenr, the great god ..”. 79
